Chapter 15: Oscillations

Section 15-1: Simple Harmonic Motion

Learning Objectives
• 15.01 Distinguish simple harmonic motion from other types of periodic motion.
• 15.02 For a simple harmonic oscillator, apply the relationship between position x and time t to
calculate either if given a value for the other.

• 15.03 Relate period T , frequency f , and angular frequency ω.

• 15.04 Identify (displacement) amplitude xm , phase constant (or phase angle) ϕ, and phase ωt + ϕ.
• 15.05 Sketch a graph of the oscillator’s position x versus time t, identifying amplitude xm and
period T .

Key Ideas Explained

1. Definition of Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is the periodic motion of a particle about an equilibrium
position, where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement but acts in
the opposite direction. This motion is described mathematically by the equation:

x(t) = xm cos(ωt + ϕ)

where xm is the maximum displacement (amplitude), ω is the angular frequency, and ϕ is

the phase constant.

2. Relationship between Period and Frequency

The period T of simple harmonic motion is the time taken for one complete cycle of motion.
It is inversely related to the frequency f by:
1
T =
f
The angular frequency ω is related to the period and frequency by:
2π
ω = 2πf =
T

3. Velocity and Acceleration in SHM

The velocity v(t) and acceleration a(t) of a particle undergoing simple harmonic motion are
given by:
v(t) = −ωxm sin(ωt + ϕ)
a(t) = −ω 2 xm cos(ωt + ϕ)
where v(t) and a(t) are the time-dependent velocity and acceleration of the particle.

1
4. Energy in SHM
In simple harmonic motion, the total mechanical energy is conserved and is given by the sum
of the potential energy U (t) and kinetic energy K(t):
1 2 1
E= kx = mω 2 x2m
2 m 2
where k is the spring constant and m is the mass of the oscillator.

Detailed Breakdown
• Displacement Equation: Described by the equation x(t) = xm cos(ωt + ϕ).
• Period and Frequency Relationship: The period is the inverse of frequency, and the angular
frequency relates both.
• Velocity and Acceleration: Given by the first and second derivatives of the displacement equa-
tion.
• Energy Conservation: The total energy in SHM is constant and depends on the amplitude and
spring constant.

2
Section 15-2: Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
Learning Objectives
• 15.19 For a spring–block oscillator, calculate the kinetic energy and elastic potential energy at any
given time.
• 15.20 Apply the conservation of energy to relate the total energy of a spring–block oscillator at
one instant to the total energy at another instant.

• 15.21 Sketch a graph of the kinetic energy, potential energy, and total energy of a spring–block
oscillator, first as a function of time and then as a function of the oscillator’s position.
• 15.22 For a spring–block oscillator, determine the block’s position when the total energy is entirely
kinetic energy and when it is entirely potential energy.

Key Ideas Explained

1. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
A particle in simple harmonic motion has, at any time, kinetic energy K = 12 mv 2 and
potential energy U = 21 kx2 . If no friction is present, the mechanical energy E = K + U
remains constant even though K and U change.

2. Potential and Kinetic Energy as Functions of Time

For a spring–block oscillator, the potential energy U (t) and kinetic energy K(t) vary sinu-
soidally with time t. The mechanical energy E remains constant, while K and U oscillate
between zero and their maximum values.

3. Graphical Representation of Energy in SHM

The energy variations can be represented by plotting K(t), U (t), and E against time t or
against the position x of the oscillator. The total energy E remains constant in all such
representations.

4. Relationship Between Position and Energy

When the oscillator is at its maximum displacement x = ±xm , the potential energy is max-
imum, and the kinetic energy is zero. Conversely, when the oscillator passes through the
equilibrium position x = 0, the potential energy is zero, and the kinetic energy is maximum.

Detailed Breakdown
• Kinetic Energy: Given by K = 12 mv 2 , which oscillates with time as the particle moves.
• Potential Energy: Given by U = 21 kx2 , which is at a maximum when the displacement x is at
its maximum.

• Mechanical Energy: The sum of K and U , remaining constant throughout the motion of the
oscillator.
• Graphical Interpretation: Shows the variation of K, U , and E with time and position.

3
Section 15-3: An Angular Simple Harmonic Oscillator
Learning Objectives
• 15.23 Describe the motion of an angular simple harmonic oscillator.
• 15.24 For an angular simple harmonic oscillator, apply the relationship between the torque τ and
the angular displacement θ from equilibrium.
• 15.25 For an angular simple harmonic oscillator, apply the relationship between the period T (or
frequency f ), the rotational inertia I, and the torsion constant k.
• 15.26 For an angular simple harmonic oscillator at any instant, apply the relationship between the
angular acceleration α, the angular frequency ω, and the angular displacement θ.

Key Ideas Explained

1. Definition of Angular Simple Harmonic Motion
An angular simple harmonic oscillator, such as a torsion pendulum, involves oscillation due
to a restoring torque proportional to the angular displacement. When a disk is rotated from
its rest position by an angular displacement θ, the restoring torque τ is given by:

τ = −kθ

Here, k is a torsion constant that depends on the wire’s characteristics.

2. Period of Angular SHM

The period T of an angular simple harmonic oscillator is analogous to the period of a linear
SHM system. It can be derived by substituting the torsion constant in place of the spring
constant in the equation for linear SHM:
r
I
T = 2π
k
where I is the rotational inertia of the object about the axis of rotation.

3. Energy in Angular SHM

Similar to linear oscillators, an angular simple harmonic oscillator stores energy in the form
of potential energy in the twisted wire and kinetic energy in the rotational motion. The
restoring torque acts to reduce the angular displacement, similar to how a spring force acts
in linear SHM.

4. Application of Angular SHM

Angular SHM concepts are applied in devices like torsion pendulums, which are used in
various precision instruments. Understanding the relationships between torque, angular dis-
placement, and period is essential for designing such devices.

Detailed Breakdown
• Restoring Torque: Described as proportional to the angular displacement with a torsion constant
k.
q
• Period Formula: Derived as T = 2π kI for a torsion pendulum.

• Energy Distribution: Stores potential energy in the wire and kinetic energy in the rotating
object.
• Applications: Relevant in precision instruments like torsion pendulums.

4
Section 15-4: Pendulums, Circular Motion
Learning Objectives
• 15.27 Describe the motion of an oscillating simple pendulum.
• 15.28 Draw a free-body diagram of a pendulum bob with the pendulum at angle θ to the vertical.
• 15.29 For small-angle oscillations of a simple pendulum, relate the period T (or frequency f ) to
the pendulum’s length L.

• 15.30 Distinguish between a simple pendulum and a physical pendulum.

• 15.31 For small-angle oscillations of a physical pendulum, relate the period T (or frequency f ) to
the distance h between the pivot and the center of mass.
• 15.32 For an angular oscillating system, determine the angular frequency ω from either an equation
relating torque τ and angular displacement θ or an equation relating angular acceleration α and
angular displacement θ.
• 15.33 Distinguish between a pendulum’s angular frequency ω (having to do with the rate at which
cycles are completed) and its dθ/dt (the rate at which its angle with the vertical changes).

• 15.34 Given data about the angular position θ and rate of change dθ/dt at one instant, determine
the phase constant ϕ and amplitude θm .
• 15.35 Describe how the free-fall acceleration can be measured with a simple pendulum.
• 15.36 For a given physical pendulum, determine the location of the center of oscillation and identify
the meaning of that phrase in terms of a simple pendulum.

• 15.37 Describe how simple harmonic motion is related to uniform circular motion.

Key Ideas Explained

1. Simple Pendulum Motion

A simple pendulum consists of a particle-like bob of mass m suspended from a fixed point
by a massless, unstretchable string of length L. For small-angle oscillations, the motion is
approximately simple harmonic motion (SHM), with a restoring force proportional to the
displacement from equilibrium.

2. Period of Simple Pendulum

The period T of a simple pendulum undergoing small-angle oscillations is given by:
s
L
T = 2π
g

where g is the acceleration due to gravity. This relationship holds for small angular ampli-
tudes.

3. Physical Pendulum
A physical pendulum is any rigid body that oscillates about a pivot point that does not pass
through its center of mass. The period of a physical pendulum with rotational inertia I about
the pivot point and distance h from the pivot to its center of mass is given by:
s
I
T = 2π
mgh

where m is the mass of the pendulum.

5
4. Relationship to Circular Motion
Simple harmonic motion can be understood as the projection of uniform circular motion onto
a diameter of the circle. The displacement, velocity, and acceleration in simple harmonic
motion correspond to the projection of the position, velocity, and radial acceleration of a
particle moving in uniform circular motion.

Detailed Breakdown
• Simple Pendulum Motion: Described as a mass suspended on a string that swings back and
forth in SHM for small angles.
• Period of Simple Pendulum: Determined by the length of the string and the acceleration due
to gravity.
• Physical Pendulum: A rigid body with a distributed mass oscillating about a pivot.

• Relationship to Circular Motion: Understanding SHM as the projection of circular motion.

6
Section 15-5: Damped Simple Harmonic Motion
Learning Objectives
• 15.38 Describe the motion of a damped simple harmonic oscillator and sketch a graph of the
oscillator’s position as a function of time.
• 15.39 For any particular time, calculate the position of a damped simple harmonic oscillator.
• 15.40 Determine the amplitude of a damped simple harmonic oscillator at any given time.
• 15.41 Calculate the angular frequency of a damped simple harmonic oscillator in terms of the
spring constant, the damping constant, and the mass, and approximate the angular frequency
when the damping constant is small.
• 15.42 Apply the equation giving the (approximate) total energy of a damped simple harmonic
oscillator as a function of time.

Key Ideas Explained

1. Definition of Damping and Motion
The mechanical energy in a real oscillating system decreases during the oscillations because
external forces, such as a drag force, inhibit the oscillations and transfer mechanical energy
to thermal energy. The real oscillator and its motion are then said to be damped.

2. Damping Force and Displacement

If the damping force is proportional to the velocity of the oscillator, then the displacement
of the oscillator is given by:
b
x(t) = xm e− 2m t cos(ωt − ϕ)

where xm is the amplitude, b is the damping constant, and m is the mass of the system. The
angular frequency of the damped oscillator is:
r
k b2
ω= −
m 4m2
where k is the spring constant.

3. Mechanical Energy of a Damped Oscillator

For small values of the damping constant b, the mechanical energy E of the oscillator decreases
exponentially with time and is given by:
1 2 −bt
E(t) = kx e m
2 m
where xm is the initial amplitude.

Detailed Breakdown
• Damped Motion: The motion of a damped harmonic oscillator is described by an exponential
decay in the amplitude over time.
• Angular Frequency: For small damping constants, the angular frequency approximates the
undamped case with a slight reduction due to damping.
• Energy Loss: The mechanical energy of the oscillator decreases exponentially, indicating energy
dissipation through external forces such as drag.
• Graphical Representation: The motion can be visualized as a decaying cosine wave with expo-
nentially decreasing amplitude over time.

7
Section 15-6: Forced Oscillations and Resonance
Learning Objectives
• 15.43 Distinguish between natural angular frequency ω and driving angular frequency ωd .
• 15.44 For a forced oscillator, sketch a graph of the oscillation amplitude versus the ratio ωd /ω
of driving angular frequency to natural angular frequency, identify the approximate location of
resonance, and indicate the effect of increasing the damping constant.
• 15.45 For a given natural angular frequency ω, identify the approximate driving angular frequency
ωd that gives resonance.

Key Ideas Explained

1. Definition of Forced Oscillations
A person swinging on a swing without being pushed exhibits free oscillation. When someone
pushes the swing periodically, it experiences forced oscillations. Two important angular
frequencies characterize this system: (1) the natural angular frequency ω at which the system
would oscillate freely if undisturbed, and (2) the angular frequency ωd of the external driving
force that causes the driven oscillations.

2. Displacement in Forced Oscillations

For an idealized forced simple harmonic oscillator, the displacement x(t) is given by:

x(t) = xm cos(ωd t + ϕ),

where xm is the amplitude of the oscillation. The value of xm depends on a complex function
involving both ωd and ω. The condition for resonance is when the driving frequency matches
the natural frequency, i.e., ωd = ω.

3. Resonance
Resonance occurs when the driving frequency matches the natural frequency, leading to a
maximum velocity amplitude:
ωd = ω.
The resonance condition also results in the maximum displacement amplitude xm , though
this depends on the amount of damping present.

4. Real-World Examples of Resonance

All mechanical structures have one or more natural frequencies. If a structure is exposed to
an external driving force with a matching frequency, it may undergo significant oscillations.
This phenomenon can cause catastrophic failures in buildings, bridges, and other structures
if not carefully designed to avoid resonant frequencies.

Detailed Breakdown
• Forced Oscillations: A system is driven by an external force with a specific angular frequency
ωd .
• Resonance: Maximum response occurs when the driving frequency equals the natural frequency
ωd = ω.
• Damping and Amplitude: Damping affects the sharpness and height of the resonance peak,
with less damping leading to a narrower and taller peak.
• Practical Considerations: Engineers must account for resonance to avoid structural failures in
mechanical systems subjected to periodic forces.