H5

Bernoulli’s Theorem

User Guide

© TecQuipment Ltd 2017

Do not reproduce or transmit this document in any form or by
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without the express permission of TecQuipment Limited.
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manual accurate and up to date. However, if you find any
errors, please let us know so we can rectify the problem.

TecQuipment supplies a Packing Contents List (PCL) with the

equipment. Carefully check the contents of the package(s)
against the list. If any items are missing or damaged, contact
TecQuipment or the local agent.

DB/0217
 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Contents
Introduction and Description ............................................. 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Technical Details ............................................................ 3

Noise Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Installation and Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Unit Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Venturi Effect and Bernoulli’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Finding the Coefficient of Discharge (C). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Typical Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Dimensionless Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Finding the Coefficient of Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Calibrating the Venturi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Maintenance, Spare Parts and Customer Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Spare Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Customer Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

TecQuipment Ltd User Guide

 H5
Bernoulli’s Theorem

User Guide

Introduction and Description

Introduction

Figure 1 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

For many years engineers have used Venturi meters to measure the discharge (volume flow) along a
pipe. Unlike many other fluid flow meters (for example turbine type), they allow flow measurement
without serious interruption of the flow, making them suitable for many applications.

The fluid flowing in the pipe passes through a contraction section to a ‘throat’. The throat has a smaller
cross-sectional area than the pipe, so assuming a constant volume flow, the velocity of the fluid through
the throat is higher than that in the pipe.

As the velocity increases, pressure falls in relation to the rate of flow. So measuring the pressure drop,
allows you to calculate the flow. Beyond the throat the fluid decelerates in a pipe of slowly diverging
section (sometimes referred to as a diffuser), the pressure increasing as the velocity falls.

The Bernoulli’s Theorem (H5) fits to the top of a TecQuipment Hydraulic Bench (supplied separately). It
uses Bernoulli’s equation to help students measure and understand the pressure changes along a Venturi
Meter. It also helps to show how to use the pressure changes and dimensions of the Venturi to find the
constants for the meter, calculate flow and calibrate the meter.

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Description

Manifold

Air valve

Manometer
tubes

Hand Pump

Venturi

From Return to
Hydraulic Hydraulic
Bench Bench
Supply

Figure 2 Main Parts

Figure 2 shows the arrangement of the Venturi Meter. Water enters from a TecQuipment Hydraulic
Bench (supplied separately) and passes through a flexible hose into the meter. A control valve
downstream of the meter controls flow. After the control valve a further flexible hose leads to the central
hole in the Digital Hydraulic Bench (H1F) or the measuring tank of existing Volumetric and Gravimetric
Hydraulic Benches (H1D and H1).

Tubes connect to pressure tappings along the Venturi wall. The tubes connect to vertical manometer
tubes mounted in front of a scale for direct readings of pressure head difference in millimetres of water.
The manometer tubes connect at their top ends to a common manifold that has a small air valve. the
hand pump (supplied) allows the user to adjust the air pressure in the manifold and therefore uniformly
adjust the water levels in the manometers, so they fit in the measuring range of the scale.

A base with adjustable feet holds the whole assembly of Venturi Meter, manometer tubes, scale and
manifold.

Normally, when used for flow measurement, Venturi meters only use two tappings: one at the entrance
and one at the throat. The Venturi Meter (H5) has more tappings to show the distribution of pressure
along the length of the convergent-divergent passage.

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Technical Details

Item Details

Dimensions 720 mm high x 650 mm wide x 300 mm front to

and weight back
(assembled) 15 kg

Nominal Inlet pipe diameter 26 mm

Venturi Throat diameter 16 mm
Dimensions Refer to drawing on apparatus for accurate details.

Water 11 off
manometers 0 to 400 mm water

Noise Levels
The noise levels recorded at this apparatus are lower than 70 dB (A).

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Installation and Assembly

The terms left, right, front and rear of the apparatus refer to the operators’ position, facing the unit.

• A wax coating may have been applied to parts of this apparatus to

prevent corrosion during transport. Remove the wax coating by using
NOTE paraffin or white spirit, applied with either a soft brush or a cloth.
• Follow any regulations that affect the installation, operation and
maintenance of this apparatus in the country where it is to be used.

TecQuipment supply the apparatus already assembled.

1. Put the apparatus on the top of a TecQuipment Hydraulic Bench (supplied separately).

2. Connect the bench supply hose to the upstream (left) side of the Venturi meter.

3. Connect the downstream end of the Venturi Meter to the plastic tube supplied and direct it back to
the large central hole of the Digital Hydraulic Bench (H1F), or the measuring tank of the Volumetric
(H1D) or Gravimetric (H1) Hydraulic Benches for flow measurement.

4. Set both the apparatus flow control and bench supply valve to approximately one third fully open
positions.

5. Check that the air valve on the upper manifold is tightly closed.

6. Switch on the bench supply and allow water to flow. To clear air from the manometer tubes it may
help to slightly tilt the apparatus or lightly tap the tubes with your finger.

7. Shut the apparatus flow control valve. Air will now be trapped in the upper parts of the manometer
tubing and the manifold.

8. Open the air valve just enough to allow water to rise approximately halfway up the manometer
scale.

9. Shut the air valve.

10. Adjust both the bench supply and the apparatus control valves to give full flow.

At this condition the maximum pressure difference between the Venturi inlet and throat should be
about 240 mm. You may need to connect the pump to the air valve, and add some air to see all
levels on the scale.

11. Watch the water levels for a few moments to ensure the air valve is sealing properly.

If the air valve leaks there will be a steady rise in the levels.

If tightening the valve does not stop the leak, replace the seal in the valve.

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Theory

Notation

Symbol Meaning Units

u, u1, u2 and Velocity of flow m.s-1

un

D Diameter of the pipe m

h, h1, h2 and Head m of water

hn

Δh Head Differential (h1-h2) m of water

Q Volume Flow or discharge m3.s-1

a, a1 and a2 Cross-sectional areas m2

C Flow Coefficient -

g Acceleration due to gravity 9.81 m.s-2

Table 1 Notation

Unit Conversions

Volume and Mass flow

Volume Flow: 1 m3.s-1 = 1000 L.s-1 = approximately 1000 kg.s-1 (assuming water density = 1 kg per litre)

Flow Velocity (u)

Q
u = ---- (all units in metres and seconds)
a

Therefore, velocity at the throat (u2) is equal to the volume flow divided by the area at the throat (a2).

Q
u 2 = -----
a2

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The Venturi Effect and Bernoulli’s Theorem

The Venturi Effect is named after an Italian physicist - Giovanni Venturi from the 18th century. He found
that the pressure of a moving fluid drops when it passes through a constriction in a pipe. Around the
same time, a dutch-swiss mathematician - Daniel Bernoulli experimented with fluid dynamics, leading
to Bernoulli’s principle. This principle stated that a change in fluid velocity is directly linked to a change
in its pressure (or potential energy).

Bernoulli’s principle assumes that the fluid flow is inviscid - the fluid has no viscosity. In reality most fluids
have some value of viscosity.

To obey the laws of fluid dynamics for an incompressible fluid, its velocity increases as it passes through
a constriction, thereby conserving mass. If the flow remains constant, its pressure must decrease,
thereby conserving energy.

Figure 3 shows an incompressible fluid flowing along a convergent-divergent pipe with three pressure
tappings. One tapping measures upstream pressure at section 1, the second measures pressure at the
throat (section 2) and the third measures pressure downstream (section 3). The cross-sectional area at
the upstream section 1 is a1 and at throat section 2 is a2. Any other arbitrary section n is an. Piezometer
tubes at these sections register h1, h2 and hn as shown.

u12 un2
2g 2g
Total
head
u22
2g

h1
hn
h2
Direction a1 a2 a3
of flow
2
1 3
Datum

Figure 3 Ideal Conditions in a Venturi Meter

Assuming that there is no loss of energy along the pipe, and that the velocity and piezometric heads are
constant across the cross-sections of each of the sections considered, then Bernoulli’s theorem states
that:

2 2 2
u u u
-----1- + h 1 = -----2- + h 2 = -----n- + h n (1)
2g 2g 2g

where u1, u2 and un are the velocities of flow through sections 1, 2 and n.

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

The equation of continuity assumes constant flow volume (not velocity) along the pipe, so:

u1 a1 = u2 a2 = un an = Q (2)

Substituting in Equation 1 for u1 from Equation 2:

2 2
u a 2 u
-----2-  ----2- + h 1 = -----2- + h 2
2g  a 1 2g

and solving this equation for u2 leads to:

2g ( h 1 – h 2 )
u2 = -----------------------------
-2
1 – ( a2 ⁄ a1 )

so that the discharge rate (volume flow), from Equation (2) becomes:

2g ( h 1 – h 2 )
Q = a 2 × -----------------------------
-2 (3)
1 – ( a2 ⁄ a1 )

The flow actually loses some energy between sections 1 and 2, and the velocity is not absolutely constant
across either of these sections. As a result, the measured value of Q is always slightly less than the value
calculated from theory - Equation (3). To allow for this, the equation becomes:

2g ( h 1 – h 2 )
Q = Ca 2 × -----------------------------
-
2
(4)
1 – ( a2 ⁄ a1 )

where C is an adjustment factor called the coefficient of discharge for the meter, which you can find
by experiment. Its value varies slightly from one meter to another and, even for a given meter it may
vary slightly with the discharge, but is usually between 0.92 to 0.99 for a convergent-divergent (Venturi)
meter.

Finding the Coefficient of Discharge (C)

Equation 4 can be re-arranged to give:

2g
Q = C × a 2 -----------------------------
-2 × ( h 1 – h 2 ) (5)
1 – ( a2 ⁄ a1 )

As the dimensions of the Venturi (a1 and a2) and gravity (g) remain constant, the middle of the equation
can simplify to a constant (k), so that:

2g
k = a 2 -----------------------------
-2
1 – ( a2 ⁄ a1 )

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So:

Q = C × k × h1 – h2 (6)

and therefore:

1 Q
C = --- × -------------------- (7)
k h1 – h2

Showing a linear relationship between flow, flow coefficient and the square root of head difference.

Average Coefficient of Discharge

From Equation 7, assuming C and k remain constant, a chart of h 1 – h 2 against Q (see Figure 4)
should produce linear results. You can then use the inverse gradient of the results to give an average
value that you can substitute for the right hand side in Equation 7.
(h1 - h2)

Gradient

0
0 Q

Figure 4 Using a Chart to Find Average C

Dimensionless Calculations of Pressure

From Bernoulli’s equation the difference in head between any point and the inlet pressure may be found
from:

2 2
u1 – un
h n – h 1 = ---------------
-
2g

To easily compare actual results with theory, you must convert these terms into dimensionless
2
calculations. To do this, dividing through by ( u 2 ⁄ 2g ) gives:

2 2
hn – h1 u1 – un
-------------------
2
- = ---------------
2
-
( u 2 ⁄ 2g ) u2

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Using the equation of continuity (2) to substitute area ratios in place of velocity ratios, this becomes:

hn – h1 2 2
-------------------
- =  a----2- –  a----2- (8)
2
( u 2 ⁄ 2g )  a 1  a n

Therefore, calculating the area ratios gives the theoretical or ‘ideal’ dimensionless pressure difference,
otherwise known as ideal piezometric head coefficient:

2 2
 a----2- –  a-----2 (9)
 a 1  a n

and the actual dimensionless pressure distribution (otherwise known as actual piezometric head
coefficient) is found from:

hn – h1
-------------------
2
- (10)
( u 2 ⁄ 2g )

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Experiments

Procedure
1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 2.

2. Setup the apparatus as shown in Installation and Assembly on page 5, so you can read all the
water levels at full flow.

3. Now slightly reduce the flow rate through the meter, and wait for it to stabilize. Use the hydraulic
bench to measure the flow.

4. Record the pressure tapping readings and the flow. Remember to convert your flow into volume
flow of m3.s-1.

5. Repeat for several more (lower) flow rates down to the minimum flow that gives you a reasonable
set of pressure levels along the meter.

Heads (h) (mm)

Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow Flow
Tapping = = = = = = = = = =

A
(Upstream)
(h1)

D
(Throat)
(h2)

Table 2 Blank Results Table

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Results Analysis

Dimensionless Pressure Distribution

Create a blank results table, similar to Table 3. From the dimensions written on the bottom plate of the
apparatus, complete your table and calculate the theoretical or ‘ideal’ dimensionless pressures along the
Venturi.

Now create at least two blank results table, similar to Table 4. For one table, pick your maximum flow
rate results and calculate the flow velocity at the throat (u2). Complete the other columns of your table
from your results to find the actual dimensionless pressure distribution along the Venturi. For the second
table, repeat but with a lower flow rate. This helps to compare the change in pressure distribution for
different flows.

To compare theoretical and actual pressure distribution, create a chart of dimensionless pressure (vertical
axis) against position along the Venturi (horizontal axis), using tapping A as the zero position. Add your
results to the chart. To help understand the curves in the chart, draw the Venturi under your chart to the
same scale as the horizontal axis.

Throat Area (a2)/ Upstream Area (a1) =

(a2/a1)2 =

Tapping Distance Diameter Area Throat (a2/an)2 Ideal

along (m) (m2) Area/Area Dimensionless
Venturi (a2/an) Pressure
(mm)
2 2
 a----2- –  a----2-
 a 1  a n
A (Upstream)
0 0
(a1)

D (Throat) (a2) 1.0

Table 3 Ideal Pressure Distribution

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Flow Q =
Velocity u =
u22/2g =

Tapping Distance hn hn-h1 Actual Dimensionless

along (m) Pressure
Venturi (m2)
(mm)
hn – h1
-------------------
2
-
( u 2 ⁄ 2g )

A (Upstream) (h1) 0 0.0 0.0

D (Throat) (h2)

Table 4 Actual Pressure Distribution

Finding the Coefficient of Discharge

From your results, create a third table of results, similar to Table 5. Use this to calculate ( h1 – h2 ) .

Use Equation 7 and the given Venturi Dimensions to find the actual value of C for each different flow
rate. Plot a chart of C (vertical axis) against flow (horizontal axis) to show how it changes.

Now plot a chart of ( h 1 – h 2 ) (vertical axis) against flow Q (horizontal axis). Draw a best fit line
through your results and find the gradient. The results should be linear, proving the relationship
between flow and the square root of the pressure difference.

Use the gradient with Equation 7 to find an average value for C.

Calibrating the Venturi

Create a blank results table similar to Table 6. Use your calculated value for k and the average value of
C in Equation 4 or Equation 6 to calculate the theoretical flow for each of your test results. Calculate the
percentage error for each line of results.

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H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

( h1 – h2 )
Flow Q h1-h2
(m3.s-1) h1 h2 (m) (m1/2) C

Table 5 Relationship Between Flow and Square of Head Difference

Calculated k =
Average value for C =

( h1 – h2 )
Actual Flow Calculated Flow
(m3.s-1) (m1/2) (m3.s-1) Error (%)

Table 6 Calibrating the Venturi

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Typical Results

All results are for reference only. Actual results may differ slightly.

Dimensionless Pressure Distribution

Distance along venturi (mm)

0 20 40 120 160
60 80 100 140
0

-0.1

-0.2

-0.3
Dimensionless Pressure

-0.4

-0.5 Flow Q
-1
4.46 x 104 m3.s
-1
-0.6 2.96 x 104 m3.s
Ideal

-0.7

-0.8

-0.9

-1.0

Flow

A B C D E F G H J K L

Figure 5 Typical Pressure Distribution Results

The result show that the theoretical and actual curves agree until the flow reaches the throat. At the
throat and further downstream, actual results give lower dimensionless pressure results than theory. It
also shows that this gets worse with lower flow. This suggests that in the actual Venturi, there is head
loss (and therefore energy loss) in the throat and the diffuser. This shows the need to find and allow for
the losses using the coefficient of discharge for the Venturi.

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Finding the Coefficient of Discharge

1.00
C
0.98

0.96

0.94

0.92

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Q x 10 (m /s)
4 3

Figure 6 Typical Variation of C with Flow

The results should show that C varies slightly with flow, but generally stays within the limits stated in the
theory section. The value for this meter shows a trend of increasing slightly with flow, up to the
maximum available flow.

0.5

0.4
(h1 - h2) (m1/2)

0.3

Gradient ~ 1100

0.2

0.1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
Q x 104 (m3.s )

Figure 7 Typical Square Root of Head Change Over Flow Results

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

With nominal values of:

Inlet area (a1) = 0.00053 m2

Throat area (a2) = 0.000201 m2

The value of k gives:

 19.62 
0.000201  --------------------------------- = 0.000201 ( 22.91 ) = 0.000962
 1 – ( 0.379 ) 2

So, 1/k = 1039.5

and the inverse of the chart’s gradient gives 1/1100 = 0.000909

Therefore average C = 1039.5 x 0.000909 = 0.945

Calibrating the Venturi

Using Equation 6 with the average value of C, the calculated value of k and the actual head differences
gave typical errors of less than 3% through the flow range. This shows that using the average value for
C gives reasonably accurate predictions of flow for the Venturi meter over the given range of flow.

Remember that the accuracy measurements can be slightly subjective, determined by the accuracy of
your flow measurement technique using the Hydraulic Bench.

Also remember that the theory is based on fluid that has no viscosity, but water does have viscosity (but
low), and its value changes slightly with temperature.

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 H5 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Maintenance, Spare Parts and Customer Care

Maintenance
After use, drain the water from the apparatus and use a dry cloth to dry its surfaces.

Regularly check all parts of the apparatus for damage, renew if necessary.

When not in use, store the apparatus in a dry, dust-free area, covered with a plastic sheet. If the
apparatus becomes dirty, wipe the surfaces with a damp, clean cloth. Do not use abrasive cleaners.

Regularly check all fixings and fastenings for tightness, adjust where necessary.

Renew faulty or damaged parts with an equivalent item of the same type or
NOTE rating.

Spare Parts
Check the Packing Contents List to see what spare parts we send with the apparatus.

If you need technical help or spares, please contact your local TecQuipment agent, or contact
TecQuipment direct.

When you ask for spares, please tell us:

• Your name
• The full name and address of your college, company or institution
• Your email address
• The TecQuipment product name and product reference
• The TecQuipment part number (if you know it)
• The serial number
• The year it was bought (if you know it)

Please give us as much detail as possible about the parts you need and check the details carefully before
you contact us.

If the product is out of warranty, TecQuipment will let you know the price of the spare parts.

Customer Care
We hope you like our products and manuals. If you have any questions, please contact our Customer
Care department:

Telephone: +44 115 954 0155

Fax: +44 115 973 1520

Email: customercare@tecquipment.com

For information about all TecQuipment products visit: www.tecquipment.com

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User Guide 22 TecQuipment Ltd

 Air Valves
TecQuipment’s
Fluid Mechanics Products

Instruction Sheets

Figure 1 Typical Air Valves on Some of TecQuipment’s Products

Many of the products in TecQuipment’s Fluid Mechanics range use air valves at the tops of manometers
or piezometers. The valves keep the air in the manometer tubes to allow you to offset the pressure range
of the manometer or piezometer.

The valves are similar to valves used in vehicle tyres and include a special cap. The hand pump supplied
with the equipment is similar to those used for bicycle tyres, except that TecQuipment remove the cross-
shape part of the flexible pipe.

 
TecQuipment
take this part out

Figure 2 TecQuipment Remove the Cross-shape Part of the Flexible Pipe

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Air Valves on TecQuipments Fluid Mechanics Products

Normally, when you connect the flexible pipe to an air valve, the cross-shape piece in the flexible pipe
pushes open the valve as you pump air with the hand pump. With TecQuipment fluid mechanics
products, this could allow water back out through the valve. For this reason TecQuipment remove the
cross-shape piece. Without the cross-shape piece, only pressurised air can go through the valve in one
direction, and no water can come back out.

Figure 3 The Hand Pump and Flexible Pipe

When you first use the hand pump with the air valve, you may find it hard to push air through the valve.
This is because the valve is new and you do not have the cross-shape piece to help push it open. The
valve will open more easily after you have pumped air through it a few times.

You may need some practice to use the air valve. To do it correctly:

1. Unscrew the cap from the valve.

Figure 4 Unscrew the Cap and Fit the Pipe

2. Connect the flexible pipe to the valve.

3. Connect the hand pump to the flexible pipe.

4. Using complete strokes, slowly and firmly pump the hand pump to force air into the manometer
or piezometer.

5. Unscrew the hand pump and flexible pipe and refit the valve cover.

6. To let air back out through the air valve, use the end of the special cap to press on the inner part of
the valve (see Figure 5).

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 Air Valves on TecQuipments Fluid Mechanics Products

Figure 5 To Let Air Out - Use the End of the Special Cap to Press the Inner Part of the Valve

Take care when you let air back out from the air valve. Water may come
WARNING out!
Clean up any water spills immediately.

If using the hand pump is too difficult, the valve may be stuck. If you need to check the valve is working,
use the special cap to unscrew the valve, then gently press the end of the valve. It should move easily
and return back to its original position (see Figure 6).

Figure 6 Unscrew the Valve and Check it

If the valve does not move easily, then contact TecQuipment Customer Services for help.

Telephone: +44 115 9722611

Fax: +44 115 973 1520

Email: customer.care@tecquipment.com

TecQuipment 0809 DB

TecQuipment Ltd 3 Instruction Sheets