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GURU TEGH BAHADUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

“Engineering and Technology in the Field of Dyes and

Paints, Irrigation and Water Managements, Physical
Structure and Temples in Ancient India”

ECE-1(3rd SEM)

SUBMITTED TO :-Ms. Rupa Srinivasan

SUBMITTED BY :- Gursahej singh
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very thankful to our subject teacher, Miss. Rupa

Srinivasan ma’am for giving us this opportunity. Our
special thanks to our parents for providing their amazing
ideas and helping us in completing our project on time.
Also, a very special thanks to us all for the hard work we
put in.
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CONTENTS

1. Engineering and technology in the fields of dyes and paints

2. Engineering and technology in the field of irrigation and
water management
3. Engineering and technology in the field of physical
structure and temples in ancient India.
4. Bibliography
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❖ ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF DYES AND

PAINTS:

The art of dyeing was as old as human civilization from the historical records,
it is learnt that natural colorants were available to man from the earliest times.
With the development of fixed settlements and agriculture around 7000-2000
B.C. man began to produce and use textiles and would therefore add color to
them as well. Color plays a vital role in Indian textiles. India's expertise in
natural dyes dates back to ancient times. It was an important occupation
during ancient times. Ancient Indian literature gives immense proofs
regarding the techniques of dyeing in ancient Indian textiles industry. In this
paper I have selected the period of ancient Indian history from Vedic period
to Mauryan period to study the dyeing as an industry in Ancient India.
Dyeing and painting activities have accompanied the development of human
culture since the early beginnings. The use of dyeing and pigmenting materials
was probably born out of the necessity of prehistoric man to adorn and
beautify his objects of daily use. The knowledge and use of color began with
the dawn of civilization and dyeing is as old as the textile industry itself. The
term dye, is derived from old English word Daeg or Daeh meaning "color".
The earliest dyes were probably discovered by accident and may have been
noticed from the stains from available berries, fruits and nuts and blossoms,
leaves, stems and roots of shrubs. The exact period of the commencement of
the art of dyeing in the world could not be as certain correctly. It is presumed
that the appearance of dye-vat occurred in the history along with the brick-
kiln. Archeological evidence however shows that dyeing was a wide-spread
industrial enterprise in Egypt, India and Mesopotamia round about third
millennium B.C. India's expertise in natural eyes dates back to ancient times.
Color plays a vital part in Indian textiles. Dyeing of cloth was essential for
increasing its beauty. What made the Indian textile fabrics more interesting
was the variety of color employed in dying them. So, the art of dyeing was in
vogue since remote past and it was an important occupation during the ancient
times. The love of brilliant color combinations like vermilion and yellow, is
ingrained in the minds of the Indian people. Although at the beginning these
colors were borrowed from nature, the people soon imbued with immense
significance, sometimes social, and sometimes spiritual. The chief
characteristic of the use of color in Indian textiles is the principle of "rhythmic
contrasts." The purple dye on a piece of cotton was in all probability produced
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from the madder plant and the discovery of dyer's vessel from the Harappa
and Mohenjo Daro indicate that the art of dyeing was known and practiced.
The purpose dye on cotton piece, is thought by Messer– Turner and Gulati.
The chief vegetable dyes used were indigo, clay-root, lac, turmeric and lower.
The Vedic people also knew different methods of dyeing the clothes because
the dyeing of textiles was also a subsidiary craft. In this art both male and
female dyers were engaged, but the latter excelled the former, so they have
been dedicated to delight. The Vedic texts refer to several colors in which cloth
was usually dyed. The colors known to the people of Rigvedic period seem to
be evidenced from the occurrence in the Rigveda. Though the texts refer to
several dye-stuffs and cloths of different colors, but they do not shed any light
on the technique of dyeing. As far later Vedic period dyeing process is
concerned, it was done with the juice of "lodhra" lower or with madder or
indigo. Several colors mentioned in later Vedic literature. They include white,
red, yellow, green, blue and black. The compilers of the Grihya-sutra were
also acquainted with the art of dyeing also, as the Ashvalayana, Grihya-sutra
states that a Brahmana should wear reddish yellow (Kaseya), a kshatriya's
garment should be Manjistha (dyed with madder), and a Vaisya should put on
yellow garment (Charindra) at the time of upanayana. So, it appears that
vegetable and stone dyes have been widely used from the very early times.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad suggests that clothes used to be dyed with
various colors such as yellow, scarlet and red. In Epics also we get number of
references regarding dyeing industry. It is said that Sita received among other
things, garments of various colors, when she was getting married to Rama.
The Ramayana mentions the ladies of Ravana clothed in garments of
variegated hues. "Kusumba" was one of the prominent dyes used in ancient
India. In the Mahabharata we read an uncolored cloth, when dirty, can be
cleansed, but not a piece of cloth that is dyed with black, even so O king ... is
the case with sin. A Snataka was asked to avoid all dyed dresses and all
naturally black cloth. Gautama also forbids him the use of dyed or sumptuous
garments. Block printing was also an ancient folk tradition in India. It was
certainly known in the days about which the Greek Scholar Arrian wrote and
probably in the days of the Mahabharata as well. The dye manufacturer
"Sangakkara" is also referred in the Ramayana and Mahabharata. During
Buddhist period, dyeing industry was in full ledged way. The Jataka refers to
a variety of colors and to garments, rugs and curtains as dyed scarlet, orange
etc. Even an umbrella is noted as red colored. The word rajas who performed
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the work of dyeing after having washed the cloth, may be taken to mean both
a washerman and a dyer. The majjhima-Nikaya says that before dyeing the
cloth it should be washed properly, so that it may absorb the true color
properly. It says – "A foul and dirty piece of cloth, if dipped by the fuller in
blue, yellow, red or pink dye, would take the dye badly, and not come out in a
good color, and that is because of the cloth's impurity. Mahavagga mentions
the techniques of dyeing employed by Bhikkhus and informs that they dyed
their clothes with cow dung or with yellow clay. The robs were badly colored.
So, the blessed one allowed them to use dye made of roots. Further they were
allowed to boil and not a drop of it was put on to the nail. The 24 dye was
prepared into the jars and a large trough was used for dyeing the cloth. The
Vinaypapitaka informs us that dyed clothes like blue, light yellow were
prohibited for the monks. This suggests that clothes of these colors were used
by the laity. In the Buddhist canons we ind many references to colored cloth.
"Some of the Likkhavis were dark, dark in color and wearing dark clothes and
ornaments, some of them were fair in color and wearing light colors and
ornaments, some of them were red in color and wearing red clothes and
ornaments, some of them were white, pale in color and wearing white colored
clothes and ornaments." Now there is no doubt that these were vegetable dyes
employed for the purpose of coloring textile goods. Dyes were prepared from
the roots, trunks and bark of threes, leaves, lowers and fruits. Probably dyes
were made from substance like cinkura (a yellow-colored fragrant plant),
Haritala (yellow orpiment), Sarisava (mustard), the lowers of kimsuka
(japakusuma), Kumkuma (Saffron), blue lotus, sirisa, lowers and collyrium
etc. Dyes were irst boiled in order to give a fast color to clothes. Apart from
dyeing clothes, dyes were needed for ladies who often painted their hands and
feet. Jatakas also mention various colors such as white (sveta), dark-blue
(nila), brown (pingala), yellow (halidda), golden (suvarna), silvery
(rajatamaya), red (rattans dagopo), black (kali), madder like (Manjetha) etc. It
can be presumed that these colors were utilised for dyeing clothes. Hence, we
may infer that the art of dyeing was equally developed as weaving in this
period. Jain literature and Bhasya inform us that the coarse cloth was irst
washed and bleached before dying. Soda (Sajjiyakhara) is mentioned as
washing agents. Clothes dyed in reddish color (Kasai) were worn in hot
weather. The "Parivrajaks" used to wear clothes dyed in red ochre (geruya).
Indeed the cotton tissues and stuffs of India have always been more sought
after for the beauty and brilliancy of their natural dyes than for the oneness
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and softness with which they are interwoven. Panini also informs about the
colors known to the people then. They were raga, red, black, laksha also called
jalu, madder (majistha) and orpiment (rochana). It is confirmed that by the
time of Panini people were well acquainted with the knowledge of colors.
According to Katyayana, powdered potsherds and kardama (black mud from
the bottom of pool) also served as dyeing stuffs. Haridra and maharaja are
other dyeing agents. Manu and Milindpanho also refer dyeing and the dyer's
street respectively. These instances clearly indicate the prevalence of dyeing
and dyer's art in this regard. The dyeing of textiles was practised in the Maurya
period as evidenced by the Arthasastra which mentions white, pure red, rose-
red. and black woolen and fur of one uniform color such as – black, dark red,
grey or of wheat color or of straw color. Manjistha or Indian madder is also
heard of in the Arthasastra as a red-dye stuff. Kautilya refers to the cultivation
of "kusumba" in the royal forms for lowers which were, according to the
commentator, productive of coloring materials. Kautilya in his Arthashastra
has given proper time limitation for dyeing or coloring the clothes. The dyers
were known as 'Rajaka' and they were paid double in amount as compared to
washerman. Megasthenes tells that garments were dyed of bright colors. He
also refers to the turban and upper garment worn by people of India and
informs that generally they dress in white muslin. There is also a mention of
carpets and curtains with blackish circular five spots which reflects the degree
of sophistication reached in the Field of art and craft. One of the interesting
features gleaned from the classical literature is that they inform about the
knowledge of dyeing, which was employed in attributing different color sheds
to the textile goods. Among different sheds of color the following deserve
their mention–Fine - embroidered muslin with purple and golden color, grey
colored-linen garments with sun shades, white colored cotton garments,
somber color. According to Strabo Indians had special predilection for
wearing white colored garments, instead of other colored garments. This
evidence shows the prominence of the white-colored textile goods over the
other known colored textile garments. Indigo was an important dye-product
of India, exported to western countries, evidenced by Periplus and Pliny. They
also refer "black color is considered sacred to Saturn, yellow to Venus and red
to Mars, in astrological works. Schoff suggests that the mellow was a coarse
cotton dyed with a preparation of a variety of the hibiscus native in India. This
purplish cloth must have corresponded closely to the coarse blue drills still in
demand in the African coasts. The most well-known of ancient printed textiles
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are the Calicoes of Masalia, Madras, Masulipatnam. The beauty of design,

color and fastness of the dye of this ancient printed textile made them more
popular all over the world. The Sangam texts are also replete with references
to South Indian dyes. Indigo was commonly used vegetables dye and cloth
dyed with 58 Indigo is referred to as "nilikanchb chai". Indigo was a plant
from whose leaves different shades of blue colors were prepared and was
exported to other countries for "seventeen dinaries" per pound. Huge brick
dyeing vats pertaining to the IRST and second centuries have been unearthed
from Arikamedu in Pondicherry and Uraiyur in Tiruchirappalli, both known
to be important weaving center from the account of Periplus. Conclusion Thus
we see that the art of dyeing was as old as human civilization. From historical
records, it is learnt that natural colorants were available to people from ancient
times. The early Vedic Aryans did not practice so much techniques of dyeing
because they were a pastoral and migratory people. With the development of
civilization weaving of cloth was considered to be a very useful job, for it
resulted in material prosperity of the weaver and ensured his sound economic
condition. On account of this, cloth was regarded as the embodiment of
prosperity and nourishment. People in general wanted to make their clothes
beautiful for which it was necessary to make fascinating designs on them. In
this regard dyeing played an important role. India's rich natural resources for
dyeing played a vital role. Its varied geographical regions and climates
provide a huge range of plant fibers and natural dyes for cultivators, weavers
and dyers since the dawn of the civilization up to Maurya period.
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❖ ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF IRRIGATION

AND WATER MANAGEMENT:

Hydrologic knowledge in India has a historical footprint extending over several

millenniums through the Harappan civilization (∼3000–1500 BCE) and the Vedic
Period (∼1500–500 BCE). As in other ancient civilizations across the world, the
need to manage water propelled the growth of hydrologic science in ancient India.
Most of the ancient hydrologic knowledge, however, has remained hidden and
unfamiliar to the world at large until the recent times The Vedas, particularly, the
Rigveda, Yajurveda, and Atharvaveda, have many references to the water cycle and
associated processes, including water quality, hydraulic machines, hydro-structures,
and nature-based solutions (NBS) for water management. The earliest mentions of
irrigation are found in Rigveda chapters 1.55, 1.85, 1.105, 7.9, 8.69 and 10.101. The
Veda mentions only well-style irrigation, where kupa and avata wells once dug are
stated to be always full of water, from which varatra (rope strap) and cakra (wheel)
pull kosa (pails) of water. This water was, state the Vedas, led into surmi susira
(broad channels) and from there into khanitrima (diverting channels) into fields.
Later, the 4th-century BCE Indian scholar Pāṇini , mentions tapping several rivers
for irrigation. The mentioned rivers include Sindhu, Suvastu, Varnu, Sarayu, Vipas
and Chandrabhaga. Buddhist texts from the 3rd century BCE also mention irrigation
of crops. Texts from the Maurya Empire era (3rd century BCE) mention that the state
raised revenue from charging farmers for irrigation services from rivers.
Patanjali, in Yoga sutra of about the 4th century CE, explains a technique of yoga by
comparing it to "the way a farmer diverts a stream from an irrigation canal for
irrigation". In Tamil Nadu, the Grand Anicut (canal) across the Kaveri river was
implemented in the 3rd century CE, and the basic design is still used today. The
Harappan civilization epitomizes the level of development of water sciences in
ancient India that includes construction of sophisticated hydraulic structures,
wastewater disposal systems based on centralized and decentralized concepts, and
methods for wastewater treatment. The Mauryan Empire (∼322–185 BCE) is
credited as the first “hydraulic civilization” and is characterized by the construction
of dams with spillways, reservoirs, and channels equipped with spillways (Pynes and
Ahars); they also had an understanding of water balance, development of water
pricing systems, measurements of rainfall, and knowledge of the various
hydrological processes. As we investigate deeper into the references to hydrologic
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works in ancient Indian literature including the mythology, many fascinating

dimensions of the Indian scientific contributions emerge. This review presents the
various facets of water management, exploring disciplines such as history,
archeology, hydrology and hydraulic engineering, and culture and covering the
geographical area of the entire Indian subcontinent to the east of the Indus River.
The review covers the period from the Mature Harappan Phase to the Vedic Period
and the Mauryan Empire.
The development of sociocultural societies, agricultural establishments, and
permanent settlements led to the establishment of a unique relationship between
humans and water (Vuorinen et al., 2007; Lofrano and Brown, 2010). Scarborough
(2003) and Ortloff (2009) discussed the impacts of water management practices on
ancient social structures and organizations with examples from the eastern and
western hemispheres. Lofrano and Brown (2010) presented an in-depth review of
wastewater management in the history of mankind, and they have categorically
discussed about the evolution of sanitation through different civilizations of the
world, including the ancient Indus Valley civilization.

The southern (a) and eastern (b) reservoir of Dholavira

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Dockyard (a) and ancient Indus port (b) of Lothal

As in many other parts of the world, civilization in India also flourished around rivers
and deltas. Rivers remain an enduring symbol of national culture (Nair, 2004). The
Harappan (or Indus Valley) civilization, which prospered during 2600–1900 BCE
(Chase et al., 2014) or about 5000 years ago (Dixit et al., 2018), had well-planned
cities equipped with public and private baths, a well-planned network of sewerage
systems through underground drains built with precisely laid bricks, and an efficient
water management system with numerous reservoirs and wells (Sharma and Shruthi,
2017). Evidence shows that the Indus people developed one of the smartest urban
centers in those ancient times with an exemplary fusion of civil, architectural, and
material sciences (Possehl, 2002; Kenoyer, 1998; Wright, 2010). According to Shaw
et al. (2007), the development of advanced irrigation systems in ancient India led to
the development of the complex urban societies and centers. The Indus Valley
civilization was prominent in hydraulic engineering and is known to have developed
the earliest known systems of flush toilets in the world (Sharma and Shruthi, 2017).
Kenoyer (2003) states that “no other city in the ancient world had developed such a
sophisticated water and waste management system. Even during the Roman Empire,
some 2000 years later, these kinds of facilities were limited to upper-class
neighborhoods”.
All the ancient civilizations, i.e., Harappan, Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, and
Minoan, that flourished and attained their pinnacle were largely dependent on the
degree or extent of their advancements in water technologies. With efficient
management of water resources, they were able to produce more food grains and
mitigate the damages due to natural hazards such as droughts and floods. At the same
time, the advanced wastewater management techniques helped in healthy lifestyles,
hygiene, and clean environments. The ancient Indian literature covering the period
from the Harappan civilization to the Vedic Period followed by the Mauryan Empire,
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including the hymns and prose in Vedic Samhitas and Puranas, contains detailed
discourses on the various processes of the hydrological cycle, including groundwater
exploration, water quality, well construction, and irrigation by channels (kulya).
Water technological advancements coupled with the architectural sophistication
during the Harappan civilization were at their zenith. Nowhere in the contemporary
world can such a sophisticated and impressive planning relating to the water supply
and effluent disposal system be found (Jansen, 1989). Almost all houses had private
wells with bath and toilet area lined with the standard size burned bricks and draining
into the soak pit or into the street drains.
During the Vedic age, the principle of collecting water from hilly areas of undulating
surface and carrying it through canals to distant areas was known (Bhattacharya,
2012). In the Rigveda, many verses indicate that agriculture can be progressed by
use of water from wells and ponds (verse I, 23.18, and verse V, 32.2). Verse VIII,
3.10, mentions construction of artificial canals by (Ribhus or engineer) to irrigate
desert areas. Verses VIII, 49.6, and X, 64.9, emphasize efficient use of water; i.e.,
the water obtained from different sources such as wells, rivers, rain, and from any
other sources on the earth should be used efficiently, as it is a gift of nature, for the
wellbeing of all. There are also references to irrigation by wells (verse X, 25), canals
(word “kulya” in Rigveda) (verse X, 99), and digging of the canal (verse X, 75) in
the Rigveda. In Mahabhasya of Patanjali (150 BCE) the word “kulya” is also used.
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❖ ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE FIELD OF

PHYSICAL STRUCTURE AND TEMPLES:

General:

India is a land of saints and spirituality, nature, art and culture; not only so in
past the land was rich in economy also. Hence, it was attacked by many foreign
armies in history. Almost for 6 centuries or more, Mughal army, European army
have dominated the pre independence period in this land. The constant attacks,
unstable political conditions and growing illiteracy, poverty, associated
problems never allowed the common citizen to grow as an artist for the nation.
But this was not the state six hundred years back. The land was rich in terms of
not only its culture but also for the construction. Probably India was the land of
‘Engineering’ artists. Here, the old temples and forts have resisted the vagaries
of the weather for centuries and they are the evidences of this statement. These
temples have sustained floods, earthquakes, heavy winds with a very stable
response; not only so a few temples have sustained the bombing by foreign
armies in past and recently blasts, terrorist attacks etc. exhibiting stubborn
design principles. In those days – architecture, planning, budgeting, designing,
manufacturing and construction everything used to go hand in hand; the holistic
or the ‘Complete’ thinking about the structure was a key principle behind the
success and long life behind these structures. Thousand years back, when these
temples were built, there were no established Design principles, testing
methods, software, calculators, and spreadsheets etc. were available. Still the
end results exhibited by these temples are fabulous (engineering performance in
terms of forces, deflection, cracking etc.). Thus these ‘Vastus’ are really
‘Structural Engineering Marvels’. In the present paper, author has made an
attempt to rejuvenate the memories of these ‘Engineering marvels’, and briefly
discussed various components / corners of the construction, in light of known
engineering principles, as on today. Hopefully the paper will help the state-of-
the-art engineering to excel ahead by studying the past.
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Introduction: In India if we enter in a structure,

where we can sense a great fragrance of flowers,
Dhoopa; where we see pleasing architecture
glowing a mild light of oil lamps (Deepa); where
we hear a soothing music and Vedic chants (hymns
and Mantra) which completely deep our sole in
serenity, then we may rest assured that we are
standing in an Indian Temple, because Indian
temples is a place of ‘peace’!!

Typical ‘Shikar’ of a South Indian Temple showing lowering of Centre of

gravity, for better seismic response
➔ India has many temples which are as old as 1000yrs or even more. As we
know, mainly these temples were the places for spiritual practices /
pilgrimage; but apart from that many temples were also used for education,
accommodation and political movements, and as for practicing archery and
gym (body building, yoga etc.) too. Most of the temples were built by the
kings / emperors / ‘Raja’ and ‘Maharajas’ or even rich people like merchants
and jewelers. Ancient temples were classified as per their era, viz. Shiv-Kalin
temples, ‘Pandav-Kalin temples,
‘Peshwa Kalin’ temples etc. (word
‘Kalin’ indicates the respective Era /
time).
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Mostly the temples were built in stone, with limited use of timber and metal (mainly
for carving and architectural details). Strong stones viz. sandstone, basalt, marble
was given a first choice. Often the Idol of a deity was preferred to be carved in a
glazing-black colored river stone from Nepal (stone obtained from River Gandaki).
But the local availability of the stone often used to decide the selection of material
for construction of structural components. In certain cases, the temples are found to
be carved out of a single large rock formation (viz. caves and Stupas). The temples
can be broadly classified as North-Indian, south-Indian temples and central Indian
temples, based on the style adopted. The availability of river water near construction
sites, expert workers, elephants or bulls to doze the construction material has also
made significant impact on the structure. The carving done in hard stone with fine
grain size like marble, basalt and pink sandstone has shown better performance than
the carving done in stone with large grain size or porosity, cracks, empty pockets etc.
e.g., amygdaloidal basalt, Deccan-trap etc.
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Structure :
The main construction used to be placed on a stable soil, on the massive
foundation block. Often, the plinth level used to be of 6 feet height or even more
than that. The foundations used to be dug deep below the existing ground level.
To avoid seepage of water to the foundation, and even to facilitate the visitors to
move around / encircle the temple, stone paving used to be provided on the
periphery of the main temple. The paving used to keep the growth of large trees
and shrubs away from the main temple, and thus helped to protect the footing.

Because of the pavement it was possible to maintain the cleanliness of the

temple also. During the festivals and processions, the stone pavement used to
be helpful to act like a floor slab for people to dance, sleep, dine etc. On the
massive foundation-plinth block the workers used to place strong pillars to
withstand the entire vertical loads of the roof, except the central dome, just
above the deity. The central dome used to be supported using solid stone walls
on the periphery of the dome. Often these pillars (columns) used to be derived
out from a single piece of stone, usually away from the site and then
transported and placed at the desired destination. In rare cases it is observed
that the columns are made up of two or more pieces glued together using
organic resins or sometimes with molten lead. The verticality of the columns
was a critical issue, as in olden days there were no heavy load lifting devices
/ hydraulic cranes in existence. The job used to be done by a team of skilled
masons along with helpers in a few weeks-time, using a simple plumb bob
suspended on all four sides from the top of the columns / capital. Considering
the present situation and scientific growth the job done by our ancestors is
very much satisfying
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Forensic Investigation:

Till now we know that most of the olden temples have performed great in
many ways (when we compare to the state of engineering developments in
those days); but very less magnitude of research is found to be done on the
‘Engineering Marvels’ to really quantify there ‘mass’, ‘stiffness’, ‘damping’.
Numerical investigations to compute / predict the response to dynamic loads
(viz. wind and earthquake), environmental loads, using sophisticated methods
is not found to be done on a large magnitude. Core testing of the damaged
parts, where the binding material is exposed is hardly done, by anyone.
Estimation of Time period of these massive structures is another grey area.
We do not mean that nothing has happened in terms of scientific studies till
now; but whatever has studies have happened are very nominal. Computer
simulations / mathematical studies etc. are rarely noticed. At some place
experts from reputed Institutes are trying to improve the seismic behavior of
the temples using Base Isolation techniques (retrofitting). At a few places
structural health monitoring devises are set to monitor and just the response.
At ta few places protective coatings are prescribed by the experts. And many
more attempts (which are still very limited) are on. . . coming Time will decide
the effectiveness of these techniques. Very less reliable data about the
response of these structures in devastating earthquakes of Uttar-Kashi, Bihar,
Jabalpur, Kutch-Bhuj, Latur etc. is available.
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BIBILOGRAPHY

1. www.wikepedia.com
2. Book: Dyes and pigments: novel application and waste
management
3. Book: soil and water management: an introductory textbook
4. Book: The temple architecture of India