Overview of Physical

Geodesy
GSS611
Satellite & Physical Geodesy
Mohamad Asrul Mustafar
Room B2-26
h/p 0195585175
Definition of Physical Geodesy
• Study of the physical properties of the gravity field
of the earth, the geopotential , with a view to their
application on geodesy
i. Geoid undulation
ii. Gravimetric deflection
iii. Earth’s shape and size (semi major, semi
minor and flattening)

What is gravity (gravity force)?

• Gravity is the force that pull you down or holds you
direction and magnitude of the
in place
centrifugal effect • Physics- Resultant force experienced on the
net result of gravity plus centrifugal effect Earth’s surface due to the attraction by the earth’s
gravitational field strength masses (gravitation), and the centrifugal force
caused by the earth rotation
Gravitation (Gravitational Force)

• The vector force of attraction that exist between all particles

with mass in the universe (Newton’s 3rd Law)
• Responsible for holding objects onto the surface of planets
and with Newton’s law inertia (Newton 1st Law) is responsible
for keeping objects in orbit around another
• Describe by Newton’s Law of universal gravitation
Newton’s Three Laws

Newton’s 1st Law

• Also called the Law of Inertia or Galileo Principle
• Every object persists in its state of rest, or uniform
motion (in a straight line); unless it is compelled to
change that state, by force impressed on it
• A body remains at rest, or moves in a straight line
(at a constant velocity), unless acted upon by a net
outside force
Newton’s Three Laws

Newton’s 2nd Law

• The time rate of change in momentum is
proportional to the applied force and takes place in
the direction of the force
• The acceleration of an object is proportional to the
force acting upon it
• This is expression by the equation : F=ma
where F= force , m= mass and a=acceleration
Newton’s Three Laws

Newton’s 3rd Law

• Whenever one body exerts force upon
a second body, the second body
exerts an equal and opposite force
upon the first body
• For every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

• Based on Newton’s 3rd law

“ Every object in the Universe attract every other
object with a forced directed along the line of
centers for the two objects that is proportional to
the product of their masses and inversely
proportional to the square of the separation
between the two objects”

F= Gravitational force between two objects

m1,m2 = Mass of 1st and 2nd
r = distance between the objects
G= 6.674215 x 10-11 Nm2kg-2
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Explain many natural phenomena:

• Plenatary motion
• Free fall
• Tides
• Equilibrium shape of the earth

Fundamental observation on gravitation:

• The force between two attracting bodies is proportional to
individual masses
• The force is inversely proportional to square of the distance
• The force is directed along the line connecting the two bodies
 Exercise

Calculate the mass of the Earth if gravitational force, G is

6.67 x 10-11 m3kg-1s-2, the radius of the Earth, r is 6.37 x 106 m
and gravity acceleration, g is 9.8 ms-2.
m
Mass of the Earth
• F = GmM/r2 = ma, where F is the gravitational force, G is the
gravitational constant, M is the mass of the Earth, r is the radius of F=ma
the Earth, and m is the mass of another object (near the surface of 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
r
the Earth). 𝐹𝐹 =
𝑟𝑟 2
• GM/r2= a (The m is canceled out.) Now solve for M, the mass of the
Earth.
• M = ar2/G M

• M = 9.8 x (6.37 x 106)2/(6.67 x 10-11) = 5.96182 x 1024 kg

Centrifugal Force

• The gravitational force is balance by a

reaction force known as centrifugal force
• It is actually not a force but the experience of
an inertial force experienced in rotating
reference frame acting away from the center of
the rotation
• Equal in magnitude but opposite to the
centripetal force required to constrain to body
to move in circular motion
• Directed outward and is perpendicular to the
rotation axis
Centrifugal Force

• For a perfectly spherical shape, the force

defined as
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝜔𝜔2 𝑙𝑙 = 𝑚𝑚1 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 1 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚, 𝑭𝑭𝒄𝒄 = 𝝎𝝎𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝓𝝓
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊:
𝑚𝑚1 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
𝜔𝜔 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 7292115𝑥𝑥10−11 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑠𝑠 −1
𝑙𝑙 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (depend on latitude)
• At the pole and equator, the centrifugal force
are; 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷𝑷 𝝓𝝓 = 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝒐𝒐 ∶ 𝐹𝐹 = 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 90 = 0
𝑐𝑐
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝝓𝝓 = 𝟎𝟎 ∶ 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜙𝜙= 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 0 = 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅
𝒐𝒐
1
• 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
300
Hence, maximum at equator and minimum at pole.
Gravity

• The force of gravity at any point on the earth is the vectorial resultant of
the gravitational force,𝐹𝐹 and centrifugal force, 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐
• In simplified form:
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
𝑔𝑔 = 𝐹𝐹 + 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 = 2
+ 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜙𝜙
𝑅𝑅
• In vectorial resultant (considering 3 sides of g, F, Fc) with a unit mass:
𝑔𝑔2 = 𝐹𝐹 2 + 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐2 − 2𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐 cos 𝜙𝜙 (Cosine rule)
2
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 2𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 2
𝑔𝑔2 = + (𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜙𝜙)2 − 𝜔𝜔 𝑅𝑅 cos 2 𝜙𝜙
𝑅𝑅2 𝑅𝑅 2

Hence:
𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝝎𝝎𝟐𝟐 𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑
𝒈𝒈 ≈ 𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝝓𝝓
𝑹𝑹 𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮
Gravity

• The earth’s gravitational vector field can be represented as the gradient of a scalar
function called gravitational potential (each field contain constant value of
gravitational potential)
• Potential is usually described in terms of Spherical Harmonics function and gravity
anomalies in Spherical Harmonic of Fourier Series
Why gravity at pole is stronger than at equator??
At equator:
• Gravitational force and centrifugal force are along the same
line but opposite in direction
• Simply added, gE ≈ 9.78ms-2
At pole:
• Gravitational force and centrifugal force are perpendicular to
each other
• Simply , gP ≈ 9.83ms-2
Equipotential Surface

• Often called level surface and the perpendicular is known as the vertical or plumbline.
• Direction of gravity must be everywhere perpendicular to this surface as defined by
plumbline.
• A carefully leveled theodolite defines horizontal and vertical planes.
• Covers the earth like layers of an onion (do riot cross and are parallels to each others).
• Continuous, having no sharp edges and are convex everywhere with smoothly varying
radii of curvature.
• Sectional view: Shows oblate curves spaced closer together at poles than at equator with
vertical as a curved lines intersecting each surface at right angles.

Relationship between gravity and equipotential surface

• Direction of gravity and the equipotential surface are mutually perpendicular
• Spacing of the surface is directly related to the magnitude of gravity.
Important of Gravity/ Equipotentional Surface

Elevation
• Measured with respect to sea level, or orthometric height using levelling.

Levelling
• Start at sea level and call this zero elevation. (If there were no winds, currents
and tides then the ocean surface would be an equipotential surface and all
shorelines would be at exactly the same potential.)
• Sight a line inland perpendicular to a plumb line (line will be perpendicular to the
equipotential surface and thus is not pointed toward the geocenter).
• Measure the height difference and then move the setup inland and to repeat the
measurements until reaching the next shoreline (zero elevation is obtained
assuming the ocean surface is an equipotential surface and no errors in
observation).
Gravity Potential

What is potential?
• Potential is defined as the work done by the force field that results
from M to bring m1 from infinity to a point distance r from M

𝑈𝑈 = 𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑈𝑈 = 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚

• Potential is a scalar, meaning only has magnitude

{𝑈𝑈(𝑋𝑋, 𝑌𝑌, 𝑍𝑍)𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑈𝑈(𝑟𝑟, 𝜙𝜙, 𝜆𝜆)}

• Gravity potential : Gravitational potential + centrifugal potential
Gravitational Potential, V

𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
Gravitational potential, 𝑉𝑉 =
𝑅𝑅
• It is a function whose 1st derivatives in Gravitation
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺
• If: 𝑉𝑉 = , then = − 2 = 𝐹𝐹
𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅
• Negative sign indicate that as r increases V decreases
• Note: Differentiation should be carried out in 3 components (vector)
• For various point masses m1, m2, m3,…,mn
𝑛𝑛 𝑚𝑚𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉 = 𝐺𝐺 ∑𝑖𝑖=1
𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑖
• For solid body such as earth 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• Potential is a volume integration, 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐺𝐺 � = 𝐺𝐺 �
~ Triple integrals = volume 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
• Where:
~ dm : Element of mass outside or inside the sphere
~ dv : Element of volume
Vector Calculus Rules
Gravitational Potential

This lead to two important equation in physical geodesy

• Laplace equation: ∇2 𝑉𝑉 = 0
 True for all points outside the surface containing all matter
Can be solved to give expressions for the earth’s potential
• Poisson’s equation: ∇2 𝑉𝑉 = −4𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
True for all points inside the surface containing all matter
𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉 𝜕𝜕2 𝑉𝑉
• Note: ∇2 𝑉𝑉 = 2 + 2 + 2 , or = ∆𝑉𝑉
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
Potential on Solid Mass

• The body M consists of mass elements dm, that infinitesimal masses (dm) of
infinitesimal cubes (dx dy dz) with local density (ρ) :

𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

• Integrating over all mass elements in M gives the potential generated by M:

where
r = the distance between computation point P and mass element dm.
Potential on Solid Mass
z
z

R sinφ dλ

dx
dz R dφ
dy
y
y
dR

x x
𝑑𝑑𝑣𝑣 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 → 𝑅𝑅2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
* Easier to integrate in spherical/curvilinear coordinates than in Cartesian
Potential on Solid Mass

• Given VP

• Replace r to for distance from P to mass element, dm

• Integrate in spherical coordinates

Potential on Solid Mass

P • Differentiate on dφ
z

R sinφ dλ

r
φ R dφ

y
R • Replace sinφ dφ
dR

x
Potential on Solid Mass

Case I : Point P outside the sphere (r > R)

P P

φ=0
• Therefore VP r r
R

φ=π
Potential on Solid Mass

• Density

• Volume of sphere

• Potential of P,
𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮
𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷 =
𝒓𝒓
Potential on Solid Mass

Case II : Point P inside the sphere (r < R)

• Need to distinguish between mass points φ=0
𝜑𝜑 = 0,
below P (yellow) and mass point outside P
ℓ = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟 P
(blue)
• Potential of P on mass below P (yellow) R
r
4 𝑟𝑟 3 𝟒𝟒 𝜑𝜑 = 𝜋𝜋,
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 = 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 ℓ = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑟𝑟
3 𝑟𝑟 𝟑𝟑
• For masses outside P (blue) R
𝜑𝜑 = 0, ℓ = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑟𝑟
𝜑𝜑 = 𝜋𝜋, ℓ = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑟𝑟 φ=π
Potential on Solid Mass

• Then,
φ=0

P
R
r

R
𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷 = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[𝑹𝑹𝟐𝟐 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 ]
φ=π
Potential on Solid Mass

• Combine effect inside and outside of point P

4
𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 = 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2 + 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋[𝑅𝑅2 − 𝑟𝑟 2 ] φ=0
3
P
R
r

• Mass of M, R

φ=π
• Potential of P
𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮 𝟐𝟐 − 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 )
𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷 = (𝟑𝟑𝑹𝑹
𝟐𝟐𝑹𝑹𝟑𝟑
Gravitational Potential
𝜌𝜌𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• But, gravitational potential cannot 𝑉𝑉 = 𝐺𝐺 ∭ because the density of the earth is
𝑟𝑟
not completely constant, hence density not a continuous function
• Solution of V can be obtained using spherical harmonic expansion
Spherical Harmonic Series:
∞
𝑛𝑛
1
𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜆𝜆 = � � 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 cos(𝑚𝑚𝜆𝜆) + 𝑏𝑏𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑚𝑚λ
𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑚𝑚=0
𝑛𝑛=0
Note: 𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
• Alternatively, Spherical Harmonic Series can be represented as follow:
∞
𝑛𝑛
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 a 𝑛𝑛
𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜆𝜆 = 1+� � 𝑃𝑃�𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛̅ 𝑚𝑚 cos(𝑚𝑚𝜆𝜆) + 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛̅ 𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑚𝑚λ
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝑚𝑚=0
𝑛𝑛=0
Potential of Centrifugal force, Q

• Potential of Centrifugal force, Q

𝜔𝜔2 𝑙𝑙 2 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐2 𝜙𝜙
𝑄𝑄 = =
2 2
• It is a function whose 1st derivatives is Centrifugal force
𝜔𝜔2 𝑙𝑙 2 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜙𝜙 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• If: 𝑄𝑄 = = , then = 𝜔𝜔2 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝜙𝜙 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐
2 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜔𝜔2 (𝑥𝑥 2 +𝑦𝑦 2 )
• Since centrifugal force is a vector, then 𝑄𝑄 =
2
Gravity Potential of the Earth (Geopotential)

• Potential of the gravity is the scalar sum of the gravitational potential, V

and potential of centrifugal force, Q
W=V+Q
• Where:
∞
𝑛𝑛
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 a 𝑛𝑛
𝑉𝑉 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜆𝜆 = 1+� � 𝑃𝑃�𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 𝑡𝑡 𝐶𝐶𝑛𝑛̅ 𝑚𝑚 cos(𝑚𝑚𝜆𝜆) + 𝑆𝑆𝑛𝑛̅ 𝑚𝑚 sin 𝑚𝑚λ
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝑚𝑚=0
𝑛𝑛=0
𝜔𝜔2 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 )
2
𝑄𝑄 =
2
Normal Gravity Field

• The normal gravity field is a reference surface for the external gravity
field of the earth
• Criteria of the gravity potential at a point on the ellipsoid is:
1
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑉𝑉 + Φ = 𝑉𝑉 + 𝜔𝜔2 (𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 )
2
• Satisfy Laplace equation in the space exterior to the ellipsoid
• Normal gravity field is rotationally symmetric
• Level surface of normal ellipsoid is the same as gravity potential as the
geoid, Uo = Wo
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 −1 𝐸𝐸 1 2 2 𝑞𝑞 1 1 2
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑉𝑉 + Φ = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 + 𝜔𝜔 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝛽𝛽 − + 𝜔𝜔 (𝐸𝐸 2 + 𝑢𝑢2 )𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝛽𝛽
𝐸𝐸 𝑢𝑢 2 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 3 2
• Or, in Spherical Harmonic Series:
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑎𝑎 1
𝑈𝑈 = 𝑉𝑉 + Φ = [1 − ∑∞ 𝐽𝐽
𝑛𝑛=1 2𝑛𝑛 ( ) 2𝑛𝑛
𝑃𝑃2𝑛𝑛 (𝑡𝑡)] + 𝜔𝜔 2
(𝐸𝐸 2
+ 𝑢𝑢 2
)𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2
𝛽𝛽
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 2
Normal Gravity

• From the expression of normal gravitational potential, the

expression for the normal gravity can be deduced
• Normal gravity (in vector form) are given by gradient if the
gravitational potential:

1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

𝛾𝛾 = gradU = ∇𝑈𝑈 = 𝑒𝑒̂~𝑢𝑢 + 𝑒𝑒̂~𝜃𝜃 + 𝑒𝑒̂~𝜆𝜆
ℎ𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ℎ𝜃𝜃 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 ℎ𝜆𝜆 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Where:
ℎ𝑢𝑢 , ℎ𝜃𝜃 , ℎ𝜆𝜆 = Scale factors
𝑒𝑒̂~𝑢𝑢 , 𝑒𝑒̂~𝜃𝜃 , 𝑒𝑒̂~𝜆𝜆 = Unit Vector in the direction of increasing 𝑢𝑢, 𝜃𝜃, 𝜆𝜆
Normal Gravity

• After differentiating and manipulating, magnitude normal gravity

obtained as follows:
𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 ′ 𝑞𝑞0′ 𝑚𝑚𝑒𝑒 ′ 𝑞𝑞 ′
0
𝛾𝛾 = 1+ sin2 𝛽𝛽 + 1 − 𝑚𝑚 − cos 2 𝛽𝛽
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎2 sin2 𝛽𝛽 + 𝑏𝑏 acos 2 𝛽𝛽 3 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 6 𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜
Where:
1 3𝑏𝑏 2 −1
𝐸𝐸 3𝑏𝑏
𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜 = 1 − 2 tan −
2 𝐸𝐸 𝑏𝑏 𝐸𝐸

𝐸𝐸 2 + 𝑏𝑏 2 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑏𝑏 2 𝑏𝑏 𝐸𝐸
𝑞𝑞𝑜𝑜′ = − =3 1+ 2 1 − tan −1 −1
𝐸𝐸 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐸 𝑏𝑏
Adopted Normal Gravity

• Somigliana-Pizzetti normal gravity formula:

𝑎𝑎𝛾𝛾𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜑𝜑 + 𝑏𝑏𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 𝜑𝜑

𝛾𝛾(𝜑𝜑) =
𝑎𝑎2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜑𝜑 + 𝑏𝑏 2 𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖2 𝜑𝜑

Where:
𝜑𝜑 = 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝛾𝛾𝑎𝑎 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝛾𝛾𝑏𝑏 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝s
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑏𝑏 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Adopted Normal Gravity

• GRS80 normal gravity series expansion:

𝛾𝛾 𝜑𝜑 = 𝛾𝛾𝑎𝑎 (1 + 0.005 279 0414𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜑𝜑
+ 0.000 023 2718𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠4 𝜑𝜑
+ 0.000 000 1262𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠6 𝜑𝜑
+ 0.000 000 0007𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠8 𝜑𝜑)

For most applications, will be sufficient (0.1mGal accuracy):

𝛾𝛾 𝜑𝜑 = 9.780327 1 + 0.005 3024𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝜑𝜑 + 0.000 0058𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 2𝜑𝜑 [𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 −2 ]