TYPES OF FLOW

METERS
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 3
Volumetric Flowmeters............................................................................................................. 4
1-Differential Pressure ............................................................................................................ 4
1.1-Orifice Meter................................................................................................................ 5
1.2-Venturi Meter .............................................................................................................. 8
1.3-Annubar Flow meter.................................................................................................. 10
2-Flow Nozzle ................................................................................................................... 12
3-Pitot Tubes .................................................................................................................... 14
DIRECT FORCE .......................................................................................................................... 15
1-Rotameter ......................................................................................................................... 16
2-Turbine Meter ................................................................................................................... 16
3-Propeller Flow Meter ........................................................................................................ 18
4-Paddle Wheel Sensors ....................................................................................................... 19
FREQUENCY ............................................................................................................................. 19
1-Vortex Shedding Flow Meter ............................................................................................. 20
2-Ultrasonic Flow Meters ..................................................................................................... 21
2.1-Transit Time/Time of Flight Flow Meters ................................................................. 21
2.2-Doppler Meters.......................................................................................................... 22
Mass Flowmeters .................................................................................................................... 24
1-Coriolis Mass Flow Meter .................................................................................................. 24
2-Thermal Flow meters......................................................................................................... 25
Other Types ............................................................................................................................. 27
Magnetic Flow Meter ........................................................................................................... 27
Calorimetric Flow Meter ....................................................................................................... 28
Positive displacement flow meter ........................................................................................ 29
Gear Flow Meter ................................................................................................................... 30
Selection Criteria ..................................................................................................................... 31
Selection of Flowmeters ................................................................................................. 33
Parameters affecting Flow Meter Selection ............................................................... 34
Common Flow Applications .................................................................................................... 34
References ............................................................................................................................... 35

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Table of Figures
Figure 1 (Working of Orifice meter)........................................................................................... 6
Figure 2 (Working of Venturi meter) ......................................................................................... 9
Figure 3.1 (Working of Annubar flow meter) .......................................................................... 10
Figure 4 (Working of Flow nozzle) ........................................................................................... 13
Figure 5 (Working of Choked Flow nozzle) .............................................................................. 13
Figure 6 (Working of Pitot Tube) ............................................................................................. 14
Figure 7 (Working of Rotameter) ............................................................................................. 16
Figure 8 (Working of Turbine Meter)....................................................................................... 17
Figure 9 (Working of Propeller Flow nozzle) ........................................................................... 18
Figure 10 (Working of Paddle Wheel Flow Meter) .................................................................. 19
Figure 11 (Working of Vortex Flow Meter) .............................................................................. 20
Figure 12 (Working of Transit Time Flow Meter) .................................................................... 21
Figure 13 (Operation of Transit Time Flow Meter) .................................................................. 22
Figure 14 (Working of Doppler Meter) .................................................................................... 23
Figure 15 (Working of Coriolis mass flow meter) .................................................................... 25
Figure 16 (Working of Thermal mass flow meter) ................................................................... 26
Figure 17 (Working of Magnetic meter) ................................................................................ 28
Figure 18 (Working of Calorimeter flow meter) ..................................................................... 29
Figure 19 (Working of Gear meter)......................................................................................... 30

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Introduction
Flow is defined as the rate (volume or area per unit time) at which a substance travels through
a given cross section and is characterized at specific temperatures and pressures. The
instruments used to measure flow are termed flow meters. The main components of a flow
meter include the sensor, signal processor and transmitter. Flow sensors use acoustic waves
and electromagnetic fields to measure the flow through a given area via physical quantities,
such as acceleration, frequency, pressure and volume. As a result, many flow meters are
named with respect to the physical property that helps to measure the flow. A flow meter (or
flow sensor) is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or volumetric flow rate
of a liquid or a gas.
Flow measurement proves crucial in various industries including petroleum and chemical
industries. Consequently, flow measurement becomes a major component in the overall
economic success or failure of any given process. Most importantly, accurate flow
measurements ensure the safety of the process and for those involved in its success.

Common Types of Flow Meters

The flow rate as determined by the flow sensor is derived from other physical properties.
The relationship between the physical properties and the flow rate is derived from
fundamental fluid flow principles, such as Bernoulli’s equation.

Volumetric Flowmeters

1-Differential Pressure
These sensors work according to Bernoulli’s principle which states that the pressure drop
across the meter is proportional to the square of the flow rate.

Using the pressure drop across a pipe’s cross section is one of the most common manners to
determine a flow measurement. As a result, this property has heavy implications for industrial
applications. Flow meters characterized by differential pressure come in several different
varieties and can be divided into two categories, laminar and turbulent.
Differential pressure sensors operate with respect to Bernoulli’s principle. Bernoulli’s
principle states that the pressure drop across the meter is proportional to the square of the
flow rate.

Applications
The differential pressure flow meter measures the volume flow in gases, liquids and steam.
They are particularly used in situations where high pressure, high temperature or a large
diameter play a role. They are mainly found in the chemical, oil, gas and power industries.
Measure flow in a closed pipe.

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1.1-Orifice Meter
Orifice plates are installed in flow meters in order to calculate the material balances that will
ultimately result in a fluid flow measurement on the sensor. An orifice plate is placed in a pipe
containing a fluid flow, which constricts the smooth flow of the fluid inside the pipe. By
restricting the flow, the orifice meter causes a pressure drop across the plate. By measuring
the difference between the two pressures across the plate, the orifice meter determines the
flow rate through the pipe. The larger the pressure drop, the faster the flow rate would be.
There are two types of orifice meters that are usually used in industry, they are the orifice-
square edge and the orifice-conic edge. The orifice-square edge has insignificant friction at
the interface between the fluid and the orifice plate. These types of orifice plates are
recommended for smooth fluid flows, particularly clean liquids and gases such as steam.
Generally, drain holes are incorporated in the design so that liquids and gases do not
accumulate inside the pipes. Multi-phase fluids are not recommended for the orifice-squared
edge because clogging becomes a significant problem as time progresses. The orifice-conic
edge is similar to the orifice-square edge, the primary difference being that the orifice-conic
edge has a gradually expanding cross-sectional area, and this cross-sectional area is circular
in shape. A conic-edge design is often a better choice for low velocity, high viscosity flows.
Both types operate best under comparable temperature and pressure conditions, pipe sizes
and provide similar accuracies.
Orifice meters used in conjunction with DP (Differential Pressure) cells are one of the most
common forms of flow measurement. In addition, an orifice meter can be used to measure
flows when there is a significant difference in pressure in the pipe, like between the upstream
and downstream sides of a partially obstructed pipe, which is exactly what the orifice meter
does on its own.
The plate offers a precisely measured obstruction that essentially shrinks the pipe and forces
the flowing substance to constrict. A DP cell allows the comparison of pressure on the
upstream (unobstructed) side and the downstream (constricted) side. A greater rate of fluid
flow would usually result in a larger pressure drop, since the size of the orifice remains
constant and the fluid is held longer building potential energy on the upstream side of the
orifice. Some of the other types of orifice plates include concentric, eccentric and segmental
plates, each having different shapes and placements for measuring different processes. These
plates are available in varied shapes so that the meter has the optimum structure for different
applications. Moreover, the density and viscosity of the fluid, and the the shape and width of
the pipe also influences the choice of plate shape to be used.

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 Figure 1 (Working of Orifice meter)

Such a pressure drop across the plate is then related to the flow rate using basic fluid
mechanics principles that incorporate parameters such as density of the fluid and size of the
pipe. The flow rate Q, given by the orifice meter, is usually modeled with the following
equation:
Where p1 − p2 is the pressure drop across the plate, ρ is the fluid density, A1 is the pipe cross-
sectional area, A2 is the orifice cross-sectional area, and Cd is the discharge coefficient
(usually about 0.6). Cd is used to account for energy losses within the system.
The orifice meter is one of the most commonly used flow meters, since it is inexpensive to
install and operate, it is uncomplicated and easy to construct, and it is highly robust and long
lasting. Orifice meters are not only simple and cheap, they can also be delivered for almost
any application and be made of any material. This simplicity of its design and function is one
of its paramount advantages, with the meter essentially consisting of just a modified plate.
This not only reduces its initial price but also shrinks its operating costs, maintenance
expenses, and spare parts expenditure and availability.
Lower flow rates reduce their accuracy, whereas higher flow rates combined with high
quality, unworn orifice plates increase it. The orifice plate is best when a sharp edge is present
towards the upstream side of the meter. Wear reduces the accuracy of orifice plates.
The turndown rate of orifice plates is generally less than 5:1. More information about
turndown rates is mentioned in a later section.

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We will have following equation after applying Bernoulli’s equation at section 1 and section
2.

Let A0 is the area of the orifice

Co-efficient of contraction, CC = A2/A0
Let us recall the continuity equation and we will have following equation

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Thus we will use the value of CC in above equation of discharge Q and we will have following
result for rate of flow or discharge through orifice meter.

Co-efficient of discharge of the orifice meter will be quite small as compared to the co-
efficient of discharge of the venturimeter.

Applications
1. It is used to measure the flow rate of fluids in their single state (i.e. gaseous state or
liquid state).
2. It can also be used to measure the flow rate of fluids in a mixed state (both gaseous
and liquid states) such as, wet steam, or natural gas with water.
It is utilized in the following industries:

 Water treatment plants

 Natural gas industries
 Refineries
 Petrochemical plants

1.2-Venturi Meter
Venturi meters can pass 25 – 50% more flow than an orifice meter. In a Venturi meter setup,
a short, smaller diameter pipe is substituted into an existing flow line. Because the Venturi
meter is insensitive to changes in the velocity profile of the fluid flow, the pipe design does
not need to be straight like the orifice meter. Though initially expensive, the Venturi meter
has relatively low maintenance and operation costs.
In the Venturi Tube the fluid flowrate is measured by reducing the cross sectional flow area
in the flow path, generating a pressure difference. After the constricted area, the fluid is
passes through a pressure recovery exit section, where up to 80% of the differential pressure
generated at the constricted area, is recovered.
There are two main types of Venturi meters. The first one, known as the classical Herschel
Venturi meter, is a very long meter characterized below. Pressure readings at different points
in the meter are combined to provide an average pressure reading. Cleaning the classical
Venturi meter is limited. The second type of Venturi meter is known as the short form Venturi
meter. This differs from its longer counterpart by reduced size and weight.
By Bernoulli’s principle the smaller cross-sectional area results in faster flow and therefore
lower pressure. The Venturi meter measures the pressure drop between this constricted
section of pipe and the non-constricted section.

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 Figure 2 (Working of Venturi meter)

The discharge coefficient for the Venturi meter is generally higher than that used for the
orifice, usually ranging from .94 to .99.
Applying Bernoulli’s equations at sections 1 and 2, we get:

As pipe is horizontal Z1= Z2,

Where [h= (p1-p2)/ρg], difference of pressure heads at sections 1 and 2. From the continuity
equation at sections 1 and 2, we get,

This expression is the Theoretical Discharge of Venturi Meter. In general, actual discharge is
always less than Theoretical Discharge. So if we multiple Cd (Coefficient of discharge to the
above equation, then we get an actual discharge, and here is the expression of actual
discharge,

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The Venturi meter is most commonly used for measuring very large flow rates where power
losses could become significant. The Venturi flow meter has a higher start-up cost than an
orifice, but is balanced by the reduced operating costs.
Due to simplicity and dependability, the Venturi tube flowmeter is often used in applications
where higher turndown ratios or lower pressure drops than orifice plates can provide are
necessary. With proper instrumentation and flow calibrating the venturi meter flowrate can
be reduced to about 10% of its full scale range with proper accuracy. This provides a turndown
ratio of around 10:1.

Applications
The major application of venturi meters include

 Used in Engine Carburettors (Automobile Sector) to measure airflow

 Used in process industries (Process and Power Piping Industries) to measure and
control process flow.
 In the medical industry, blood flow in the arteries is measured by venturi meters.
 Measures the fluid flow inside pipelines (Oil & Gas Industries)

1.3-Annubar Flow meter

Annubar flow meter are sometimes referred to as Averaging pitots and contain multiple
pressure tapings to ‘average’ the flow; this is to try to compensate for a non-ideal flow profile.
The averaging pitot tube is inserted across the pipe as shown below. One side of the bar has
pressure taps facing the flowing fluid that are coupled into an “averaging” chamber that
measures the total (i.e. static + dynamic) pressure of the fluid.

Figure 3.1 (Working of Annubar flow meter)

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There may be a single port or multiple tapping ports on the opposite side of the bar to
measure the low static pressure in the downstream region.
The difference between the total and static pressures is effectively a measure of the fluid
velocity head, which together with the pipe area enables the volumetric flowrate to be
determined.

Principle of Operation
The Annubar primary flow element is a device used to measure the flow of a liquid, gas or
steam fluid that flows through a pipe. It enables flow measurement by creating a differential
pressure (DP) that is proportional to the square of the velocity of the fluid in the pipe, in
accordance with Bernoulli’s theorem.
This DP is measured and converted into a flow rate using a secondary device, such as a DP
pressure transmitter.
The flow is related to DP through the following relationship.

where:
Q = Flow Rate
K = Annubar Flow Coefficient
DP = Differential Pressure
The Annubar generates a DP by creating blockage in the pipe and acting as an obstruction to
the fluid. The velocity of the fluid is decreased and stalled as it reaches the front surface the
Annubar sensor, creating the impact/high pressure.
The Annubar senses the impact pressure by utilizing a DP transmitter.

Figure 3.2 (Working of Annubar flow meter)

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As the fluid continues around the Annubar sensor, it creates a lower velocity profile on the
backside of the sensor, creating the low/suction pressure downstream of the Annubar.
Individual ports, located on the backside of the Annubar sensor measure this low pressure.
Working on the same principle as the high pressure, an average low pressure is maintained in
the low pressure chamber that connects directly into the transmitter for measurement.
The resultant differential pressure is the difference between the impact (high) pressure
reading and the suction (low) pressure reading as seen below.
DP = PH – PL
where:
PH = High Pressure
PL = Low Pressure
The measured DP is used to calculate the flow rate.

Applications
It can be used with instruments that measure differential pressure to accurately measure a
variety of liquids, gases and vapours (superheated steam and saturated steam) in the He-
shaped pipe and rectangular pipe.

2-Flow Nozzle
Another type of differential pressure flowmeter is the flow nozzle. Flow nozzles are often used
as measuring elements for air and gas flow in industrial applications. At high velocities, Flow
Nozzles can handle approximately 60 percent greater liquid flow than orifice plates having
the same pressure drop. For measurements where high temperatures and velocities are
present, the flow nozzle may provide a better solution than an orifice plate.
Its construction makes it substantially more rigid in adverse conditions and the flow
coefficient data at high Reynolds numbers is better documented than for orifice plates.
Liquids with suspended solids can also be metered with flow nozzles. However, the use of the
flow nozzles is not recommended for highly viscous liquids or those containing large amounts
of sticky solids. The turndown rate of flow nozzles is similar to that of the orifice plate. The
flow nozzle is relatively simple and cheap, and available for many applications in many
materials.

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 Figure 4 (Working of Flow nozzle)

2.1-The Sonic Nozzle- Critical(Choked) Flow Nozzle

One type of flow nozzle is the sonic nozzle. The Sonic Nozzle is a converging-diverging
flowmeter. It consists of a smooth rounded inlet section converging to a minimum throat area
and diverging along a pressure recovery section or exit cone.

Figure 5 (Working of Choked Flow nozzle)

The Sonic Nozzle is operated by either pressurizing the inlet (P1) or evacuating the exit (P3), to
achieve a pressure ratio of 1.2 to 1 or greater, inlet to outlet.
When a gas accelerates through a nozzle, the velocity increase and the pressure and gas
density decrease. The maximum velocity is achieved at the throat, the minimum area, where
it breaks Mach 1 or sonic. At this point it's not possible to increase the flow by lowering the
downstream pressure. The flow is choked. Pressure differences within a piping system travel
at the speed of sound and generate flow. Downstream differences or disturbances in
pressure, traveling at the speed of sound, cannot move upstream past the throat of the Nozzle
because the throat velocity is higher and in the opposite direction.
Sonic Nozzles are used in many control systems to maintain fixed, accurate, repeatable gas
flow rates unaffected by the downstream pressure. If you have a system with changing or
varying gas consumption downstream and you want to feed it a constant or locked flowrate,
a Sonic Nozzle is an excellent way to achieve this.

Applications
1. It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
2. It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of settling.
3. Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.

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3-Pitot Tubes
Pitot tubes measure the local velocity due to the pressure difference between points 1 and 2
in the diagrams below. Unlike the other differential flow meters, the pitot tubes only detect
fluid flow at one point rather than an overall calculation. The first diagram shows a simple
pitot tube configuration while the second shows a compact pitot tube configuration.

Figure 6 (Working of Pitot Tube)

Both tubes work in a similar manner. Each pitot tube has two openings, one perpendicular to
the flow and one parallel to the flow. The impact tube has its opening perpendicular to the
fluid flow, allowing the fluid to enter the tube at point 2, and build up pressure until the
pressure remains constant. This point is known as the stagnation point. The static tube, with
openings parallel to the fluid flow gives the static pressure and causes a sealed fluid of known
density to shift in the base of the tube. Pressure drop can be calculated using the height
change along with the fluid densities and the equation below.

with Δp as the pressure drop, ρA as the known fluid density, ρ as flowing fluid’s density,
and g as the acceleration due to gravity.
This pressure drop can be related to the velocity after accounting for the losses throughout
the piping in the system, given by Cp. This dimensionless coefficient is found through accurate
calibration of the pitot tube. The equation below describes this relationship.

14
with v as the fluid velocity, Cp as the loss coefficient, p1 as the pressure at point 1, p2 as the
pressure at point 2, and ρ as the flowing fluid’s density.
By placing the tube at the exact centre of the pipe, the maximum velocity can be measured
and the average velocity can be calculated via the Reynolds number. The governing equation
and chart are below.

with Re as the Reynolds number, D as the pipe diameter, vmax as the maximum velocity, ρ as
the flowing fluid’s density, and μ as the flowing fluid’s viscosity.
Adapted from Geankoplis.
Finally, the flow rate can be found by accounting for the area of the pipe.

with Q as the volumetric flow rate, vavg as the average velocity, and r as the pipe’s radius.
It should be noted that all the equations apply to incompressible fluids only, but these can be
used to approximate gas flows at moderate velocities. This flow meter must also be placed at
least 100 pipe diameters in distance, downstream of the nearest flow obstruction. This
ensures no unwanted pressure fluctuations and accurate pitot tube readings. Furthermore,
fluids containing large particles can clog the pitot tube and should be avoided.

Applications
 It is used to measure speed of an aircraft
 It is used to measure speed of a boat
 It is used to measure fluid flows in different industries
 It is used where very high accuracy is not required
 It is used to measure flow profile in a duct or channel

Direct force
These flow meters are governed by balancing forces within the system.

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1-Rotameter
A rotameter is a vertically installed tube that increases in diameter
with increasing height. The meter must be installed vertically so
that gravity effects are easily incorporated into the governing
equations. Fluid flows in through the bottom of the tube and out
through the top. Inside the glass tube there is a float that changes
position with the flow rate. When there is no liquid flow, the float
rests in the bottom of the meter. The applied concept for the
rotameter is differential area. As the flow rate of the fluid changes,
the position of the float changes and annular area change directly,
keeping a constant pressure drop across the meter.
Figure 7 (Working of Rotameter)
Changes in float position and annular area are approximately
linear with changes in flow rate. Upon achieving a stable flow rate, the vertical forces are
balanced and hence the position of the float remains constant. The volumetric flow is given
by the following equation:

with C being the discharge coefficient, Ab being the cross sectional area of the top of the
float, Vf volume of the float, ρf the density of the float, ρ the density of the fluid hf the height
of the float, Aa the cross sectional area of the bottom of the float. Generally, rotameters are
inexpensive and simple to use. This allows them to be used in many plant applications.

Applications
 The rotameter is used in process industries.
 It is used for monitoring gas and water flow in plants or labs.
 It is used for monitoring filtration loading.

2-Turbine Meter
A turbine wheel is placed in a pipe that holds the flowing fluid. As the fluid flows through the
turbine, the turbine is forced to rotate at a speed proportional to the fluid flow rate. A
magnetic pick-up is mounted to the turbine wheel, and a sensor records the produced voltage
pulses. Voltage information can then be translated into the actual flow meter reading.

16
 Figure 8 (Working of Turbine Meter)

The following is the equation used to model the turbine meter:

with A the pipe area, the root mean squared radius, ω rotational speed,β the angle
between the flow direction and the turbine blades, Ro the outer blade radius, Ri the inner
radius, and D the distance between blades.
There are two main advantages of the turbine meter over conventional differential head
devices
The extended are more accurate registration of flow in the low flow range of process
operation. This results from the registration being proportional to the velocity rather than the
velocity square
The comparatively low head loss across the meter
Another advantage to using this type of flow meter is reliability. Extensive testing has proven
these results. Additionally, the turbine flow meter does not have a high installation cost.
However, due to the turbine wheel motion, a low to medium pressure drop can result.
Turbine wheel replacement may also be required due to abrasion caused by particles within
the fluid

Applications
Oil & Gas

 Water injection
 Test and production separators
 Disposal wells
 Hydraulic fracturing
 Chemical injection
 Natural gas pipelines

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Aerospace/Defence

 Engine Testing
 Fuel flow measurement
 Shipboard reverse osmosis systems
 Monitor fuel supply to ship engines
Pharma-Bio Tech, Food & Beverage

 Sanitary measurement
 Pill coating
Power Generation

 Custody transfer
Industrial & Municipal

 Building automation
 HVAC
 Water metering
Cryogenics

 Liquids measurement for plant applications and truck deliveries

3-Propeller Flow Meter

Propeller flow meters have a rotating element similar to the wheel in turbine meters. Again,
rotation is caused by fluid flow through the propeller, and voltage pulses are created as the
propeller passes a magnetic or optical sensor. Similarly, the frequency of the pulses is
proportional to flow rate of the fluid and the voltages can be directly correlated with the fluid
flow rate.

Figure 9 (Working of Propeller Flow nozzle)

Propeller flow meters are often used specifically with water; though other fluids may also be
used. Low cost coupled with high accuracy make propeller flow meters a common choice in
many applications.

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Applications
Applications for propeller flowmeters are found in the water, petroleum, and chemical
industries. Water applications include distribution systems within and between water
districts. Petroleum applications include the custody transfer of hydrocarbons. Miscellaneous
applications are found in the food and beverage, and chemical industries.

4-Paddle Wheel Sensors

A kind of propeller sensor is the paddle wheel sensor. Paddle wheel sensors are similar to
turbine sensors, except for one thing. The shaft of the paddle wheel sensor is perpendicular
to the flow of the fluid while the turbine sensor’s shaft is parallel to the flow of the fluid. This
adds several advantages for the paddle wheel flow sensor.
Due to the shaft being perpendicular to the flow, it sustains less axial from the fluid, and thus
less friction. Paddle wheel sensors also have a smaller number of blades, so there is less force
needed to turn the paddle wheel. This means that a paddle wheel can be accurate at lower
flows, have a high efficiency, as well as a longer lifetime.
There are two kinds of paddle wheel sensors, insertion and inline sensors. There is more than
one design for an insertion sensor, but one popular design has the bearing built into the rotor
and the shaft sliding through it as the centre axis of spin. The blade sticks out and is inserted
into the pipe with the flowing fluid. An inline paddle wheel sensor is used for smaller pipes. It
contains a rotor assembly with the magnet sealed inside and a main body.

Figure 10 (Working of Paddle Wheel Flow Meter)

Applications
Applications for paddlewheel flowmeters are found in the water and chemical industries.
Water applications include distribution systems. Miscellaneous applications are found in the
food and beverage, and chemical industries.

Frequency
These flow meters use frequency and electronic signals to calculate the flow rate.

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1-Vortex Shedding Flow Meter
A blunt, non-streamline body is placed in the stream of the flow through a pipe. When the
flow stream hits the body, a series of alternating vortices are produced, which causes the fluid
to swirl as it flows downstream.
The number of vortices formed is directly proportional to the flow velocity and hence the flow
rate. The vortices are detected downstream from the blunt body using an ultrasonic beam
that is transmitted perpendicular to the direction of flow. As the vortices cross the beam, they
alter the carrier wave as the signal is processed electronically, using a frequency-to-voltage
circuit. The following diagram shows the basic principle of the vortex-shedding flow meter:

Figure 11 (Working of Vortex Flow Meter)

Vortex-shedding flow meters are best used in turbulent flow with a Reynolds number greater
than 10,000. One advantage of using this type of flow meter is its insensitivity from
temperature, pressure, and viscosity. The major disadvantage to using this method is the
pressure drop caused by the flow obstruction.

Governing Equation

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Application
 Custody transfer of natural gas metering
 Steam measurement
 Flow of liquid suspensions
 General water applications
 Liquid chemicals & pharmaceuticals

2-Ultrasonic Flow Meters

There are two types of Ultrasonic meters, the transit time/time of flight and Doppler models,
both of which have unique equations representing the principles behind them. The basis for
these meters is monitoring ultrasonic waves in fluid passing through a pre-configured acoustic
field. These meters are based on the technique of sound waves that change.

2.1-Transit Time/Time of Flight Flow Meters

Transit time meters have two opposing transducers outside of the pipe to measure the time
of a signal sent from a transducer upstream to a transducer downstream and vice versa.

Figure 12 (Working of Transit Time Flow Meter)

This allows the average velocity and hence the flow rate, Q, to be determined.

where d is the diameter of the pipe, α is the angle between direction of the flow and the
pipe, tUD is the time for the signal to reach downstream transducer from the upstream
transducer, and tDU is the time for signal to reach upstream transducer from the downstream
transducer.
With the Time of Flight Ultrasonic Flowmeter, the time for the sound to travel between a
transmitter and a receiver is measured. This method is not dependable on the particles in the
fluid.

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 Figure 13 (Operation of Transit Time Flow Meter)

Two transmitters / receivers (transceivers) are located on each side of the pipe. The
transmitters send pulsating ultrasonic waves in a predefined frequency from one side to the
other. The difference in frequency is proportional to the average fluid velocity.
Downstream pulse transmit time can be expressed as

where td is the downstream pulse transmission time and L is the distance between
transceivers.
Downstream pulse transmit time can be expressed as

where tu is the upstream pulse transmission time.

2.2-Doppler Meters
Doppler meters use the frequency shift of an ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by
suspended particles or gas bubbles (discontinuities) in motion. The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic
Flowmeter uses reflected ultrasonic sound to measure the fluid velocity.
By measuring the frequency shift between the ultrasonic frequency source, the receiver, and
the fluid carrier, the relative motion is measured. The resulting frequency shift is named
the Doppler Effect.

22
 Figure 14 (Working of Doppler Meter)

These reflected signals travel at the velocity of light.

where f is the actual frequency and Δf is the change in frequency or frequency shift.
The fluid velocity can be expressed as

where
fr is the received frequency
ft is the transmission frequency
v is the fluid flow velocity
Φ is the relative angle between the transmitted ultrasonic beam and the fluid flow
c is the velocity of sound in the fluid
This method requires that there are some reflecting particles in the fluid. The method is not
suitable for clear liquids.

23
Application
Ultrasonic flowmeters are commonly applied to measure the velocity of liquids that allow
ultrasonic waves to pass, such as water, molten sulphur, cryogenic liquids, and chemicals.
Transit time designs are also available to measure gas and vapour flow.

Mass Flowmeters
Mass flow meters measure the fluid mass flow rate that travels through a tube per unit of
time. There are two types of mass flowmeters as mentioned below
 Coriolis Mass flowmeter and
 Thermal Mass flowmeters

1-Coriolis Mass Flow Meter

A Coriolis flow meter harnesses the natural phenomenon wherein an object will begin to
“drift” as it travels from or toward the centre of a rotation occurring in the surrounding
environment. A merry-go-round serves as a simple analogy; a person traveling from the outer
edge of the circle to its centre will find himself deviating from his straight-line path in the
direction of the ride’s rotation.
Coriolis flow meters generate this effect by diverting the fluid flow through a pair of parallel
U-tubes undergoing vibration perpendicular to the flow. This vibration simulates a rotation of
the pipe, and the resulting Coriolis “drift” in the fluid will cause the U-tubes to twist and
deviate from their parallel alignment. This Coriolis force producing this deviation is ultimately
proportional to the mass flow rate through the U-tubes.

where Fc is the Coriolis force observed, w is the angular velocity resulting from rotation,
and x is the length of tubing in the flow meter.
Because the Coriolis flow meter measures the mass flow rate of the fluid, the reading will not
be affected by fluctuations in the fluid density. Furthermore, the absence of direct
obstructions to flow makes the Coriolis flow meter a suitable choice for measuring the flow
of corrosive fluids. Its limitations include a significant pressure drop and diminished accuracy
in the presence of low-flow gases.

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 Figure 15 (Working of Coriolis mass flow meter)

Applications
Coriolis mass flow meters are used predominately in scientific applications where they
measure both corrosive and clean gases and liquids. They are also used in:

 Pulp and paper processing

 Petroleum and oil
 Chemical processing
 Wastewater handling
Coriolis flow meters with a straight tube design are more easily cleaned so are preferred for
food and beverage applications as well as pharmaceuticals. They can also handle the slurries
typically found in mining operations.

2-Thermal Flow meters

These flow meters take advantage of the thermal properties of the fluid to measure the flow
of the fluid in a pipe. In most thermal flow meters, a measured amount of heat is applied to
the heater of the sensor. Portions of this heat is lost to the fluid as it flows. Accordingly, as
the fluid flow increases more heat is lost. The amount of heat lost is tracked using a
temperature measurement instrument in the sensor. Then an electronic transmitter uses the
heat input and temperature measurements to calculate the fluid flow, taking into account the
thermal properties of the fluid.
Common applications of thermal flow meters are measuring the flow rate of clean gases like
air, nitrogen, hydrogen, helium, ammonia, and argon. Most thermal flow meters are used to
measure pure gases that would be used in laboratory experiments or semiconductor
production. Mixtures like flue stack flow can also be measured but the mixture compositions
must be known to use the appropriate thermal properties of each component in the mixture.
The key advantage of this technology is its dependence on the thermal properties which are
mostly independent of the gas density.

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However, caution should be taken if this type of flow meter is used to measure a fluid of
unknown or varying composition. Additionally, thermal flow meters should not be used to
measure abrasive fluids because they may damage the sensor. Some fluids can coat the
sensor causing it to be inoperable and must be regularly cleaned to be useful.

Figure 16 (Working of Thermal mass flow meter)

Rate of Loss Flowmeter

Rate of heat loss thermal flow meters measure the rate of heat loss to the flow stream from
a heated element such as a resistance wire, thermistor, thermocouple, or thin film sensor.

Governing Equation

In this equation, ρ, Vavg, qt, and ΔT are the unknowns, because they change with time while
the other variables are known. However, qt and ΔT can be obtained through measuring
devices, leaving in the product of ρ and Vavg and cross section area of the pipe.

Temperature Rise Thermal Flow Meter

Temperature Rise thermal flow meters measure the temperature changes of the flow as it
passes through a heat source.

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Governing Equation

W and ΔT are unknowns in this equation. ΔT can be measured. W can therefore be

calculated.
Note that thermal flow meters are gas flow meters only and can be used as liquid flow switch
but cannot be used as liquid flow meter due to the sudden drop in T because of the higher
cooling rate of liquids compared to gases. The higher cooling rate of liquids prevents the
transmitter from calculating an adequate flow range in liquids.

Application
Some of the new applications for thermal flow meters include recovery of methane from coal
mines, measurement of flare gas flows, measuring emissions from steam generators and
boilers, measurement and recovery of landfill gas, ethanol distillation and refining, and
monitoring of flue gas.
Biomass gasification is another application for thermal flow meters. Thermal flow meter
measure gas flow at multiple points along the way during the process, helping to provide
optimal production, control and reporting.

Other Types

Magnetic Flow Meter

Operate on Faraday’s Law of magnetic induction. One magnetic model flow meter positions
electric coils around the pipe of the flow to be measured. A pair of electrodes is set up across
the pipe wall. The fluid flowing has a minimum value of electrical conductivity, the movement
of the fluid through the pipe acts as a conductor moving across the magnetic field. There is
an induced change in voltage between the electrodes, which is proportional to the flow
velocity.

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 Figure 17 (Working of Magnetic meter)

The flow velocity is found by measuring the changes of induced voltage of the conductive fluid
passing through a controlled magnetic field at right angles. According to Faraday’s Law, the
magnitude of the voltage induced is directly proportional to the product of the magnetic flux,
distance between probes and the velocity of the medium (fluid).

where E is the voltage of induced current, N is the number of turns, B is the external magnetic
field, φ is the magnetic flux, D is the distance between electrodes and v is the velocity of the
fluid.
Some of the advantages are minimum pressure drop because of minimum obstructions in
flow path; low maintenance cost because of no moving parts. One of the disadvantages is
that it usually requires a fluid with an electrical conductivity of higher than 3 µS/cm.

Application
Applications for dirty liquids are found in the water, wastewater, mining, mineral processing,
power, pulp and paper, and chemical industries. Water and wastewater applications include
custody transfer of liquids in force mains between water/wastewater districts.
Magnetic flowmeters are used in water treatment plants to measure treated and untreated
sewage, process water, water and chemicals. Mining and mineral process industry
applications include process water and process slurry flows and heavy media flows.

Calorimetric Flow Meter

This type of flow meter is suitable for monitoring the flow rates of liquid and gaseous
mediums. The calorimetric principle is based on two temperature sensors in close quarters of
one another but thermally insulated from one another.

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 Figure 18 (Working of Calorimeter flow meter)

One of the two temperature sensors is constantly heated and the cooling effect of the flowing
fluid is used to monitor the flow rate.
In a stationary phase fluid condition there is a constant temperature difference between the
two temperature sensors. When the fluid flow increases, heat energy is extracted from the
heated sensor and the temperature difference between the sensors are reduced. The
reduction is proportional to the flow rate of the fluid. The calorimetric flow meter can achieve
relatively high accuracy at low flow rates.

Application
Common applications: air compression, argon compression, nitrogen compression, carbon
dioxide compression and flow detection of all fluids (liquids and gases)

Positive displacement flow meter

Positive Displacement flow meters are the only flow measuring technology to directly
measure the volume of fluid that passes though the flow meter. It achieves this by trapping
pockets of fluid between rotating components housed within a high precision chamber.
This can be compared to repeatedly filling a beaker with fluid and pouring the contents
downstream while counting the number of times the beaker is filled.
Rotor rotational velocity is directly proportional to flow rate, since the flow of fluid is causing
the rotation.

Applications
Positive displacement flow meters are used in:
 Measuring volumetric flow of liquids/ fluids in pipes
 Chemical industries to accurately estimate the flow of viscous fluids and various
chemicals, hydrocarbons, and cryogenic liquids
 Measuring individual flow of liquids in a two component mixer
 Volumetric flow determination of petrochemicals, paints, and dyes
 Utilities monitoring, portable and fresh water pump monitoring, volumetric
measurement of flowing river water, etc.
 Measuring fuel usage in diesel powered boilers

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  Measurement of various chemicals for making batches in pharmaceutical laboratories
 Accurately measuring fluids in containers in the food, beverages, and tobacco industry
Positive Displacement Meter is a type of flow meter that requires fluid to mechanically
displace components in the meter in order for flow measurement. Positive displacement (PD)
flow meters measure the volumetric flow rate of a moving fluid or gas by dividing the media
into fixed, metered volumes (finite increments or volumes of the fluid).
A basic analogy would be holding a bucket below a tap, filling it to a set level, then quickly
replacing it with another bucket and timing the rate at which the buckets are filled (or the
total number of buckets for the “totalized” flow). With appropriate pressure and temperature
compensation, the mass flow rate can be accurately determined.
These devices consist of a chamber(s) that obstructs the media flow and a rotating or
reciprocating mechanism that allows the passage of fixed-volume amounts. The number of
parcels that pass through the chamber determines the media volume.
The rate of revolution or reciprocation determines the flow rate. There are two basic types of
positive displacement flow meters. Sensor-only systems or transducers are switch-like
devices that provide electronic outputs for processors, controllers, or data acquisition
systems.

Gear Flow Meter

This type of positive displacement flow meter has oval shaped gears with fitting teeth which
control the amount of fluid passing through. The flow rate is calculated by number of times
the gears are filled and emptied. These meters have high accuracy and are used for measuring
low flow and for high viscosity fluids. It is very easy to install these types of meters because it
requires no pipe.

Figure 19 (Working of Gear meter)

Application
The oval gear flow meter is designed primarily for use with higher-viscosity fluids, which has
led to applications such as the flow metering of oils, syrups and fuels.

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Selection Criteria
Process media. Different flow meters are designed to operate best in different fluids and
under different operating conditions. That’s why it is important to understand the limitations
inherent to each style of instrument. Fluids are conventionally classified as either liquids or
gases. The most important difference between these two types of fluid lies in their relative
compressibility (i.e., gases can be compressed much more easily than liquids). Any change
that involves significant pressure variations is generally accompanied by much larger changes
in mass density in the case of a gas than in the case of a liquid.
Type of measurement. Industrial flow measurements fall under one of two categories:
volumetric or mass. Volumetric flow rate is the volume of fluid passing through a given
volume per unit time. Mass flow rate is the movement of mass per time. It can be calculated
from the density of the liquid (or gas), its velocity and the cross-sectional area of flow.
Volumetric measuring devices, like variable area meters or turbine flow meters, are unable
to distinguish temperature or pressure changes. Mass flow measurement would require
additional sensors for these parameters and a flow computer to compensate for variations in
these process conditions. Thermal mass flow meters are virtually insensitive to variations in
temperature or pressure.
Flow rate information. A crucial aspect of flow meter selection is determining whether flow
rate data should be continuous or totalized. A flow rate has to do with the quantity of a gas
or liquid moving through a pipe or channel within a given or standard period of time. A typical
continuous flow measurement system consists of a primary flow device, flow sensor,
transmitter, flow recorder and totalizer.
Desired accuracy. Accurate flow measurement can be the difference between on-spec quality
and wasted product. Flow meter accuracy is specified in percentage of actual reading (AR),
percentage of calibrated span (CS) or percentage of full-scale (FS) units.
It is normally stated at minimum, normal and maximum flow rates. A clear understanding of
these requirements is needed for a meter’s performance to be acceptable over its full range.
Application environment. Flow meters can be employed under a host of varying conditions
in an industrial plant. For example, users must decide whether the low or high flow range is
most important for their metering application. This information will help in sizing the correct
instrument for the job.
Pressure and temperature conditions are equally important process parameters. Users should
also consider pressure drop (the decrease in pressure from one point in a pipe to another
point downstream) in flow measurement devices, especially with high-viscosity fluids. In
addition, viscosity and density may fluctuate due to a physical or temperature change in the
process fluid.
Fluid characteristics. Users should make certain that the selected flow meter is compatible
with the fluid and conditions they are working with. Many plant operations involve abrasive
or corrosive fluids, which move under aerated, pulsating, swirling or reverse-flow conditions.

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Thick and coarse materials can clog or damage internal meter components—hindering
accuracy and resulting in frequent downtime and repair.
Installation requirements. Planning a flow meter installation starts with knowing line size,
pipe direction, material of construction and flange-pressure rating. Complications due to
equipment accessibility, valves, regulators and available straight-pipe run lengths should also
be identified. Nearly all flow meters must be installed with a run of straight pipe before and
after their mounting location. Where this is not possible, a flow conditioner can be used to
isolate liquid flow disturbances from the flow meter while minimizing the pressure drop
across the conditioner.
Power availability. Pneumatic instrumentation was once used in most hazardous area
applications, since there was no power source to cause an explosion. Today’s installations
normally call for intrinsically safe instruments, which are “current limited” by safety barriers
to eliminate a potential spark. Another option is to employ fibre optics. Turbine flow meters
offer an advantage in environments where a power source is not available. They do not
require external power to provide a local rate/total indicator display for a field application,
and instead rely on a battery-powered indicator. Solar-powered systems can also be used in
remote areas without power.
Necessary approvals. Approvals for the use of flow measurement equipment in hazardous
plant locations include FM Class 1 Division 1, Groups A, B, C and D; and FM Class 1, Zone 1
AEx d (ia) ia/IIC/T3-T6. Standards such as the Measuring Instruments Directive (MID) in the
European Union (EU) apply to fiscal and custody transfer metering for liquids and gases. In
terms of environmental emissions, industrial flow meters must meet the Electromagnetic
Compatibility (EMC) Standards EN55011:1992 and EN61326-1:1997.

Output/indication. Flow meter users must decide whether measurement data is needed
locally or remotely. For remote indication, the transmission can be analog, digital or shared.
The choice of a digital communications protocol such as HART, FOUNDATION Fieldbus or
Modbus also figures into this decision.
In a large industrial facility, flow readings are typically supplied to an industrial automation
and control system (IACS) for use in process control and optimization strategies.

Summary
Choosing the right flow measurement solution can have a major impact on operational and
business performance. For this reason, companies anticipating a flow meter purchase should
consult with a knowledgeable instrumentation supplier in the early stages of a project. The
effort spent learning about basic flow measurement techniques, and available meter options,
will ensure a successful application once the equipment is installed.

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Selection of Flowmeters
Clean liquids/gases

 Orifices
 Venturi
 Annubar
 Variable Area
 Magnetic (only liquids)
 Ultrasonic
 Vortex
 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
 Thermal mass flowmeter (only gases)
 PD meters
Dirty Liquids

 Most suited: Magnetic/Coriolis Mass Flowmeters

 Limited applications: Venturi meters
Dirty Gases

 Most suited: Vortex meters

 Limited applications: Venturi meters/Thermal mass flowmeter/Variable area
flowmeter
Corrosive liquids

 Magnetic flowmeters
 Ultrasonic flowmeters
Non-Newtonian liquids

 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters

Viscous liquids

 Coriolis
 Magnetic
 Positive Displacement Meters
Abrasive slurries

 Magnetic flowmeters
 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
Fibrous slurries

 Magnetic flowmeters
 Coriolis Mass Flowmeters (limited applications)

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Saturated Steam

 Most suited: Orifice DP meters/ Vortex flowmeters

 Limited applications: Venturi meters/Variable area meters
Super-heated Steam

 Most suited: Orifice DP meters

 Limited applications: Venturi meters
Cryogenic Applications:
Venturi-meters/Orifice plates

Parameters affecting Flow Meter Selection

There are various factors that influence the flowmeter selection for a specific industrial
process. Some of those factors are:

 The fluid phase; for example: gas, liquid, steam

 Flow conditions and flow range; for example: clean, dirty, abrasive, or viscous fluid.
 Process design parameters; for example, pressure, temperature ranges, density.
 Pipe size. Accuracy desired.
 Material of Construction (corrosive or non-corrosive fluid).
 Repeatability and cost-effectiveness.
 Environmental considerations, if any.

Common Flow Applications

1. HVAC and energy
2. Utilities monitoring
3. Water/glycol solutions
4. Pump monitoring
5. Balanced system flows
6. Water treatment
7. Sewage
8. Fuels and lubricants
9. Deionized water
10. Diesel and fuel oils
11. Sludge and slurries
12. Ultra-clean monitoring
13. Food products
14. Pulp stock
15. Chemicals
16. Effluents
17. Irrigation and water use
18. Open channels

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References
 Cole-Palmer Catalog, 2005-2006
 Engineering fundamentals' website
 Richardson, J.F. and Peacock, D.G., Chemical Engineering, 3rd Edition, Volume 3. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1994.
 Process Measurement and control Products
 Universal Flowmeters Presents Flowmeters.com
 Transactions Volume 4: Flow and Level Measurement
 Wikipedia entry on Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
 Omega Literature: Flow and Level Measurement
 Geankoplis, Christie John, Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles, 4th Edition,
Pearson Education, 2003.
 McKetta, John J., Cunningham, William A., Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design:
Volume 43 - Process Control: Feedback Simulation to Process Optimization, CRC Press, 1993

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