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    Classical Test Theory

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    zarinanazeer7

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    Classical Test Theory

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    zarinanazeer7
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    Classical_Test_Theory

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    Classical Test Theory

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    zarinanazeer7

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    Classical Test Theory (CTT)

    1. History
    Classical Test Theory has its roots in the early 20th century and emerged from the need to
    create reliable and valid psychological and educational assessments. Key contributors
    include Charles Spearman, who developed the concept of reliability, and other pioneers
    who laid the groundwork for psychometric principles. The theory became the foundation
    for early testing practices and continues to influence contemporary test development and
    analysis.

    2. Definitions
     Observed Score (X): The actual score an individual receives on a test, consisting of
    both the true score and error.
     True Score (T): The theoretical, error-free measure of an individual’s ability or trait.
    - Error Score (E): The random measurement error that affects the observed score,
    caused by factors such as test administration, environmental influences, or the test-
    taker’s condition.
     Reliability: A measure of the consistency or stability of test scores across different
    occasions or forms of the test.
     Validity: The extent to which a test accurately measures what it is intended to
    measure.

    3. Evaluating Tests and Scores: Reliability


     Reliability is a key component of CTT, indicating the degree to which a test produces
    stable and consistent results. Common methods of assessing reliability include:
     Test-Retest Reliability: Evaluates the consistency of scores over time by
    administering the same test to the same group on two separate occasions.
     Parallel-Forms Reliability: Involves comparing the scores of two equivalent
    versions of a test to determine consistency.
     Internal Consistency Reliability: Measures the extent to which items within a test
    are correlated, often assessed using Cronbach’s alpha. It examines whether all parts of
    a test measure the same construct.

    High reliability indicates that the test results are reproducible and not significantly
    influenced by random errors.

    4. Evaluating Items: P and Item-Total Correlations


    Item Difficulty (P): Refers to the proportion of test-takers who answer an item correctly.
    It is a measure used to determine whether an item is too easy or too difficult, typically
    expressed as a value between 0 and 1. A value close to 0 indicates a very difficult item,
    while a value near 1 suggests an easy item.

    Item-Total Correlations: Assess the relationship between individual item scores and the
    total test score. A high item-total correlation suggests that the item is a good indicator of
    the overall construct being measured. Items with low or negative correlations may need
    to be revised or removed to improve the test's internal consistency and reliability.
    These item analysis techniques help identify poorly functioning items and improve the
    overall quality of the assessment.

    5. Alternatives
    Classical Test Theory has some limitations, such as assuming that errors are random and
    uniformly distributed across all test-takers. As a result, several alternative theories and
    models have been developed:

    Item Response Theory (IRT): Unlike CTT, IRT models the relationship between an
    individual's latent trait and the probability of answering an item correctly. It provides a
    more detailed analysis of item characteristics and allows for adaptive testing.
    Generalizability Theory: Extends CTT by modeling multiple sources of error variance,
    such as differences between test occasions or rater variability. It offers a more
    comprehensive understanding of reliability.

    Rasch Modeling: A specific form of IRT that provides a probabilistic approach to


    measurement, emphasizing the scaling of items and persons on the same latent trait
    continuum.

    These alternatives offer more flexible and sophisticated ways to analyze test data,
    especially for modern, large-scale assessments.

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