A Brief History of Ethics - 0781672644

1.3.1. Natural Behaviour even when observing the animal kingdom, there are clear signs of rules of
behaviour. The young monkey does not mess with the “big daddy” and when lions are feeding off a
freshly killed carcass the hyenas keep a good distance. All of this behaviour appears to be instinctual or
intuitive but it serves the very clear purpose of maintaining order within the animal kingdom.

1.3.2. Human Behaviour Human ethical behaviour has been observed from the earliest recorded data
and anthropological and archeological studies have indicated that all primitive tribes have very definite
rules of behaviour. Christopher Boehm (1982) has hypothesized that the incremental development of
moral complexity throughout hominid evolution was due to the increasing need to avoid disputes and
injuries in moving to open savannah and developing stone weapons. Human morality, though
sophisticated and complex relative to other animals, is essentially a natural phenomenon that evolved to
restrict excessive individualism and foster human co-operation. Group morality develops from shared
concepts and beliefs and is often codified to regulate behaviour within a culture or community.

1.3.3. Mythology Perhaps the existence of mythology arose out of the need to regulate society and this
was much easier to do when the stories were fascinating and the members of the community could
identify with the mythological characters. Out of these myths grew rules of behaviour and conduct
which contributed towards controlled and ordered living.

14 1.3.4. Codes of Conduct Moral code examples throughout history are: the „Golden Rule‟, the „Five
Precepts‟ and the „Noble Eightfold Path‟ of Buddhism, the Egyptian code of Ma‟at, and the „Ten
Commandments‟ of Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Among the earliest written codes is the „Code of
Hamaurabi‟, the sixth King of Babylon who lived between 1810 BCE and 1750 BCE. This code was of a
more secular nature and was written up on stone pillars for all the subjects of his kingdom to see and
live by. There were very clear, if somewhat brutal, sanctions for anyone who transgressed them but this
led to the orderly functioning of that ancient society.

1.3.5. From Ancient Greece to the Modern Era Ancient Greece was the birthplace of Western
philosophical ethics, moral precepts from the 7th and 6th centuries BCE. Names like Socrates, Plato and
Aristotle have become household names. Greece had moved from being a warring group of tribes to a
community of people living in city states where individuals spent time thinking about such things as
happiness, the „good life‟ and the value of being organised. Ethical principles and practices have
become the cement that binds a society together in such a way that individual citizens may pursue their
desires and reach for their goals. Grayling (2005) states that: „manners are central to true morality; they
are the lubricant of social relations, the sweetener of personal interaction, and the softener of conflict.
Without them society itself would be impossible and out of control. The answers to questions about
how a complex, pluralistic community should cope with the stresses of internal difference and
competition have to put civility at their heart, because nothing else - certainly not the blunt instrument
of the law - can do nearly as well‟.

15 1.3.6. The Need for Ethics and Codes of Conduct Therefore, from the early stirrings of functionality in
primitive society, through the early codes of city life and academic philosophizing we arrived at a place
where society needs rules of conduct which, when expressed as simple plain good manners, can provide
a framework for the „good life‟ which is of benefit to both individuals and society. A 2005 global study
of over 1100 managers and executives identified the top three factors most likely to cause business
people to compromise ethical standards:  Pressure to meet unrealistic objectives/deadlines  Desire to
further one’s career  Desire to protect one’s livelihood John Eckmire in the essay Ethics Dilemma “On
the whole human beings want to be good, but not too good, and not quite all the time” George Orwell

16 1.4. Ethics Definitions It is useful to have a clear understanding of what is meant by the word ethics.
This begs the question: “What is the definition of MORALS?” Definition of Morals: “Concerned with
goodness or badness of character or disposition, or with the distinction between right and wrong;
dealing with regulations of conduct”. Definition of Ethics from the Dictionary of Psychology: “A branch of
philosophy concerned with that which is deemed acceptable in human behaviour, with what is good or
bad, right or wrong in human conduct in pursuit of goals and aims.” Ethics explores the nature of rights,
of moral responsibilities, and of how to go about addressing an ethical problem. Engineering ethics is
the field of applied ethics which examines and sets standards for engineers' obligations to the public,
their clients, employers and the profession and is appropriate in all aspects of professional practice.
Definition of Ethics: The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines ethics as: “Relating to morals, treating of
moral questions; morally correct, honourable”.

17 1.5. Key Concepts Here are the meanings of some key words and concepts: "Don't compromise
yourself. You are all you've got." Janis Joplin Ethics: The process of determining right and wrong
conduct. The discipline dealing with what is good and bad and with moral duty and obligations Ethical
Behaviour: Behaviour that conforms to accepted standards of conduct Ethical Reasoning: The process of
sorting out the principles that help determine what is ethical when faced with an ethical dilemma Ethical
System: A specific formula for distinguishing right from wrong Unethical: An action or conduct which
violates the principles of one or more ethical systems, or which is counter to an accepted ethical value,
such as honesty Non-ethical Considerations: Powerful human motivations that are not based on right or
wrong, but on considerations of survival and well-being, such as health, security, love, wealth, or self-
esteem Ethical Dilemma: This is an ethical problem in which the ethical choice involves ignoring a
powerful non-ethical consideration. Do the right thing, but lose your job, a friend, a lover, or an
opportunity for

18 1.6 Ethics Alarms Jack Marshall, director of Pro- Ethics, runs an ethics blog (http://proethics.com/)
and he says: “Ethics alarms are the feelings in your gut, the twinges in your conscience, and the sense of
caution in your brain when situations involving choices of right and wrong are beginning to develop, fast
approaching, or unavoidable.” The better your ethics alarm is working and the sooner your alarm goes
off the more likely you are to do the right thing, or at least use good ethical reasoning to decide what to
do. He goes on to say “creating an ethical culture is the shared obligation of everyone, and each of us
needs to think critically about what is right and wrong, make our opinions known, and never hesitate to
communicate those opinions for fear of being „judgmental‟”. We should be judgmental – civil, fair,
open-minded, and also willing to hold ourselves to high standards of conduct. Living ethically is not
always easy, but it becomes easier with thought, debate and practice. Advancement. A situation or
problem facing an individual that involves complex and often conflicting principles of ethical behaviour

19 1.7. The Importance of Ethical Conduct in Business The field of business ethics often overlaps and
informs ethical decision making for engineers. Conducting business ethically is critical to a company’s
success in the marketplace. Customers, suppliers and employees will not support a company that is
involved in fraudulent, dishonest or unethical practices. Setting high standards of integrity in business
relations and promoting their adherence by employees will enable the company to merit the confidence
and support of its customers and the public at large. As an employee or consultant you act as an
ambassador and represent the organization in your business dealings. The company’s reputation is in
your hands and it therefore depends on you to do the right thing in the best interests of the
organization. High standards in business conduct will go a long way to meriting the confidence and
support of your clients and employers. While business practices may change over time, our commitment
to the highest standards of integrity should remain constant and unblemished. Conducting business
ethically is critical to success in the marketplace. It means more than obeying the law; it means that high
standards of integrity must underlie every activity we undertake. It is up to the engineer to apply these
guidelines to the best of their ability in their own individual situation.

Many organizations provide broad principles on expected ethical behaviour in the form of a Code of
Conduct. However, the responsibility to apply the guidelines and use sound judgment in situations that
could compromise integrity is up to the individual. It is the individual’s choice not to commit dishonest
destructive or illegal acts – even if instructed by a supervisor, co-worker or others to act improperly. It is
no justification to claim that a higher authority ordered illegal acts. 20 “It is curious - curious that
physical courage should be so common in the world, and moral courage so rare” Mark Twain

1.8. Professional Ethics: In life our behavior is governed by different norm systems. The word NORM
comes from Latin “NORMA”= yardstick. Norms dictate what we “ought” or “ought not” to do. The norm
systems governing the behaviour of a professional are:  Individual morality Refers to individual values
of a specific person and what they believe to be right. Individual morality is influenced by how a person
was raised. It is their personal value system. The sanction for disobeying one‟s individual morality is a
guilty conscience.  Positive morality This set of norms represents what is considered “right” in society at
a particular time. The sanction for failure to obey positive morality is social sanction.  Law (Legal Norms)
Laws protect society and prevent anarchy by regulating behavior. Public Law – also referred to as
criminal law: between the state and individual. Private Law – also referred to as contractual law and
focuses on the relationship between persons. Formal Law and Common Law find expression in the
reported judgments of courts.  Professional Ethics Professionals are a group of people who earn a living
by undertaking a common activity and who regulate most of this themselves. Firstly they must form a
constitution, e.g. SAIMechE, and secondly they must publish a professional code 21 of rules or an ethical
code of conduct. This code must be in line with the law and is often more restrictive than the law.

1.9. Ethical Issues Facing Engineers Whistle blowing is an ethical issue facing Engineers in that they are
obliged to report to SAIMechE the alleged wrongdoing on behalf of a client or employer who endangers
others by failing to comply with the engineer‟s advice. This duty supersedes the duty to client and
employer, and if the engineer does not bring such failure to the notice of SAIMechE his/her membership
may be cancelled. There are several other ethical issues that engineers may face. Some have to do with
technical practice, but many others have to do with broader considerations of business conduct. These
include:  Relationships with clients, consultants, competitors, and contractors  Ensuring legal
compliance by clients, client's contractors, and others  Conflict of interest  Bribery and kickbacks,
which might include: o Gifts, meals, services, entertainment and recreation opportunities o Treatment
of confidential or proprietary information o Consideration of the employer’s assets  Outside
employment/activities (moonlighting) “Live a good, honorable life. Then when you get older and think
back, you’ll be able to enjoy it a second time” The Dali Lama 22 1.10. Code of Ethics the norm system
governing and regulating engineering professional behavior is professional ethics. Certain common
principles underlie professional codes and bodies, e.g. Medical and Dental Council, Police Service Code
of Conduct, Estate Agents Code of Conduct. Codes may not be exhaustive and may not include all the
rules and regulations that apply to every situation. The contents therefore have to be viewed within the
framework of company policies, procedures and the requirements of the law. In our society ethical
concerns have escalated in the past few years and have been raised at government level. Organisations
have hot lines for employees to anonymously report unethical behaviour. In our field of engineering
issues of fairness have been legislated and we have a Code of Conduct in place. The question of ethical
practice, however, covers broad ground and encompasses everything we do as professionals and the
way we behave towards each other and our clients. Practicing engineers must become aware of their
ethical responsibility towards the client as well as being on the lookout for possible areas where ethical
concerns could arise. Engineers need to understand what values are and examine their own value
system which determines their interactions. What pitfalls regarding business and professional ethics
face Engineers and what standards of integrity do they need to be aware of and adhere to, i.e. what
ideals should they strive towards? The Boy Scout Law: "A Scout is trustworthy, loyal, helpful, friendly,
courteous, kind, obedient, cheerful, thrifty, brave, clean, and reverent." 23 Most codes have common
fundamental principles which boil down to four universal fundamental principles: 1. Respect for
People’s Dignity and Rights  Respect the client‟s personal integrity (privacy, confidentiality)  Be non-
judgmental of the intrinsic value of the client irrespective of age, behavior, culture, gender, race or
religion  If you are not competent to undertake a project/ task refer to another engineer  Respect the
knowledge skills and experience of your colleagues and other professionals 2. Responsible Practice 

The critical focus of this principle is to limit your practice to your field of expertise and competence 
You must have the appropriate knowledge and skill before undertaking an activity  Undergo relevant
training and adhere to best practice  Keep abreast of new developments in your field  Use a new
technique under supervision of a competent and experienced engineer 3. Integrity in Relationships  The
power relationship is unbalanced between the client and the engineer as most power rests with the
engineer (having the knowledge and skill) which leaves the client vulnerable  Professional codes expect
engineers to act with integrity 

For engineers to be accepted in society and successful in their profession they need to be trusted. There
is a fiduciary relationship whereby one person (the client), in a position of vulnerability, justifiably
reposes confidence, good faith, reliance and trust in another (the engineer) whose aid, advice or
protection is sought in some matter. In such a relationship good conscience requires one to act at all
times for the sole benefit and interests of another, with loyalty to those interests (source Wikipedia)

24 4. Responsibility  Clients are clearly the engineer’s first responsibility but engineers also have a
responsibility to society  Examples of responsible social actions are to: o disperse information that can
advance the profession o protect the public trust in the engineering profession by “blowing the whistle”
on non-professional conduct o assisting in some instances where worthy causes cannot afford
professional services to protect society from dangerous practices 25 GROUP EXERCISE

1 1. What makes an ethical person? Identify persons who have famously held fast to their principles
despite opposition and even when doing so placed them in danger. 2. Can you think of an unethical role
model for the youth of today? 3. Discuss one of the following topics: a. Honesty is the best policy. b. The
truth will set you free. c. Honesty is something so tough and tempting. It demands self-denial and
spiritual purity. Honesty counts even things that we may think simple and immaterial. Who doesn’t
sometimes behave dishonestly?. You are allowed to tell a white lie once in a while to spare someone's
feelings; that’s not wrong! e. Is giving a bribe dishonest if I have to accomplish something? f. To be
honest with yourself, will make your life simple. Honesty is the best policy. Be honest and you are less
likely to face any difficulties. g. What are some advantages of conducting business with integrity? Some
people say they have no responsibility beyond maximizing the value of the firm in financial terms. Can
this position be defended? If so, how? h. I try to be honest and treat others as I would like to be treated.
I hope that others do the same. I believe it is very important to have empathy for one another. i. If I am
hungry and my family is starving, is it acceptable to steal food from the local supermarket? j. Workers
sometimes take sick leave or students miss class and stay off work when they are not sick. Is this
acceptable?

26 4. Discuss one of the following topics: a. is corporal punishment unethical or immoral? b. Is it ethical
to tax the citizens of a country excessively? c. What is the correct thing to do about illegal aliens? d. Is
cloning to produce children ethical? e. “Euthanasia is an acceptable practice in a civilized society with an
ageing population”. GROUP EXERCISE 2 Quick Test Two ethical questions: Question 1: You have been
asked to participate as an “Engineer in Training” in the design and construction of a nuclear power plant.
You will be working in a team of 10 design engineers.

Some of the engineers are experienced and capable nuclear plant designers. a) Is the use and
development of nuclear power plant ethical? b) Can you participate in the design of such a plant without
any previous experience? Question 2: You work for a Government department as a Procurement
Engineer. Your wife works for one of the companies that supplies some of the pump spares that you use.
One day you decide to stop buying spares from this company because they have become too 27
expensive and the company has said they cannot drop their prices.

You inform the supplier of your decision on Wednesday. On Friday your wife comes home with two
tickets to the rugby final on Saturday and you go to the game and thoroughly enjoy it. Two weeks later
your wife comes home and informs you that she has been given a voucher for a weekend away at an
exclusive game lodge. Her boss told her she and her husband deserve a luxurious break. Should you
have gone to the rugby?

28 1.11 SAIMechE’s Code of Conduct

The Code of Conduct provides information about the standards of integrity that the Council expects all
members to follow. These rules of conduct serve as a guideline for practice that must be adhered to at
all times. This is to ensure that engineers conduct themselves in a manner that is professionally and
ethically acceptable, and do not bring the profession into disrepute. Know about applicable regulations
& guidelines and think about them when conducting your work. The limitations of professional codes
are that they have restricted powers as they are voluntary and only apply to members.

The SAIMechE‟s Code of Conduct is not a substitute for the responsibility of each engineer to exercise
sound judgment. It is meant to serve both as a guide to assist each engineer to resolve ethical dilemmas
in an increasingly complex global business environment, and a public statement of the Council’s
commitment to the highest standards of integrity. It provides a universal set of principles to guide
individual engineers on ethical matters. Having a guideline to follow is helpful to assist engineers in
practicing principled business dealings in an increasingly complex global business environment. The
Code of Conduct cannot address or set “rules” and regulations that apply to every possible situation or
ethical dilemma. It should be viewed within the framework of company policies, procedures and
requirements of the law.

29 What you are tomorrow depends on what you do today. Ultimately our conduct is our own
responsibility. None of us should ever commit dishonest, destructive or illegal acts, even if directed to
do so by a supervisor or colleague, nor should we direct others to act improperly.

In addition, don’t deviate from the code even if doing so appears to be in your employers favour. Your
reputation is in your hands – so do the right thing. Code of Conduct for Professional Persons The
purpose of the Code of Conduct is threefold: - to increase professional and ethical consciousness among
engineers and their sense of ethical responsibility; - to guide engineers in making more informed ethical
choices; and - to help the Engineering profession itself function at the fullness of its potential.

As professionals, engineers commit themselves to supporting and acting in accordance with ethical
guidelines covering the following six main areas:  Competency  Integrity  Public Interest 
Environment  Dignity of the Profession  Administrative We will look at these six aspects in greater
depth over the next few pages.

30 COMPETENCY Registered Persons: MUST ...  discharge their duties to their employers, clients,
associates and the public effectively with skill, efficiency, professionalism, knowledge, competence, due
care and diligence MAY NOT … × undertake or offer to undertake work of a nature for which their
education, training and experience have not rendered them competent to perform MUST …  when
carrying out work, engage in and adhere to acceptable practices INTEGRITY Registered Persons: MUST …
 discharge their duties to their employers, clients, associates and the public with integrity, fidelity and
honesty MUST NOT… × undertake work under conditions or terms that would compromise their ability
to carry out their responsibilities in accordance with acceptable professional standards MUST NOT… ×
engage in any act of dishonesty, corruption or bribery MUST …  disclose to their employers and clients,
or prospective employers or clients, in writing:

(i) any interest, whether financial or otherwise, which they may have in any business
undertaking, or with any person, and which is related to the work for which they may be or
have been employed

(ii) particulars of any royalty or other benefit which accrues or may accrue to them as a result of
the work with the client or employer concerned

(iii) (iii) the status pertaining to professional indemnity insurance cover 31 MAY NOT… × either
directly or indirectly, receive any gratuity, or commission or other financial benefit on any
article or process used in or for the purpose of the work in respect of which they are
employed, unless such gratuity, commission or other financial benefit has been authorized in
writing by the employer or client concerned MUST…  avoid any perceived, real or potential
conflict of interest MAY NOT… × knowingly misrepresent, or permit misrepresentation of
their own academic or professional qualifications or competency or those of any other
person involved with work, nor knowingly exaggerate their own degree of responsibility for
any work or that of any person MUST…  give engineering decisions, recommendations or
opinions that are honest, objective and based on facts that are used in reaching
recommendations or opinions given to clients or employers MAY NEITHER… × personally nor
 through any other person, improperly seek to obtain work, or by way of commission or
otherwise, make or offer to make payment to a client or prospective client for obtaining such
work MAY NOT… × unless required by law or by these Rules, divulge any information of a
confidential nature which they obtained in the exercise of their duties MUST …  notify
Council immediately if they become aware of a violation of these Rules by any other
Registered Person MUST …  notify council immediately they become insolvent MUST … 
without delay notify Council if they become aware of any Registered Person who is subject to
one or more of the following:

(i) removal from an office of trust on account of improper conduct

(ii) (ii) being convicted of an offence and sentenced to imprisonment without an option of a fine,
or, in the case of fraud, to a fine or imprisonment or both 32 Act morally and ethically at all
times. ENVIRONMENT Registered Persons: MUST …  at all times have due regard for, and in
their work avoid, adverse impact on the environment MUST …  adhere to generally accepted
principles of sustainable development PUBLIC INTEREST Registered Persons: MUST …  at all
times have due regard and priority to public health, safety and interest MUST …  when
providing professional advice to a client or employer, and if such advice is not accepted, inform
such client or employer of any consequences which may be detrimental to the public health,
safety or interests and at the same time inform the Council of their action MUST …  without
delay notify Council if they become aware of any person who has been declared medically unfit
by a registered medical practitioner to practice as a Registered Person

(iii) 33 DIGNITY OF THE PROFESSION Registered Persons: MUST …  order their conduct so as to
uphold the dignity, standing and reputation of the profession MAY NOT… × whether practising
their profession or otherwise, knowingly injure the professional reputation or business of any
other Registered Person MUST…  provide work or services of quality and scope, and to a level,
which is commensurate with accepted standards and practices in the profession MAY NOT… ×
knowingly attempt to supplant a Registered Person in a particular engagement after the client
has employed such Registered Person MAY NOT… × advertise their professional services in a
self-laudatory manner that is derogatory to the dignity of the profession MAY NOT… × review
for a particular client work of another Registered Person, except (i) with the prior knowledge of
the other Registered Person, who must be afforded a reasonable opportunity to submit
comments to the client on the findings of the review (ii) after receipt of a notification in writing
from the client that the engagement of the other Registered Person has been terminated (iii)
where the review is intended for purposes of a court of law or other legal proceedings,
including proceedings arising from these Rules

(iv) 34 ADMINISTRATIVE Registered Persons: MAY NOT… × without satisfactory reasons destroy or
dispose of, or knowingly allow any other person to destroy or dispose of, any information
within a period of 10 years after completion of the work concerned MAY NOT… × place
contracts or orders, or be the medium of payments, on their employer’s or client‟s behalf
without the written authority of the employers or clients MAY NOT… × issue any information in
respect of work prepared by them or by any other person under their direction or control,
unless (i) such information bears the name of the organisation concerned (ii) information so
 issued is dated and signed by the Registered Person concerned or another appropriately
qualified and authorized person MUST …  order their conduct in connection with work outside
the borders of the Republic of South Africa in accordance with these rules in so far as they are
not inconsistent with the law of the country concerned: provided that where there are
recognised standards of professional conduct in a country outside the Republic, they must
adhere to those standards in as far as they are not inconsistent with these rules MUST … 
always ensure adequate supervision of, and take responsibility for, work carried out by their
subordinates MUST …  ensure that, while engaged as partners, directors, members or
employees of a business undertaking which performs work, the control over the work is
exercised, and the responsibility in respect thereof is carried out by a Registered Person other
than a person registered as a candidate in terms of section 18(1)(b) of the Act MUST … 

(v) when requested by the Council to do so, in writing provide the Council with all the information
available to them which may enable the Council to determine which registered person was
responsible for any act which the Council may consider prima facie to be improper conduct
MUST …  notify Council without delay of any change of his or her physical address MUST … 
within 30 days respond to correspondence received from clients, colleagues and Council in so
far as it relates to work or proceedings in terms of these Rules

(vi) 35 GROUP EXERCISE 3 consider the following and then consult and share your answers.
Consider an unethical practice that you can remember in the work situation. See if you can
identify which category of ethical behaviour in the Code of Conduct the situation belongs to,
e.g. gifts and favours, physical threat. Describe the situation briefly and what the consequences
were for the persons involved and for the organisation. What would be the best way to behave
in a similar situation? SITUATION: