Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

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Cleaner Materials
journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/cleaner-materials

Structural behavior of beams cast using normal and high strength concrete
containing blends of ceramic waste powder and blast furnace slag
Tarek Abou Rachied a, Fadel Dbouk a, Bilal Hamad a, *, Joseph J. Assaad b, 1
a
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, American Univ. of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Riad ElSolh, Beirut, Lebanon
b
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Univ. of Balamand, Al Kurah, P.O. Box 100, Tripoli, Lebanon

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In general, the use of ceramic waste powder (CWP) in concrete production is limited to few percentages (i.e., less
Ceramic waste powder than approximately 10–15% of Portland cement), given the resulting decrease in concrete strength and dura­
Blast furnace slag bility. This paper seeks to assess the relevance of blending CWP with blast furnace slag (BFS) to foster pozzolanic
Reinforced concrete
reactions and reinstate the drop in strength and structural performance of reinforced concrete (RC) members.
Flexure
Shear
Two categories of normal- and high-strength concrete (NSC and HSC) mixtures possessing 34 and 71 MPa
Bond compressive strengths are tested in this program. The RC beams measured 2-m in length and were differently
configured by steel reinforcements to assess the flexural and shear strengths as well as the bond to embedded
spliced rebars. Regardless of the steel configuration, results showed that the structural properties curtail when
the concrete mixtures are prepared with 10% CWP replacement rate. This was attributed to a dilution effect and
higher CWP porosity that detrimentally alter the concrete microstructure and strengths. The drop in flexural,
shear, and bond strengths was found to be fully restored with the use of ternary binder composed of 55% cement,
35% BFS, and 10% CWP. Such results are in line with the improved concrete strength and durability, revealing
the relevance of blending CWP with BFS to foster synergistic effects and reinstate the structural properties of NSC
and HSC beams. Findings of this work can increase the CWP added-value for the construction industry, while
reducing the cement carbon footprint.

Introduction the Portland cement. For instance, many scholars (AlArab et al. 2020; Ay
and Unal 2000; Naceri and Hamina 2009; Brekailo et al. 2022) reported
Ceramic waste powders (CWPs) are abundantly generated during the that CWPs comply with ASTM C618 (2015) and ASTM C989 (2018)
manufacturing process of ceramics used in tiling, sanitary, and re­ requirements for pozzolancity, provided the cement replacement rates
fractory products (Singh and Srivastava 2018). It is estimated that about do not exceed about 10% and that the ceramics are finely ground to
30% of daily production consist of CWPs (or, equivalent to about 19 kg/ more than 350 m2/kg fineness. Lasseuguette et al. (2019) noticed the
m2 of tiling products), cumulating approximately 22 billion tons per development of secondary hydration reactions that consumed the cal­
year (Dieb and Kanaan 2018; Singh and Srivastava 2018; Ngayakamo cium hydroxide (CH) and created additional calcium silicate hydrate
et al. 2022). Such wastes are generally landfilled, causing serious envi­ (CSH) compounds. Lasseuguette et al. (2019) tested mixtures containing
ronmental problems including the degradation of soil fertility and up to 30% cement replacement by CWPs ground to less than 30 µm
groundwater due to leaching of toxic metals such as cadmium, copper, maximum size, and found out that the CWP derived from white ceramics
and barium (Silva et al. 2016). was more reactive than the red one. Lavat et al. (2009) found that the
The partial replacement of natural fine aggregates by CWPs is well glazing of tiles does not induce significant effect on pozzolanic reactivity
accepted during concrete proportioning (Siddique et al. 2018; Silva et al. and strength development. Because of increased porosity and reduced
2010; Younis et al. 2022), although recent studies showed that such hardness, Naceri and Hamina (2009) found that CWPs require less
wastes can be used as value-added pozzolanic materials replacing part of grinding energy than clinker, which may be advantageous for cement

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: tma32@mail.aub.edu (T. Abou Rachied), fkd03@mail.aub.edu (F. Dbouk), bhamad@aub.edu.lb (B. Hamad), joseph.assaad@balamand.edu.lb
(J.J. Assaad).
1
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2423-451X

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clema.2023.100179
Received 4 August 2022; Received in revised form 17 February 2023; Accepted 19 February 2023
Available online 21 February 2023
2772-3976/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

production. Mixtures prepared with 10% clinker substitution by CWP Table 1

ground to 330 m2/kg exhibited prolonged setting times and reduced Chemical and physical properties for the cement, BFS, and CWP.
strengths at early ages (i.e., 7 and 28 days), albeit the lack in strength Cement BFS CWP
was recovered at later ages (i.e., 90 days). Similar conclusions were
CaO, % 66.6 42.1 2.3
made by AlArab et al. (2020), whereby the prolonged setting and drop in SiO2, % 21.5 32.6 67.3
strength were attributed to reduced reactivity of CWP materials. Al2O3, % 4.6 12.2 19.8
Mohit and Sharifi (2019) confirmed through scanning electron mi­ Fe2O3, % 2.8 0.55 2.5
croscopy (SEM) images that mortars containing up to 15% CWP having MgO, % 1.2 5.45 2
SO3, % 2.7 4 0.1
550 kg/m2 fineness had dense microstructure, making them less Loss on ignition, % 3 2 0
vulnerable to crack occurrence when exposed to elevated temperatures. Specific gravity 3.15 2.6 2.65
Concurrent to pozzolanic reactions, many scholars attributed the in­ B.E.T. surface area, m2/kg 515 770 365
crease in strength with the use of very fine CWPs (i.e., finer than sieve Residual mass loss at 1000 ◦ C, % 9.7 3.9 0
Porosity, % 4.3 18.3 22.4
No. 200) to micro-filler effects that reduce the matrix porosity and refine
the interfacial transition zones (Arora et al. 2016; Subasi et al. 2017).
For example, AlArab et al. (2022) and Nayana and Rakesh (2018) re­ related to the indiscriminate dumping of CWPs in landfills.
ported that the concrete properties could be enhanced at relatively low
CWP additions that do not exceed 10 to 15% of cement content. Yet, at
Experimental program
increased rates, Batikha et al. (2021) and AlArab et al. (2022) found that
the concrete strength and durability gradually degrade, given the dilu­
Binder composition
tion effect that alters hydration reactions and overall porosity.
The curtail in mechanical strengths for concrete mixtures containing
Type I Ordinary Portland cement (C) and BFS complying to ASTM
more than 10% CWP replacement rates can be compensated by blending
C150 (2007) and ASTM C989 (2018), respectively, are used; their
such wastes with other supplementary cementitious materials such as
chemical and physical properties are listed in Table 1. The CWP was
Blast Furnace Slag (BFS), silica fume, and metakaolin (Aly et al. 2019;
obtained by crushing the porcelain tiles using a jaw crusher, then
Nayana and Rakesh 2018; Sujjavanich et al. 2017; Ndahirwa et al.
grinding and sieving the powders on sieve No. 200 (Luz and Ribeiro
2022). Such practices are beneficial to foster the synergistic effects and
2007; Ay and Unal, 2000; Lasseuguette et al. 2019; AlArab et al. 2020).
pozzolanicity of CWPs, thus contributing to improved sustainability and
The resulting CWP fineness hovered around 365 m2/kg, making it
reduced cement carbon footprint (Dieb et al. 2018; El-Mir et al. 2020;
relatively coarser than the cement and BFS having respectively 515 and
Kannan et al. 2017). For example, Heidari and Tavakoli (2013) showed
770 m2/kg fineness levels (Table 1). The CWP mineralogical composi­
that the deficiency of compressive strength and sorptivity measurements
tion is mainly composed of 67.3% SiO2 and 19.8% Al2O3; its porosity
encountered with 10% to 20% CWP additions can be restored with the
determined using nitrogen gas pressure is 22.4%, while the loss on
use of 0.5% to 1% glassy nano-sized SiO2 particles. The fineness of tested
ignition and residual mass at 1000 ◦ C are almost nil, reflecting excellent
CWP and SiO2 particles was 340 and 2,000 m2/kg, respectively. The
resistance to heat (AlArab et al. 2020; Mohit and Sharifi 2019).
authors reported that such combinations are particularly efficient to
In addition to the control mix made with 100% cement, three
promote the growth of CSH compounds through enhanced pozzolanic
different binder compositions are tested in this work. Hence, the CWP-
reactions. AlArab et al. (2020, 2022) carried out series of micro- and
based binder contained 90% cement and 10% CWP, while the BFS-
macro-scale analysis testing to optimize the CWP-BFS synergistic effects
based binder contained 60% cement with 40% BFS. The selected CWP
on pozzolanic reactions including the development of strengths and
and BFS percentages were determined following a series of preliminary
durability of concrete mixtures. The SEM images and Frattini tests
tests by AlArab et al. (2020) to ensure that the mortar 28-days strength
revealed that the CH crystals are considerably reduced for pastes pre­
activity index does not drop below 90% of the control value, as per
pared with ternary binder composed of 50% cement with 20% CWP and
ASTM C989 (2018). The cement content was gradually replaced by the
30% BFS, reflecting the occurrence of synergistic reactions that devel­
CWP and BFS materials during mortar testing, while the water-to-binder
oped higher CSH compounds. AlArab et al. (2022) showed that the
ratio was kept constant at 0.5 (ASTM C311, 2018). The ternary binder
concrete durability including the flexural toughness, thermal trans­
considered in this work contained 55% cement together with 10% CWP
mittance, and freeze–thaw resistance gradually reduced when the
and 35% BSF, as per AlArab et al. (2022) findings. The concrete strength
cement is replaced by 10% to 20% CWP. Yet, the concrete durability and
and durability remarkably improved when the CWP and BFS are both
rates of strength increase over time remarkably improved when the
incorporated in this later binder, reflecting the synergistic pozzolanic
ternary binder is used. The authors highlighted the relevance of such
effects on the development of hydration products and refinement of
binders to reduce the cement content, yet with increased CWP additions
microstructure (AlArab et al. 2022).
without detrimentally affecting strength and performance of concrete
mixtures.
To date, limited investigations assessed the structural properties Materials and concrete proportions
including the mechanisms controlling the behavior of reinforced con­
crete (RC) members containing CWP-based binders. This paper is the Natural siliceous fine aggregates and limestone coarse aggregates
continuation of the research program undertaken on CWPs by AlArab complying to ASTM C33 (2003) were used for concrete batching. The
et al. (2020, 2022), with its main objective to validate the superior sand had a specific gravity and water absorption of 2.64 and 0.6%,
performance achieved using the ternary CWP-BFS binder on real-scale respectively, while these were 2.68 and 1.74% for the 19-mm maximum
RC beams. The 2-m long beams were differently configured by steel size coarse aggregates. The high-range water reducing (HRWR) admix­
reinforcements to assess the flexural and shear strengths as well as the ture complied to ASTM C494 (2017) Type F; its solid content and spe­
bond to embedded spliced rebars. Normal- and high-strength concrete cific gravity were 35% and 1.18, respectively. Deformed steel
mixtures possessing 34 and 71 MPa compressive strengths are tested, reinforcing bars having 8, 12, and 20-mm nominal diameter (db)
with the binder proportions adjusted as per AlArab et al. (2020, 2022). complying to ASTM A615 (2020) were used. Their yield strength (fy),
Findings reported in this work are vital to demonstrate the structural ultimate strength, and elongation at rupture varied within 505 ± 15
performance of concrete mixtures prepared with CWP-based binders in MPa, 715 ± 35 MPa, and 12.75% ±2.3%, respectively.
RC members. From a sustainable point of view, this could optimize the Normal-strength and high-strength concrete (NSC and HSC) mixtures
consumption of Portland cement as well as reduce the harmful effects were considered in this work; their corresponding binder content was set

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T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

Table 2
NSC and HSC mix proportions along with f’c at different ages.
NSC mixtures HSC mixtures

Binder content, kg/ 375 480

m3
Water, kg/m3 172 (w/b = 0.458) 129 (w/b = 0.268)
Fine aggregate, kg/ 808 804
m3
Coarse aggregate, 1007 1004
kg/m3
Binder type 100% 90 %C + 10 % 60 %C + 40 % 54 %C + 36 %BFS + 10 100% 90 %C + 10 % 60 %C + 40 % 54 %C + 36 %BFS + 10
C CWP BFS %CWP C CWP BFS %CWP

HRWR, kg/m3 5.6 5.6 5.8 5.7 15.4 15.5 16 15.8

Slump, mm 185 200 175 160 170 200 185 170
Density, kg/m3 2360 2365 2350 2355 2435 2430 2460 2450
Air content, % 2.2 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.9 2.2 1.9 2.1
f’c at 7 days, MPa 23.8 22.7 23.3 22.2 55.6 52.9 55.6 57.9
f’c at 28 days, MPa 34.4 32.2 35.8 33.9 71.3 67.5 73.6 72.0
f’c at 56 days, MPa 36.6 35.3 39.3 37.8 74 70.1 77 75.1

Fig. 1. Beam and steel configurations for testing the flexural, shear, and bond strengths.

3
T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

110
7 Days 28 days 56 days

105

Δ(f'c), %
100

95

90

CWP BFS BFS/CWP CWP BFS BFS/CWP

NSC mixtures HSC mixtures
Fig. 2. Effect of binder type on f’c variations (vs. control) after 7, 28, and 56 days.

to 375 and 480 kg/m3, respectively (the water-to-binder ratio (w/b) was vertical loads through rigid steel plates using a Universal Testing Ma­
0.458 and 0.268). The 28-days compressive strength (f’c) of the NSC and chine (Assaad et al. 2022; Ahmad et al. 2022). The loads and shear spans
HSC mixtures made with 100% cement was 34.4 and 71.3 MPa, remained constant at 600 mm, with a shear-to-depth ratio of 2.22 (a/d
respectively. The ratio of fine-to-coarse aggregate was fixed at 0.8, while = 600/270). The vertical load was gradually applied at fixed rate hov­
the HRWR adjusted for fixed workability corresponding to a slump of ering 5 kN/min, while two linear variable differential transducers
180 ± 20 mm. Table 2 summarizes the NSC and HSC mix proportions (LVDTs) were used to record the mid-span deflection on the tension side
along with f’c determined after 7, 28, and 56 days. until failure. All beams were painted in white color to ease the detection
and follow-up of the diagonal and flexural crack patterns during the
loading history.
Testing methods
Test results and discussion
Batching was made in a ready-mix concrete plant, and casting of
beams was performed at room temperature of 22 ± 3 ◦ C. Right after Compressive strength
mixing, the concrete slump and air content were determined as per
ASTM C143 (2015) and ASTM C231 (2017), respectively. The mixtures Fig. 2 plots the normalized f’c (i.e., Δ(f’c)) for the NSC and HSC
were then filled in 150 × 300 mm2 steel cylinders for determining the mixtures determined at different ages with respect to corresponding
density and f’c as per ASTM C642 (2013) and ASTM C39 (2015), values recorded on the control concrete prepared with 100% cement.
respectively. The curing was realized in moist conditions of 95% ±5% Regardless of the age and concrete strength, the replacement of 10%
relative humidity and 22 ± 3 ◦ C until testing age. cement by CWP led to reduced f’c (i.e., Δ(f’c) varied between 93% and
The RC structural properties including the flexure, shear, and bond 96%). This is related to a dilution effect that reduces the development of
strengths were determined using 2-m long beams having 300 × 200 hydration products and alters the formation of CSH gels (Kuan et al.
mm2 cross-sections (Fig. 1). The longitudinal reinforcement for the 2020; Liu et al. 2017; Mehta and Monteiro 2006). AlArab et al. (2022)
flexure and shear testing consisted of two 20-mm diameter bars on the reported that the higher porosity of CWP particles (i.e., 22.4% vs. 4.3%
tension side and two 12-mm bars on the compression side (Fig. 1a and for cement) could have reduced the binder packing density, which
b). The resulting effective depth (d) calculated as the beam height minus degraded the stiffness and resistance to loading. The strengths of con­
the cover is 270 mm (i.e., d = 300 – 30 = 270 mm), while the steel ratio crete mixtures prepared with 40% BFS-based binder gradually increased
(ρ = As /bd) is 1.16% where As and b are the area of tensile steel and over time, and became higher than the control mixtures after 56 days.
beam width, respectively (Wight and MacGregor 2015). For bond For example, this varied from 97.9% to 104.1% and 107.4% for the NSC
strength testing, the two 20-mm bars used in the tension side were after 7, 28, and 56 days, respectively. Such results agree with current
spliced at 305 mm at mid-span (Fig. 1c), which leaves enough distance literature (Hou et al. 2018; Lubloy et al. 2016; Quanlin et al. 2002; Shi
from the support reactions to avoid potential interference of stresses 2004), and are mainly attributed to the high BFS fineness (i.e., 770 m2/
(Assaad et al. 2019). The splice length was shorter than the required kg) and its aluminosilicate/amorphous natures that fosters pozzolanic
value by ACI 318 (2019) Building Code to ensure bond-splitting failure. and latent hydraulic activities, leading to increased strengths over time.
The U-shaped vertical stirrups of 8-mm db were used in all RC beams. As shown in Fig. 2, the strength loss due to CWP additions are fully
These were closely positioned at 75 mm from both sides of the beams restored with the use of ternary binder containing 10% CWP and 35%
intended for flexural and bond strength testing. The stirrups spacing was BFS, particularly at later ages. Hence, Δ(f’c) reached 103.3% and
increased to 300 mm for shear strength testing, which were positioned at 101.5% for the N-BFS/CWP and H-BFS/CWP mixtures, respectively,
the supports and load points. after 56 days. AlArab et al. (2022) demonstrated through physico-
The plywood-type beam molds were cast in two layers, and concrete chemical testing that the blending of BFS and CWP materials favors
vibrated using a 50-Hz poker vibrator. The beams were removed from the development of secondary hydration reactions through synergistic
the molds after 24 h, which then were cured for 56 days in room tem­ effects, which enhances the strength and durability properties. In other
perature of 22 ± 3 ◦ C and relative humidity of 95% ±5%. For testing, words, the negative impact that 10% CWP additions had on compressive
the simply supported RC beams are subjected to two symmetrical

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T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

Fig. 3. (a) Cracks patterns for NSC beams tested for flexural strength. (b) Cracks patterns for HSC beams tested for flexural strength.

strength can be compensated using ternary binders, despite the reduced vertically until failure. At this stage of loading, no shear cracks were
cement content to 55%. detected for the NSC and HSC beams, given the closely spaced stirrups
provided as shear reinforcement (Hamad et al. 2018; Jabbour et al.
Flexural strength of RC beams containing stirrups 2021; Yu and Bazant 2011). The minor shear cracks appearing towards
the supports initiated at loads which exceeded approximately 65% of
Crack patterns ultimate values, and propagated diagonally due to combined bending
Typical crack patterns for NSC and HSC beams observed after failure and shearing effects. The failure of all beams occurred when the flexural
are given in Figs. 3a and b, respectively. As shown, the flexural cracks cracks moved deep into the concrete compression zone; their maximum
originated from the tension zone at loads varying between 30 and 50 kN size was less than 1.6 and 1.2 mm for beams prepared using the NSC and
(i.e., less than about 50% of ultimate value), which then propagated HSC mixtures, respectively.

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T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

160 160

140 Flexure tests 140

120 120
Applied load, kN

100 100 Flexure tests

80 80
H-C-F
60 N-C 60 H-C/CWP-F
N-C/CWP 40 H-C/BFS-F
40
N-C/BFS H-C/BFS/CWP-F
20 20
N-C/BFS/CWP
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Mid-span deflection, mm Mid-span deflection, mm

Fig. 4. Load vs. mid-span deflection curves for NSC and HSC beams tested for flexural strength.

Table 3
Flexural strength properties for NSC and HSC beams.
Pmax, Δ(Pmax), δmax, Δ(δmax), PACI, Pmax/PACI DI FE, kN.mm
kN % mm % kN

N-C 118.6 – 15.11 – 128.4 0.92 1.71 2429

N-C/CWP 97.1 81.9 18.25 120.8 127.4 0.76 1.32 1902
N-C/BFS 141.3 119.1 16.3 107.9 128.9 1.1 1.59 2955
N-C/BFS/CWP 134.2 113.2 18.28 121 128.2 1.05 1.42 2657
H-C 140 – 15.54 – 135.8 1.03 1.11 2150
H-C/CWP 137.8 98.4 16.63 107 135.4 1.02 1.07 2100
H-C/BFS 153.7 109.8 18.19 117.1 136 1.13 1.2 2350
H-C/BFS/CWP 145.5 103.9 23.45 150.9 135.9 1.07 1.17 2250

Load vs. Deflection curves ( a)

Three distinct segments are identified during the loading history of Mn = As f y d − (1)
2
NSC and HSC beams containing stirrups (Fig. 4). The first segment is
characterized by an almost linear increase of the load vs. deflection Compared to the control RC beams cast using the 100% cement
curves; it reflects the internal concrete/steel couple resistance that de­ concrete mixtures, the use of CWP-based binder led to reduced Pmax; for
termines the beam’s stiffness to applied load. The horizontal plateau (i. example, this varied from 118.6 to 97.1 kN for NSC beams and from 140
e., 2nd segment) represents the yielding of tensile reinforcement, espe­ to 137.8 kN for the HSC ones. As earlier explained, the drop in strength
cially that the beams are designed as under-reinforced so that the steel can be attributed to a dilution effect that resulted from the CWP addi­
yields before the crushing of concrete (Wight and MacGregor 2015; tions coupled with higher material porosity that could both degrade the
Jabbour et al. 2021). When the flexural cracks spread-up to the beam stiffness and resistance to loading. The DI decreased from 1.71 to
compression zone, the load drops (i.e., 3rd segment) due to the crushing 1.32, while FE remarkably dropped from 2429 to 1902 kN.mm for the N-
of compressed concrete together with buckling of compression steel C and N-C/CWP beams, respectively. The corresponding Pmax/PACI ratio
and/or fracture of stirrups. As shown in Fig. 4, the beam’s stiffness decreased from 0.92 to 0.76, respectively, given the reduced Pmax due to
remarkably decreased for concrete mixtures prepared with CWP-based CWP additions.
binder, while the ultimate load at failure seems dependent on the con­ Concurrent with f’c variations, the use of BFS-based binder improved
crete f’c, as discussed later on. The drop in the beam’s stiffness can be the ultimate RC beam strength and mid-span deflection at failure.
attributed to the reduced modulus of elasticity, as noticed by Batikha Hence, Pmax reached respectively 141.3 and 153.7 kN for the NSC and
et al. (2021) and AlArab et al. (2022). The NSC and HSC mixtures HSC mixtures (i.e., Δ(Pmax) of 119.1% and 109.8%), while the corre­
containing BFS-based or ternary binders exhibited relatively higher ul­ sponding δ max reached 16.3 and 18.19 mm, respectively. Also, the use of
timate loads, which thereafter remained constant during the steel ternary binder was efficient to maintain the beam’s ultimate perfor­
yielding phase until the beam collapsed and the load dropped mance, with Δ(Pmax) reaching 113.2% and 103.9% for NSC and HSC
significantly. mixtures, respectively (the corresponding Δ(δ max) equals 121% and
Table 3 summarizes the ultimate load (Pmax) and corresponding mid- 150.9%, respectively). Such results concur with earlier findings (AlArab
span deflection (δ max), ductility index (DI), fracture energy (FE), and et al. 2022), revealing the synergistic benefits that could result from
design load (PACI) computed as per ACI 318 (2019) Building Code. The combining BFS and CWP materials to foster durability as well as struc­
computation of DI and FE were inspired from previous studies (Batikha tural properties of RC beams. The DI and FE followed similar trends with
and Mouna, 2020; Jabbour et al. 2021; Abbas et al. 2022). Hence, the the use of BFS or ternary binder (Table 3); for example, the FE reached
former index is taken as the ratio between the beam mid-span deflection 2955 and 2657 kN.mm for the N-C/BFS and N-C/BFS/CWP beams,
at 90% Pmax (i.e., δ 0.9) in the post-peak region to δ max, while the FE is respectively. The Pmax/PACI ratios varied from 1.02 to 1.13, revealing the
computed from the area under the load vs. deflection curve ranging compliance of RC beams prepared with BFS or ternary binder to flexural
between 0 and δ 0.9. The PACI values were determined using the nominal strength requirements in ACI 318 (2019) Building Code.
moment (Mn), where a is the depth of the equivalent rectangular stress
block. The Mn is expressed as follows:

6
T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

Fig. 5. (a) Cracks patterns for NSC beams tested for shear strength. (b) Cracks patterns for HSC beams tested for shear strength.

Shear strength of RC beams without stirrups (or, with smaller number of significantly widened after about 80%-90% of ultimate value, which
stirrups) caused the load to drop sharply regardless of the binder type. Minor
signs of bond splitting and crushing of compression strut were observed
Crack patterns on the tested NSC and HSC beams, hinting that the collapse is mainly
Typically, the RC beams without stirrups fail suddenly, with little due to weaker aggregate interlock mechanism (Raad and Assaad, 2022).
advanced warning of impending collapse. As shown in Figs. 5a and b, the
failure of all beams (whether made using NSC or HSC) occurred in the Load vs. Deflection curves
high-shear regions along one major diagonal crack that started from the The ascending parts of all curves were almost linear during the initial
support at approximately 45◦ from the horizontal axis and extended deep stages of loading (Fig. 6). The stiffness of NSC beams seems to be altered
in the compressed concrete region. The diagonal shear cracks by the type of binder, while remained unaffected in the case of HSC

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T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

120 160

140
100 Shear tests Shear tests
120
Applied load, kN

80
100

60 80

60 H-C-V
40 N-C
H-C/CWP-V
N-C/CWP 40
H-C/BFS-V
20 N-C/BFS
20 H-C/BFS/CWP-V
N-C/BFS/CWP
0 0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 0 5 10 15 20 25
Mid-span deflection, mm Mid-span deflection, mm

Fig. 6. Load vs. mid-span deflection curves for NSC and HSC beams tested for shear strength.

Table 4
Shear strength properties for NSC and HSC beams.
Pmax, Δ(Pmax), δmax, Δ(δmax), PACI, Pmax/PACI DI FE, kN.mm
kN % mm % kN

N-C 78 – 8.1 – 66.7 1.17 1.3 733

N-C/CWP 67.3 86.3 9.2 113.6 64.5 1.04 1.27 667
N-C/BFS 115.4 147.9 12 148.1 68.1 1.69 1.11 1107
N-C/BFS/CWP 86.1 110.4 8.9 109.9 66.3 1.30 1.26 889
H-C 150 – 19 – 96 1.56 1.11 1939
H-C/CWP 128.1 85.4 13.7 72.2 93.4 1.37 1.02 1400
H-C/BFS 155.5 103.7 18.5 97.3 97.6 1.59 1.2 2300
H-C/BFS/CWP 150.1 100.1 16.7 87.8 96.5 1.55 1.1 1941

mixtures. Hence, for example, the load at 5 mm mid-span deflection ternary binder enhanced the beam’s resistance to applied loading
increased from 39.8 to 54.5 kN for N-C/CWP and N-C beams, respec­ including the DI and FE indices. For example, Pmax decreased from 78 to
tively, while this remained at approximately 60 kN for the HSC beams. 67.3 kN for the N-C and N-C/CWP beams, respectively, while this raised
The load dropped sharply after reaching the ultimate value, given the to 86.1 and 115.4 kN for those prepared with concrete containing
absence (or, limited number) of shear reinforcement. ternary or BFS-based binder, respectively. The resulting FE dropped
Table 4 summarizes the ultimate shear load (Pmax) and correspond­ from 733 to 667 kN.mm, but then increased to 889 and 1107 kN.mm,
ing δ max, DI, FE, and shear design load (PACI) computed as per ACI 318 respectively. Such results are in complete concordance with f’c and
(2019) Building Code. The PACI values are determined as expressed in concrete durability (AlArab et al. 2022), reflecting the relevance of
Equation (2) below, where Vf and Mf are the factored shear and moment combining CWP with BFS on the structural properties of RC beams. In
at the specified section. other words, the synergistic effects seem to play a key role to mitigate
( √̅̅̅̅ ) √̅̅̅̅ the strength loss encountered in beams prepared with concrete con­
Vf d
(2) taining CWP-based binder, while in contrast, the structural behavior
′ ′
PACI = 0.158 f c + 17.6 ρ b d ≤ 0.29 f c b d
Mf
improved with the use of ternary binder composed of 55% cement, 35%
Just like the flexural strength of RC beams containing stirrups, the BFS, and 10% CWP.
shear strength properties seem to be directly affected by the binder type As shown in Table 4, the magnitudes of Pmax, δ max, and FE were
used in the NSC or HSC mixtures. Hence, while the incorporation of CWP considerably higher for HSC beams, as compared to equivalent beams
led to reduced Pmax compared to the control value, the use of BFS or prepared with NSC mixtures. For example, Pmax increased from 78 to
150 kN for N-C and H-C beams, respectively; the corresponding δ max

80 120
N-C H-C-B
N-C/CWP H-C/CWP-B
100 Bond tests
60 N-C/BFS H-C/BFS-B
N-C/BFS/CWP H-C/BFS/CWP-B
Applied load, kN

80

40 60

40
20 Bond tests
20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Mid-span deflection, mm Mid-span deflection, mm

Fig. 7. Load vs. mid-span deflection curves for NSC and HSC beams tested for bond strength.

8
T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

Fig. 8. (a) Cracks patterns for NSC beams tested for bond strength. (b) Cracks patterns for HSC beams tested for bond strength.

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T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

Table 5 180
Bond strength properties for NSC and HSC beams. y = 4.89x + 54.69
160 HSC beams R² = 0.78
Pmax, τmax, Δ(τmax), δmax, τACI, τmax/τACI
kN MPa % mm MPa 140
NSC beams
N-C 74.4 4.78 5.14 4.07 1.17

Pmax, kN
–
120
N-C/CWP 59.7 4.17 0.87 5.29 3.94 1.06
N-C/BFS 77.3 5.2 1.09 5.4 4.16 1.25
100
N-C/BFS/CWP 67.8 4.63 0.97 5.1 4.04 1.15
y = 4.53x + 45.08
H-C 86.5 5.99 – 6.73 5.86 1.02 80 R² = 0.72
H-C/CWP 77.2 5.35 0.89 11.06 5.7 0.94
H-C/BFS 95.1 6.59 1.1 6.66 5.96 1.11 60
H-C/BFS/CWP 86.8 6 1.0 7.46 5.89 1.02
40
0 5 10 15 20 25
and FE varied from 8.1 to 19 mm and from 733 to 1939 kN.mm,
Mid-span deflection, mm
respectively. This can be naturally attributed to the concrete strength
that affects the shear transfer mechanism in RC beams without stirrups Fig. 9. Relationships between Pmax and mid-span deflections for NSC and
(or, with a smaller number of stirrups) including the aggregate interlock HSC beams.
and friction along the developed shear cracks (Alshannag et al. 2022;
Raad and Assaad, 2022). The increased binder content and reduced w/b strength testing, the replacement of 10% cement by CWP was accom­
could also play a determinant role in improving the dowel action along panied by a reduction in Pmax; the resulting Δ(τ max) dropped to 0.87 and
the main tensile reinforcement, leading to improved shear strength of 0.89 for N-C/CWP and H-C/CWP beams. Again, such results agree with
HSC beams (Khatib et al. 2015; Mahdi et al. 2013). It is worth noting that the variations in f’c, and are mostly attributed to a dilution effect and
the DI followed a decreasing trend (i.e., from 1.3 to 1.11 for N-C and H-C higher porosity that could both alter the development of strength.
beams, respectively), reflecting the brittle nature of HSC beams. Nevertheless, when the 10% CWP is combined with 35% BFS in the
The Pmax/PACI values were all larger than 1.0 (Table 4), reflecting the ternary binder, the bond to embedded bars improved due to synergistic
conservative nature of the ACI 318 (2019) shear design model. The effects that refined the matrix microstructure and interfacial strength
lowest values of 1.04 and 1.37 were recorded for N-C/CWP and H-C/ along the steel ribs (Assaad and Issa 2017; Miranda et al. 2020). The
CWP beams prepared with concrete containing CWP-based binder. As resulting Δ(τ max) increased to 0.97 and 1.0 for N-C/BFS/CWP and H-C/
earlier explained, this can be attributed to the CWP dilution effect and BFS/CWP beams. Such results highlight the benefits of ternary binders
increased porosity that could both degrade the aggregate interlock and to enhance the structural properties including the flexural, shear, and
friction mechanisms, leading to reduced f’c and Pmax. The highest Pmax/ bond strengths of RC beams, irrespective of the concrete f’c.
PACI values of 1.69 and 1.59 corresponded for the NSC and HSC beams The τ max/τ ACI values are higher than 0.94, reflecting the conser­
prepared with BFS-based binder. vative nature of ACI 318 (2019) design bond model. Hence, the τ max/τ
ACI varied from 1.17 to 1.25 for NSC beams, and from 0.94 to 1.11 for
Bond strength of spliced rebars HSC ones (Table 5). It is to be noted that good correlations exist between
Pmax and δ max, with correlation coefficients (R2) of 0.72 and 0.78 for
The load vs. deflection curves for the NSC and HSC beams containing beams prepared with NSC or HSC mixtures, respectively (Fig. 9). Hence,
spliced rebars within their centerlines are plotted in Fig. 7. All curves the more the RC beam can withstand load, the higher its mid-span
increased linearly in the pre-peak region, where the transfer of stresses deflection at failure.
can be attributed to the adhesive and mechanical interlock components
of bond (Assaad and Issa 2017; Miranda et al. 2020; Tastani et al. 2015).
Concluding remarks
When Pmax is reached, the load dropped sharply towards a constant
value that represents the frictional component of bond. With one
This paper investigates the structural properties of concrete mixtures
exception (H-C/CWP beam), δ max varied within narrow limits that
containing CWPs using real-scale RC beams measuring 2-m in length.
ranged from 5 to 7.5 mm. As shown in Figs. 8a and b, the flexural cracks
The members were differently configured by steel reinforcements to
of all beams occurred within the spliced region, away from the supports
assess the flexural and shear strengths as well as the bond to embedded
where the moment is constant. The beams failed by splitting and spalling
bars. Regardless of the steel configuration, the NSC and HSC mixtures
of the bottom concrete face along the entire splice length, as shown in
containing 10% cement replacement by CWP led to relatively inferior
the closer view of the N-C/BFS beam (Fig. 8a and b).
structural behavior of RC beams. Such drop is in line with the reduction
Table 5 summarizes the Pmax, δ max, and average bond strength (τ
in f’c, and is due to a dilution effect and higher porosity that alter the
max) calculated by dividing the force developed along the bar by the concrete microstructure and development of strengths.
surface area of the spliced length (Ls), as follows:
Compared to the control NSC and HSC prepared with only portland
Ab f s cement, mixtures containing 40% BFS-based binder exhibited remark­
τmax = (3)
π db Ls ably improved flexural, shear, and bond strengths. Such results reveal
the benefits of the aluminosilicate and amorphous BFS natures to foster
where Ab is the bar cross-sectional area (mm2) and fs is the ultimate steel pozzolanic and latent hydraulic activities. The highest improvement of
stress (MPa) determined based on the cracked section analysis of each 48% was for the shear strength in the N-C/BFS beam, reflecting the
beam subjected to Pmax. The design bond strength (τ ACI) computed as enhanced aggregate interlock and friction mechanisms in RC beams
per ACI 318 (2019) is determined as follows: containing a smaller number of stirrups.
√̅̅̅̅(
′
) The relatively inferior properties in flexural, shear, and bond
10 f c Cb d+K strengths due to 10% CWP additions are fully restored with the use of
tr

(4)
b
τACI = ternary binder composed of 55% cement, 35% BFS, and 10% CWP. Such
4 × 9 ψt ψe ψs λ
results are in line with the improved durability reported previously by
where the transverse reinforcement factor (Cb + Ktr/db) is taken 2.5, AlArab et al. (2022), revealing the relevance of blending CWP with BFS
while the ψ and λ factors are taken equal to 1. to foster synergistic effects and enhanced performance NSC and HSC RC
Just like the behavior observed during the flexural and shear beams. Such practices can increase the CWP added-value for the

10
T. Abou Rachied et al. Cleaner Materials 7 (2023) 100179

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Batikha, M., Muhamma Ali, S.T., Rostami, A., Kurtayev, M., 2021. Using recycled coarse
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The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Sustain. Eng. 14 (4), 785–799. https://doi.org/10.1080/19397038.2020.1862353.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Brekailo, F., Pereira, E., Pereira, E., Farias, M.M., Medeiros-Junior, R.A., 2022. Red
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Acknowledgement El-Mir, A., Nehme, S.G., Assaad, J.J., 2020. Durability of self-consolidating concrete
containing natural waste perlite powders. Heliyon 6, e03165.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the American University of Hamad, B.S., Dawi, A.H., Daou, A., Chehab, G.R., 2018. Studies of the effect of recycled
aggregates on flexural, shear, and bond splitting beam structural behavior. Case
Beirut (AUB) for supporting the research reported in this paper by the
Stud. Constr. Mater. 9, e00186.
University Research Board grant number 103371. Also, the assistance of Heidari, A., Tavakoli, D., 2013. A study of the mechanical properties of ground ceramic
the staff at the CEE Materials Lab of AUB in the fabrication of the test powder concrete incorporating nano-SiO2 particles. Const. and Build. Mat. 38,
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materials prepared by precarbonated steel slag. J. Mat. Civil Eng. 30 (9) https://doi.
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