Industry 4.

0
Paper Code: ARO 376

Unit III: Industrial IoT (IIoT)

USAR, GGSIPU, EDC, Delhi-110032

 Introduction to Industrial Internet of things (IIoT)
The term “the Industrial Internet of Things” is pervasive in the context of industry as digital
transformation has become a business priority for many organizations. So, what is IIoT?
The industrial Internet of
things (IIoT) is the use of
smart sensors, actuators and
other devices, such as radio
frequency identification tags,
to enhance manufacturing
and industrial processes.
These devices are networked
together to provide data
collection, exchange and
analysis.

GE Vernova coined the term Industrial Internet in late 2012.

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https://dreamziot.com/iiot-in-manufacturing/ https://www.ge.com/digital/blog/what-industrial-internet-things-iiot
Introduction to Industrial Internet of things (IIoT)
Insights gained from this process aid in more efficiency and reliability. Also known as the
industrial internet, IIoT is used in many industries, including manufacturing, energy
management, utilities, oil and gas.
IIoT uses the power of smart machines and real-time analytics to take advantage of the
data that dumb machines have produced in industrial settings for years. The driving
philosophy behind IIoT is that smart machines aren't only better than humans at
capturing and analyzing data in real-time, but they're also better at communicating
important information that can be used to drive business decisions faster and more
accurately.

Connected sensors and actuators enable companies to pick up on inefficiencies and

problems sooner, saving time and money while also supporting business intelligence
efforts. In manufacturing specifically, IIoT has the potential to provide quality control,
sustainable and green practices, supply chain traceability, and overall supply chain
efficiency. In an industrial setting, IIoT is key to processes such as predictive maintenance,
enhanced field service, energy management and asset tracking. 3
How does IIoT work?
IIoT is a network of intelligent devices connected to form systems that monitor, collect,
exchange and analyze data. Each industrial IoT ecosystem consists of the following:
• Connected devices that can sense, communicate, and store information about
themselves.
• Public and private data communications infrastructure.
• Analytics and applications that generate business information from raw data.
• Storage for the data that's generated by the IIoT devices.
• People.

These edge devices and intelligent assets transmit information directly to the data
communications infrastructure, where it's converted into actionable information on how a
certain piece of machinery is operating. This information can be used for predictive
maintenance, as well as to optimize business processes.
Comparison between IoT and IIoT
Comparisons: Similarities and Differences
Before discussing the differences between the Internet of Things and the Industrial
Internet of Things, let us go through some of the similarities first.

Similarities between IoT and IIoT

IoT and IIoT both share common concepts and technologies of smart equipment
connectivity and cloud computing to establish a system (always online) that collects data
to help users make informed decisions. Some of the few tangible similarities between IoT
and IIoT include the following:
• They both necessitate a cloud computing framework.
• They both necessitate Machine Learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) to ensure
smart decision-making.
• They both utilise common input/output devices, for instance, sensors, cameras,
microphones etc.
• Affordable and high-speed internet connection is an essential resource for both IoT and
IIoT. 5
https://polimak.com/en/the-differences-between-iot-and-iiot-iot-vs-iiot/
Comparison between IoT and IIoT
Differences between IoT and IIoT
Although there exists a handful of similarities between IoT and IIoT, they have a quite
several distinctions. The following are some of the basic IoT and IIoT differences that can
be considered.

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Differences between IoT and IIoT

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https://polimak.com/en/the-differences-between-iot-and-iiot-iot-vs-iiot/
Applications of IIoT

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Applications of IIoT
Practical Applications of IIoT in Industrial Automation:

Industrial Remote Access of Machines – In a traditional factory setup when one of the
machines stops performing optimally, the engineers have to initially physically visit to
diagnose the cause of the problem. In this process, valuable time and resources are lost
ultimately leading to a cost impact due to downtime. With remote access to industrial
machines, the engineers can access the machine from their current location and view log
files on the PLC or robot and if necessary, reset the machine. It takes only a few minutes to
find the problem, and this saves a lot of time.
New Functionalities on HMI – In this digital age, where the relentless evolution of
technology demands consistent updates for both day-to-day use products and industrial
equipment, having access to reliable embedded software development company becomes
imperative. Even post-delivery of a machine, ensuring enhanced performance, improved
security, and the incorporation of new features necessitate regular updates to the Human-
Machine Interface (HMI) software.
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Applications of IIoT
This ensures seamless expansion of the control panel, integrating novel functions
seamlessly. Leveraging a highly secure network connection over the internet, remote
application of updates for HMI software becomes feasible. Furthermore, the ability to
scrutinize and assess HMI functionality through a web-based virtual network connection
on the IIoT platform adds an extra layer of convenience and efficiency.

Predictive Analysis for Machine Maintenance – Industrial machines require occasional

maintenance and when you know the degradation of any machinery after a certain
number of production hours, it’s easy to predict when maintenance needs to happen. In
these scenarios, it is vital to implement predictive maintenance and generate specific and
reliable information to make the right decisions for driving performance. You can collect,
store and access the information by using clouds on each type of machinery. Furthermore,
if any asset reaches its maintenance time, automatic notifications can be sent to the right
person.

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Applications of IIoT
Analyze and Optimize Industrial Robot Actions– Industrial robots make repetitive work
simple and easy. IIoT features with remote access help to get better insights into the
respective log files. Video analysis improves the actions of certain types of robots, access
to IP camera recordings and live streams can make things faster and easy. The setup of a
VPN connection for full network access can be set up easily to any of the devices
connected to the robot.
Quality Control – IIoT applications can monitor the quality of manufactured products at
any stage, starting right from raw materials which are used in the process of
transformation via smart tracking applications. This information is important to detect
issues in the production chain and fix it swiftly. It not only helps to detect failures but also
prevents risks in industries such as food or pharmaceuticals.
Plant Safety Improvement – IIoT machinery can generate real-time data regarding the live
situation of the plant. By monitoring the equipment damages and air quality in the plant, it
is possible to avoid any type of hazardous scenarios and contributes to the overall plant
safety.
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https://avench.com/blogs/applications-of-iiot-in-industrial-automation/
IIoT Business Models
The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is changing the game for the manufacturing
sector, providing unparalleled insights and new revenue opportunities. With IIoT, data
can be accessed directly from machines, even at the component level, to identify
production bottlenecks, breakdowns, and process gaps. But it doesn't stop there.
Hyper-connectivity and the widespread use of sensors create opportunities for new
business models that leverage this data to drive revenue growth. Don't miss out on the
latest trends and innovations - discover the 5 new IIoT-enabled models that can
transform your manufacturing business today.
1) Pay-per-use or Subscription model
With the increase in digitalization, there has been a shift from product- to service-
based business models. IIoT enables manufacturers to operationalize their services
strategy by using sensors to monitor different parameters that they can use to create
subscription models.

Business model: The term business model refers to a company's plan for making a profit. It identifies the products or
services the business plans to sell and any anticipated expenses. 12
Pay-per-use or Subscription model
An example is Rolls-Royce's Machine-as-a-Service programme which charges airlines a fixed
per-hour rate for using the company's engines on their planes. Rolls-Royce retains ownership
of the engines and maintains them through IIoT sensors that send machine data to their
monitoring sensors in real-time.
With subscriptions based on usage, customers can reduce their up-front investments in
equipment and account for their spending in operational expenditure.
Pay-per-use or Subscription model Advantages

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2) Outcome-based model
The outcome-based approach takes the pay-per-use model one step further. It is based
on the premise that customers are more willing to pay to achieve the desired outcomes
rather than for the equipment's use. This helps generate new value for the entire
manufacturer and customer chain. For customers constantly looking to improve the
bottom line, service level agreements (SLAs) help them avoid losses due to equipment
failure, waste, and re-work. For the manufacturer, any service offering that can
guarantee the reduction of such losses can command a premium. It also helps to secure
the revenue stream from maintenance services as part of the business model, cutting
out after-market pirates.
Outcome-based model Advantages

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Outcome-based model Challenges

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3) Asset-sharing Model
Equipment is a major expenditure for many industries, and companies will want to
ensure that they can optimize its use to justify the spending.
An asset-sharing business model leveraging IIoT helps them sell excess capacity back to
the market. IIoT sensors track equipment usage to estimate share percentages while
monitoring machine data in real-time to minimize breakdowns. Several businesses can
access the data and reserve time on the machines as needed.
The company can use this model on its assets, so it ends up paying a reduced price for
the equipment, or it can set up a business renting out large assets for sharing.

Asset-sharing Model Advantages Asset-sharing Model Challenges

4) Asset-tracking model
IIoT also offers opportunities in Asset Tracking-as-a-Service, where connected devices in the
supply chain help businesses identify, monitor and track assets in real-time throughout the
product lifecycle. This enables them to protect assets from loss or theft and monitor them for
quality assurance and maintenance. With the data generated by connected devices,
companies can check on their assets regularly and know when to repair, fix or replace them
before they fail.
The asset-tracking model can also monitor the supply chain to identify inefficiencies, optimize
workflows and increase visibility.
An example is the tracking of temperature-sensitive cargo, such as food products or
pharmaceuticals which require precise temperature controls throughout the cold chain. IIoT
sensors and online tracking platforms help companies ensure complete cargo visibility,
maintain adequate temperatures and take action quickly if any issues arise.

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5) IIoT-as-a-Service Model
An IIoT solution can be offered as a service with connected devices managed over a cloud-
based infrastructure instead of being sold as a hardware and software product.
An example is a sensor-based service to detect machine wear and tear and proactively alert
the company of the need for maintenance before critical parts deteriorate. Subscription fees
for the service could be charged monthly or periodically over a fixed time frame.
IIoTaaS allows companies to deploy connected systems quickly. They provide plug-and-play
capabilities for various connected devices and services, such as device management,
security, and advanced analytics.

IIoT-as-a-Service Model Advantages

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 IIoT Architecture

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https://www.spiceworks.com/tech/iot/articles/what-is-iiot/#_002
IIoT Architecture
A typical industrial IoT architecture or IIoT architecture describes the arrangement of digital
systems so that they together provide network and data connectivity between sensors, IoT
devices, data storage, and other layers. Therefore, IIoT architecture must have the
following:
1. IoT-enabled devices at the edge of the network
These are the groupings of networked objects located at the edge of an IoT ecosystem. These
objects are situated as near as feasible to the data source. These are often wireless actuators
and sensors in an industrial environment. A processing unit or small computing device and a
collection of observing endpoints are present. Edge IoT devices may range from legacy
equipment in a brownfield environment to cameras, microphones, sensors, and other meters
and monitors.
What occurs at the network’s most remote edge?
Sensors acquire data from both the surrounding environment and the items they monitor.
Then, they transform the information into metrics and numbers that an IoT platform can
analyze and transform into actionable insights. Actuators control the processes occurring in the
observed environment. They modify the physical circumstances in which data is produced.20
IIoT Architecture
2. Edge data management and initial processing

Without high-quality, high-volume data, sophisticated analytics and artificial intelligence

cannot be used to their full potential. Even on the sensor level, data processing is possible,
which is necessary if you need information immediately.

In this aspect, edge computing provides the quickest answers since data is preprocessed at
the network’s edge, at the sensors themselves. Here, you can conduct analyses on your
digital and aggregated data. Once the relevant insights have been gathered, one can move
forward to the next stage instead of sending all the collected information. This additional
processing decreases data volumes sent to data centers or the cloud.

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IIoT Architecture
3. Cloud for advanced processing
Edge devices are restricted in their capacity for preprocessing. While you should strive to
reach as near to the edge as is realistically possible to limit the consumption of native
computational power, users will need to utilize the cloud for processing that is more in-
depth.
At this point, you must choose whether to prioritize the agility and immediacy of edge
devices or the advanced insights of cloud computing. Cloud-based solutions can perform
extensive processing. Here, it is possible to aggregate data from different sources and
provide insights that are unavailable at the edge.

In the context of IIoT architecture, the cloud will have:

A hub: In addition to telemetry and device control, it offers a secure link to the on-site
system. The hub provides remote connectivity to and from on-premises systems, if required
across several locations. It maintains all elements of communication, such as connection
management, the secure communication channel, and device verification and
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authorization.
IIoT Architecture
• Storage: It is useful for storing information before and after it is processed.
• Analytics: It aids in data processing and analysis.
• A user interface: It provides visualization for conveying the analysis findings to the end
user, often via a web browser interface and also through alerts via email, text message,
and/or phone call.

4. Internet gateways
Here sensor data is gathered and turned into digital channels for further processing at the
internet gateway. After obtaining the aggregated and digitized data, the gateway transmits
it over the internet so that it may be further processed before being uploaded to the cloud.
Gateways continue to be part of the edge’s data-collecting systems. They remain adjacent
to the actuators and sensors and perform preliminary data processing at the edge.

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IIoT Architecture
Gateways may be deployed as hardware or software:
Hardware: Hardware gateways are autonomous devices. Wire-based (analog and
digital) and wireless interfaces are provided for the downstream sensor connection.
They also provide Internet connectivity, either natively or via a standard link to a
router.
Software: On PCs, software gateways may be installed instead of connecting hardware
gateways. The software operates either in the background or foreground and offers
upstream and downstream communications links as the hardware entry point, with the
PC supplying the physical interfaces. Software-based gateways may enable access to
visual sensor settings and sensor data presentation via user interfaces.
5. Connectivity Protocols
Protocols are required for the transfer of data across the IIoT system. These protocols
should preferably be industry-standard, well-defined, and secure. Protocol
specifications may contain physical properties of connections and cabling, the
procedure for establishing a communication channel, and the format of the data sent
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over that channel.
IIoT Architecture
Some of the common protocols used in IIoT architecture include:
Advanced Message Queueing Protocol (AMQP): It is a connection-led, bidirectional,
multiplexing, compact data-encoding message transport protocol. AMQP, unlike HTTP,
was built for IIoT-oriented cloud connectivity.
MQ Telemetry Transport (MQTT): This is a compact client-server message transport
protocol. MQTT benefits IIoT devices because of its short message frame sizes and
minimal code space.
Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP): This is a datagram-led protocol that may be
deployed via a transport layer, including user datagram protocol (UDP). CoAP is a
condensed version of HTTP developed for IIoT requirements.

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IIoT Architecture
6. IIoT platforms
IIoT systems are now capable of orchestrating, monitoring, and controlling operations
throughout the whole value chain. The platforms control the device data and manage
the analytics, data visualization, and artificial intelligence (AI) duties from the edge
devices and, in certain cases, the sensors right through to the cloud and back.

The industrial internet reference architecture (IIRA) may serve as a reference for
developing sophisticated systems in the IIoT domain. In general, the IIRA’s frameworks
advocate that businesses design a framework using a systematic approach, which
includes feedback and iterations. In addition, the report suggests customizing IIoT
designs for a particular business sector, such as energy, healthcare, transportation,
and governmental use.

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https://www.spiceworks.com/tech/iot/articles/what-is-iiot/#_002
Industrial IoT Sensing
What is an Industrial IoT Sensor?
An Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) sensor is a device that monitors machines and
systems to provide real-time data to maintenance staff. Instead of relying on periodic
checks by maintenance technicians, IIoT sensors provide around-the-clock “eyes” on
critical assets. This means equipment stays up and running more reliably and that minor
issues are caught immediately before major breakdowns occur.

Hundreds of sensors are available for all sorts of industrial applications. Many of these fit
in some general categories with specific sensors available for particular requirements.
Here’s a short-list of the most popular sensors available today,

1. Vibration Sensors
Vibration sensors monitor the vibration levels of certain assets. Often, vibration can signal a
potential failure that’s on the horizon. A maintenance technician can be deployed to check a
piece of equipment that’s vibrating and make adjustments or repairs immediately.
Industrial IoT Sensing

2. Temperature Sensors
Temperature sensors usually ensure that an asset stays within a safe temperature range.
This can prevent overheating of an asset like a boiler. In the food industry, it’s essential that
products stay within a safe range in freezer or refrigeration equipment.
3. Proximity Sensors
These sensors help alert an operator when one piece of equipment is too close to another
piece of equipment. One common application is within fleet vehicles. If a truck or forklift is
about to hit something, a sensor will alert the operator before the collision occurs.
4. Gas Sensors
These sensors can alert the maintenance crew if smoke or another unwanted gas leaks into
an area. In the case of dangerous gases, this addition can make a significant contribution to
the health and safety of employees.
5. Security Sensors
Security sensors can be placed near key windows and doors to monitor motion in those
areas. If a company requires high security levels, security sensors can help detect unwanted
visitors.
5. Security Sensors
Security sensors can be placed near key windows and doors to monitor motion in those
areas. If a company requires high security levels, security sensors can help detect
unwanted visitors.
6. Humidity Sensors
Depending on the sensitivity of nearby equipment, a facility may need to monitor
surrounding humidity levels. An acceptable range can be set, and when levels fall out of
range, alerts can be immediately sent.
7. Pressure Sensors
During installation, a maintenance technician can set the maximum pressure allowed for a
particular asset. If the equipment exceeds that pressure, that asset can be automatically
set to shut down as a safety precaution. A work order can then be issued to perform the
repair.
8. Level Sensors
These sensors can monitor the level of a particular fluid in a piece of equipment. When
low levels threaten an asset’s performance, an alert can be sent so fluids can be refilled. In
addition, level sensors can measure powder or other materials, even trash in a dumpster,
to prompt a maintenance action.
 9. Infrared Sensors
These sensors emit or detect infrared radiation or measure released heat. Infrared
sensors can help monitor things like blood flow in health care applications or remote
control signals.

10. Theft Sensors

Used frequently in retail, theft sensors can be attached to valuable items to ensure
they stay within an acceptable location. Facilities may attach theft sensors to expensive
tools or other items prone to disappear.

https://www.spiceworks.com/tech/iot/articles/what-is-iiot/#_002
How Industrial Sensors Work
When sensors note that certain thresholds or conditions have been met, they send data
to a cloud for processing. The information is transmitted to your computerized
maintenance management system (CMMS) for further analysis and to provide a
foundation for smart business decisions.
Step 1: Sensors Report Data
Sensors are attached to critical assets, thresholds, and ranges are set, and monitoring
begins.
Step 2: Data is Uploaded to the Cloud
The data is being constantly sent to the cloud for processing.
Step 3: Data is Processed
The software then determines if thresholds are exceeded or performs more complex
analysis.
Step 4: Data Appears on CMMS
The information is finally transmitted to the company’s CMMS for reports, further
consideration, or as a basis for future business decisions.
https://upkeep.com/learning/industrial-iot-sensors-businesses/
Components of the Business Models for IIoT
• Value Proposition: A value proposition in marketing is a concise statement of the
benefits that a company is delivering to customers who buy its products or services. It
serves as a declaration of intent, both inside the company and in the marketplace.
• Value Capturing Mechanism: Value capture schemes secure and recover a portion of
the benefits delivered by public investments, in order to offset the costs of the
investment itself.
• Value Network: A value network is a set of connections between organizations and/or
individuals interacting with each other to benefit the entire group. A value network
allows members to buy and sell products as well as share information. These networks
can be visualized with a simple mapping tool showing nodes (members) and
connectors (relationships)
• Value Communication: Value Communication is the discipline of conveying the
differentiated benefits of a B2B offering in quantitative and financial terms. By
introducing customer value early in a customer’s buying process, sales teams are able
to improve win rates and reduce discounting through a shared vision of value with the
customer.
Static Characteristics of Sensors
1. Range and Span
The extreme limits between which the input quantity may vary, referred to as the range
of a transducer/sensor. The difference between maximum and minimum input values is
the span. Exp. A load cell with a range of 0 to 50kN and a span of 50kN.
2. Error
It is the difference between the measured value of the quantity and the actual value of
the quantity. Exp. Meas. temp. is 25° C But actual temp. is 24° C. Then the error is +1° C.
3. Accuracy
It is the extent to which the measured value of a quantity can be wrong. For exp. If a
thermometer’s accuracy is marked as ±1° C that means the measured value may
deviate by this order.
4. Sensitivity
It is the ratio of the output to the given input. In other words, how much output is given
by the measurement system for a unit input?
Static Characteristics of Sensors
For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5ΩΤ℃.
5. Hysteresis Error
A device can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being measured
according to whether that value has been reached by a continuously increasing change
or a continuously decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis. A few possible
reasons for this error are friction, backlash/virtual play.

Fig. 4: Hysteresis plot.

Static Characteristics of Sensors
6. Non-linearity error
For many devices a linear relationship between the input and output is assumed over
the working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to give a
straight line. Few devices, however, have a truly linear relationship, and thus errors
occur as a result of the assumption of linearity. The error is defined as the maximum
difference from the straight line.

Fig. 5:
Static Characteristics of Sensors
7. Repeatability/reproducibility
The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to describe its ability
to give the same output for repeated applications of the same input value.

8. Stability
The stability of a sensor/transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time. The term drift is often used to
describe the change in output that occurs over time. The drift may be expressed as a
percentage of the full range output. The term zero drift is used for the changes that
occur in output when there is zero input.
Static Characteristics of Sensors
9. Dead band/time
The dead band or dead space of a sensor/transducer is the range of input values for
which there is no output. For example, bearing friction in a flowmeter using a rotor
might mean that there is no output until the input has reached a particular velocity
threshold. The dead time is the length of time from the application of input until
the output begins to respond and change.
10. Resolution
When the input varies continuously over the range, the output signals for some
sensors may change in small steps. A wire-wound potentiometer is an example of
such a sensor, the output going up in steps as the potentiometer slider moves from
one wire turn to the next. The resolution is the smallest change in the input value
that will produce an observable change in the output. For a wire-wound
potentiometer, the resolution might be specified as, say, 0.5° or perhaps a
percentage of the full-scale deflection.
 Classification of Sensors
1. Based on whether a sensor is internal or external

Sensors

Internal Sensors External Sensors

(used to collect information about (used to collect information about the
the drive units) surrounding environment)

 Position Sensor  Proximity Sensor

 Force/Torque Sensor  Temperature Sensor
 Velocity Sensor  Vision Sensor
 Acceleration Sensor  Acoustic Sensor
https://terrisamuels.com/a-grounding-techniques-with-five-senses-moving-on-from-trauma/
 Classification of Sensors
2. Based on whether there is a contact or no contact

Sensors

Contact Sensors Non-contact Sensors

(physical contact between sensor and object) (no physical contact)

 Proximity sensor
Touch sensor/tactile Force sensor/Analog
 Vision sensor
sensor/binary sensor sensor
 Range sensor
(indicates the presence or (not only makes contact but  Acoustic sensor
absence of an object) also measures the force)
 Limit switch  Strain gauge

https://terrisamuels.com/a-grounding-techniques-with-five-senses-moving-on-from-trauma/
 Classification of Sensors
1. Touch Sensors
 As mentioned earlier, these sensors are only meant to indicate whether the contact between
(say) an end-effector and object have been made.
 It does not give any information about the force measurement.
 Examples: Micro-switch, limit switch.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCTgZv33tuA Fig. 4: Working of a micro-switch.

 Classification of Sensors
2. Potentiometer
 It is used for linear or angular position measurement.
 The angular potentiometer is shown in the accompanying figure.
 𝜃: Angular position to be measured
 𝑟: resistance corresponding to the said position. 𝑟

 𝑅: total resistance
 𝑉𝑖𝑛 : Supply voltage
 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 : Voltage measured across the wiper

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCTgZv33tuA Fig. 5: Angular Potentiometer.

 Sensors
Angular potentiometer contd.

𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
𝑅 𝑟

⇒ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅
𝑟=
𝑉𝑖𝑛

As 𝑉𝑖𝑛 and R are known. Therefore, by measuring the 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 , the resistance 𝑟 and in turn
angular position 𝜃 can be calculated.

Demerit: Temperature sensitive

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCTgZv33tuA
 Sensors
3. Optical Encoder
An encoder is a feedback device that is used to measure
Position,
Speed,
Direction, and
Count.
It can be of two types: Rotary and Linear.
In addition, it can be of a) Absolute or
b) Incremental type.
Fig. 6: (a) Construction of the absolute optical encoder.
 Sensors

Figure: Absolute rotary encoder with 4 rows of slits Figure: Absolute rotary encoder with 5 rows of slits
 Sensors
b) Incremental
 It consists of one coded disc and three photodiodes.
 By counting the number of dark and light zones the position can be made known.
 The direction of rotation can be identified by
examining which photodetector gave output
as 1 first.
 Construction wise it is simple, less accurate,
and less expensive.

Fig. 7: Construction and working principle of the

incremental optical encoder
 Sensors
4. Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
 LVDT is a displacement sensor.
 It consists of one fixed (casing), one moving (magnetic
core), and two types of coils (primary and secondary).
 The magnetic core is coupled to the object whose
displacement is to be measured.
 An input voltage is given to the primary coil. Fig. 8: Basic schematic of the LVDT
 An electromotive force (e.m.f.) is generated inside
secondary coils as a result of electromagnetic
induction.
 The magnitude of the e.m.f. depends upon the position
of the core.
 By measuring the voltage difference, object
displacement can be measured.
Fig. 9: Equivalent circuit of the LVDT.
 Sensors
Force/Moment Sensor
 In general, this type of sensor is used to measure the force acting on the robot’s wrist.
 The annular ring is fixed to the wrist whereas the central cube-like element is interfaced
with the end-effector.
 Each of the intermediate connecting elements features
few strain gauges.
 The strain gauges deform as a result of the force app-
lication which is captured via voltage signals.
 With suitable conversion, required force and moments
are obtained.
 It measures forces and moments in three orthogonal
directions. It is a 6-DoF force/moment sensor. Fig. 10: Six-DoFs Force/moment sensor.
 Sensors
Force/Moment Sensor
Introduction to Industrial Actuation
For the actuation of various machines, devices, robotic arms, etc. there exist several
actuation methods that can utilize the below-mentioned types of actuators,

1. Electrical actuators,
2. Pneumatic actuators,
3. Hydraulic actuators,
 Introduction to Industrial Actuation
An electric machine that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy is referred to as an
electric motor. Most electric motors work via the interaction of the motor magnetic field and
electrical current in a wound wire to produce force in the manner of torque supplied on the
motor shaft.

Fig. 1: Introduction and working principle of an electric motor.

 Introduction
Electric motors may be driven by direct current (DC) supplies, like from rectifiers or
batteries, or by alternating current (AC) supplies. Electric motors can be categorized based
on,
• Construction,
• Application,
• Direct current, known as DC motor,
• Alternating Current, known as AC motor,
• Presence of Brushes, known as brushed DC motor
• Absence of Brushes, known as brushless DC motor

Fig. 2: Components of an electric motor.

 Construction of an Electric Motor
• Two mechanical components of electric motors are the stator, which is fixed and the
rotor, which moves.

• It also has two electrical components, magnets set and an armature, one of them is
attached to the stator and the other to the rotor, together making a magnetic circuit.

• Field magnets produce a magnetic field that passes through the winding. These may be
permanent magnets or electromagnets.

• The field magnet is generally on the stator and the winding on the rotor, but in other
motor types these are reversed.
 Construction of an Electric Motor
Electric Motor Bearings
Bearings support the rotor and allow the rotor to
spin on its axis. The motor housing in turn
supports the bearings.

Fig. 3: Components of an electric motor.

 Components of an Electric Motor
Electric Motor Rotor
The rotor is the mobile part that supplies the mechanical power. The rotor generally holds
conductors which carry current and the stator magnetic field applies a force on to spin the
shaft. Alternatively, other rotors have permanent magnets, and conductors are held by the
stator. Permanent magnets give high efficiency over a bigger power range and working
speed.
Electric Motor Stator
The stator surrounds the rotor, and generally holds the field magnets, these are either
electromagnets consisting of wound wire on a ferromagnetic core of iron or permanent
magnets. These produce a magnetic field that passes through the rotor winding, applying
force on the winding. The stator iron core is made of many thin metallic sheets which have
insulation from each other, known as laminations.
 Components of an Electric Motor
Electric Motor Armature
The armature comprises wound wire on a ferromagnetic core. Current flowing through wire
makes the magnetic field exert a Lorentz force onto it, rotating the rotor, which supplies the
mechanical output. Windings are wires which are applied in coils, generally wrapped around a
soft, laminated, iron, ferromagnetic core to produce magnetic poles when supplied with current.
Electric Motor Commutator
A commutator is a rotary electric switch which supplies alternating or direct current to the rotor.
It periodically reverses the current flow in the rotor winding as the shaft spins. It comprises a
cylinder made of multiple metal contact sections on the armature. Electrical contacts named
"brushes" consisted of a soft conductor material like carbon pressed onto the commutator. The
brushes create sliding contacts with consecutive commutator sections as it spins, offering current
onto the rotor.
 Considerations When Choosing Electric Motors
Voltage –If a wall socket is available, the voltage standard could be 230VAC or more for
industrial use.
Frequency – Motors operate at 60Hz for products working within the United States, but if a
product will be utilized outside of the United States, there is a need to consider a 50Hz
option.
Speed – Is there a speed range at which the motor must operate. If adjustable or exact
speeds are imminent, there may be a need to improve control to the motor.
Torque – How much starting torque is needed for an application? Does the torque needed
from the motor change throughout the motor’s period of function? The worst case scenario
torque amount of an application must be considered.
Power – When offering specifications, it should be known if the motor will be running on
maximum power.
DC Motors

A DC motor is a rotary electrical machine which converts electrical energy from direct
current (DC) into mechanical energy. The most general types depend on the force
created by magnetic fields.
Almost all kinds of DC motors have some internal operation, either electronic or
electromechanical, to change the current direction periodically in a part of the motor.
DC motors were the first kind of motor commonly utilized, as they can be powered
from present direct current lighting energy distributing systems.
Brushed DC (BDC) Motor
A brush-type d.c. motor is essentially a coil of wire which is free to rotate, and so
termed the rotor, in the field of a permanent magnet or an electromagnet, the magnet
being termed the stator since it is stationary (Fig. 1).

Fig. 4: Schematic of a brushed D.C. motor.

Brushed DC (BDC) Motor
When a current is passed through the coil, the resulting forces acting on its sides at
right angles to the field cause forces to act on those sides to give rotation.

However, for the rotation to continue, when the coil passes through the vertical
position the current direction through the coil has to be reversed and this is achieved
by the use of brushes making contact with a split-ring commutator, the commutator
rotating with the coil.

In the conventional d.c. motor, coils of wire are mounted in slots on a cylinder of
magnetic material called the armature. The armature is mounted on bearings and is
free to rotate. It is mounted in the magnetic field produced by field poles. These may
be, for small motors, permanent magnets or electromagnets with their magnetism
produced by a current through the field coils.
Brushed DC (BDC) Motor
Figure shows the basic principle of a four-pole d.c. motor with the magnetic field
produced by current-carrying coils.

The ends of each armature coil are connected to adjacent segments of a segmented
ring called the commutator with electrical contacts made to the segments through
carbon contacts called brushes.

As the armature rotates, the commutator reverses the current in each coil as it moves
between the field poles. This is necessary if the forces acting on the coil are to remain
acting in the same direction and if the rotation is to continue.

The direction of rotation of the d.c. motor can be reversed by reversing either the
armature current or the field current.
Brushed DC (BDC) Motor

Fig. 5:
Brushless DC (BLDC) Motor
Brushless Motor
A brushless motor is a type of DC motor (BL motor or BLDC motor), also referred to
as an electronic commutated motor (EC or ECM motor). It could also be called a
synchronous DC motor. This is a motor utilizing direct current electric power. It
utilizes an electronic controller to turn on DC currents to the windings creating a
magnetic field that successfully rotates in space and the permanent magnet rotor
rotates by following. The controller adjusts the amplitude and phase of the DC current
pulse to control the torque and speed of the motor. This control mechanism is a
substitute for the brushes or mechanical commutator utilized in numerous
conventional electric motors.

Fig. 6: Schematic of a BLDC motor.

Industrial IoT Communication
Introduction
In today's ever-evolving industrial landscape, the integration of Internet of Things (IoT)
technology into industrial processes has become increasingly prevalent. As businesses
seek to optimize their operations, industrial protocols play a pivotal role in enabling
seamless communication and data transfer between devices and systems. Industrial
protocols serve as the foundation for reliable data exchange and enable real-time
monitoring and control in industrial settings.
They facilitate smooth communication between
diverse devices, sensors, and control systems,
allowing for seamless interoperability and
integration. Understanding the nuances of industrial
protocols is crucial for professionals in the field of
Industrial IoT, as it empowers them to make
informed decisions about protocol selection,
implementation, and management.
Industrial IoT Communication
Industrial IoT Communication
Here a range of popular industrial protocols including Modbus, Profibus, OPC UA, MQTT, and
more are analyzed.

Industrial Protocols: Defined

Industrial protocols serve as the backbone of communication systems in the Industrial
Internet of Things (IIoT) landscape. These protocols are specifically designed to enable
seamless and reliable data exchange between various industrial devices and machinery. By
establishing standard communication channels, they ensure interoperability and facilitate
the implementation of advanced automation and control systems.

• One commonly used industrial protocol is Modbus, a simple yet robust communication
protocol widely adopted in industrial environments. Modbus enables the exchange of
data between devices connected over a serial or Ethernet network, making it a preferred
choice for a range of industrial applications.
Industrial IoT Communication

• Another widely used protocol is Profinet, which is specifically designed for

applications in the process and manufacturing industries. Profinet provides real-time
communication capabilities and seamless integration with existing Ethernet
infrastructure, thereby enabling secure and efficient data transmission. This protocol
supports various topologies, such as star, line, and ring, making it highly versatile.

• Ethernet/IP is yet another industrial protocol that leverages standard Ethernet

technology to enable communication between different devices. It offers a wide range
of capabilities, including real-time control, device-level diagnostics, and seamless
integration with IT systems. By utilizing Ethernet/IP, manufacturers can create flexible
and scalable industrial networks that meet the demands of modern industrial
applications.
Industrial IoT Communication
• Another popular protocol is the OPC (Open Platform Communication), which
provides a standardized interface for exchanging real-time data between industrial
automation systems. Its interoperability and flexibility have made it a go-to choice for
seamless integration and communication among various industrial devices and
applications.

• Furthermore, the MQTT (Message Queue Telemetry Transport) protocol has gained
considerable traction in the IIoT landscape due to its lightweight and efficient nature.
It enables easy and reliable data transfer over unreliable networks, making it an ideal
choice for remote monitoring and control applications.

• IEEE 802.15.4 – It is a technical standard that defines the operation of low-rate

wireless personal area networks (LR-WPANs). It intends to offer the fundamental
lower network layers of a type of WPAN that focuses on low-cost, low-speed
communication between devices.
Industrial IoT Communication
A Few points about IEEE 802.15.4:
1. The communication range for this communication protocol is 10-meter.
2. Data rates of 250 kbps, 40 kbps, and 20 kbps
3. Two addressing modes; 16-bit short and 64-bit IEEE addressing
4. Power management to ensure low power consumption
5. Support for critical latency devices, such as joysticks

• Zigbee – It is a low-cost, low-power, wireless mesh network standard targeted at

battery-powered devices in wireless control and monitoring applications. It delivers
low-latency communication. ZigBee chips are typically integrated with radios and with
microcontrollers. ZigBee standard comes in two variants: the regular ZigBee and the
pro variant. Pro is attractive because it offers you know issues of scalability. ZigBee pro
offers better security; improved performance utilizes many routing schemes.
A Few points about Zigbee
1. ZigBee uses small packets compared with Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
Industrial IoT Communication
2. A ZigBee end device should operate for months or even years without needing its
battery replaced.
3. The maximum data rate for a ZigBee device is 250Kbps
4. Easy to implement

• 6LoWPAN – It is a somewhat contorted acronym that combines the latest version of

the Internet Protocol (IPv6) and Low-power Wireless Personal Area Networks
(LoWPAN). 6LoWPAN, therefore, allows for the smallest devices with limited
processing ability to transmit information wirelessly using an internet protocol.
A Few points about 6LoWPAN
1. It’s of small packet size, and media access control addresses are of 16-bit short
or IEEE 64-bit
2. It offers low bandwidth generally anywhere between 250/40/20 kbps
3. It is battery-operated as it uses low power and it’s quite affordable as its price is
a bit low
Industrial IoT Communication
5. It uses open IP standards including TCP, UDP, HTTP, COAP, MATT, and web sockets
6. It offers end-to-end IP addressable nodes.

Wireless HART – It is a wireless sensor networking technology based on the Highway

Addressable Remote Transducer Protocol (HART). Developed as a multi-vendor,
interoperable wireless standard, Wireless HART was defined for the requirements of
process field device networks.

A Few points about Wireless HART

1. Process monitoring, control and asset management
2. Health, safety, and environmental compliance monitoring
3. Fast engineering, deployment, and commissioning
4. Cost-effective move from scheduled to predictive maintenance
5. Easy diagnosing and troubleshooting
Industrial IoT Communication
ISA 100 – It is used for wireless network technology and was developed by the
International Society for Automation. It primarily focuses on automation in industrial
environments and obviously, this standard is based on 802.15.4.

1. It has security at two layers viz. transport and data link layer and hence it is a more
secure protocol
2. It can be seamlessly integrated with cable network with the use of ethernet port
available on the gateway
3. It uses very low power for communication and hence it will ensure the safety of
people working in the plant.
4. Network and transport layers are as per 6LoWPAN, Ipv6, and UDP
5. Uses mesh/star topology for communication.
Industrial IoT Communication
Bluetooth – It is used for setting up a wireless network of different peripherals of a
particular computer, headphones, and mobile phones. Bluetooth is a widely used
technology that can help in setting up IoT based networks and network systems.

1. Replacing chords that connect devices to

one another with invisible, low power,
short-range wireless connection is one of
the important features
2. Allows collaborative communication
between individuals, their appliances and
the environment
3. Bluetooth devices can communicate a range
of up to 10 meters

4. Each Bluetooth device has the capability of sharing all of its features with other Bluetooth
devices in the surrounding area
Industrial IoT Communication
NFC – It is a set of communication protocols for communication between two electronic
devices over a distance of 4 cm (1 1⁄2 in) or less. NFC offers a low-speed connection
with a simple setup that can be used to bootstrap more capable wireless connections.

1. NFC operates in the 13.56 MHz frequency band

2. The range of communication in NFC is less than 10 cm
3. It supports various data rates, 106, 212 or 424 kbps
4. The two communication modes supported between two devices, one is the active-
active and the other one is the active-passive mode
5. Applications of NFCs are in the tracking of goods, banking sector, NFC enabled
smartphones, data communication between smartphones using NFC, security, and
authentication, and low power home automation systems
Industrial IoT Communication
RFID – It is an acronym for “radio-frequency identification” and refers to a technology
whereby digital data encoded in RFID tags or smart labels (defined below) are captured
by a reader via radio waves. RFID is similar to barcoding in that data from a tag or label
are captured by a device that stores the data in a database. RFID, however, has several
advantages over systems that use barcode asset tracking software. The most notable is
that RFID tag data can be read outside the line-of-sight, whereas barcodes must be
aligned with an optical scanner.
1. Multiple Read
2. Read Through Material
3. Broader Range (Distance)
4. Reduced Human Intervention
5. Higher Throughput
6. Inventory Accuracy
7. Real-Time Information
8. Increased Security and Traceability
9. More Flexible than Barcodes
Industrial IoT Communication
Benefits of Industrial Protocols for Industrial IoT

• One of the key advantages of industrial protocols is their ability to ensure robust
connectivity. They enable real-time communication and data exchange between
different machines, controllers, and sensors, resulting in enhanced operational
efficiency and productivity.

• Industrial protocols also support large-scale deployments, allowing multiple devices

to be connected and managed simultaneously.

• Security is paramount in the IIoT landscape, and industrial protocols address this
concern effectively. These protocols offer various security features, including
authentication, encryption, and access control, safeguarding critical industrial data
from unauthorized access and cyber threats. By implementing industrial protocols,
organizations can mitigate the risk of data breaches and ensure data integrity.
Industrial IoT Communication

• Another benefit of industrial protocols is their interoperability. They provide a

standardized framework for communication, allowing devices from different
manufacturers to communicate seamlessly. This interoperability simplifies the
integration of new devices and systems in the existing industrial environment,
reducing compatibility issues and overall maintenance costs.

• Ultimately, industrial protocols serve as the backbone of IIoT networks, providing a

robust and reliable communication infrastructure.

• By leveraging the benefits of industrial protocols, organizations can unlock the full
potential of IIoT, driving innovation, automation, and improved decision-making in
industrial environments.
Challenges of Industrial Protocols for Industrial IoT
The widespread implementation of Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) has brought about
numerous benefits and opportunities in the industrial sector. However, it has also
introduced several challenges, particularly in terms of industrial protocols. Industrial
protocols play a crucial role in enabling communication and data exchange between
interconnected devices in IIoT systems.

• One of the primary challenges of industrial protocols for IIoT is interoperability. With
various devices and systems from different manufacturers needing to communicate
seamlessly, it is essential to have protocols that can facilitate interoperability. However,
many industrial protocols lack standardization, leading to compatibility issues and the
need for complex integration solutions.

• Another challenge is security. Industrial environments require robust security

measures to protect sensitive data and ensure system integrity. However, many
industrial protocols were designed before the advent of IIoT and lack built-in security
features. This necessitates the implementation of additional security measures, which
can be costly and time-consuming.
• Additionally, scalability poses a challenge for industrial protocols in IIoT. As IIoT systems
continue to grow and expand, protocols must be able to accommodate increasing
device counts and higher data transfer rates. Scalability issues can arise when protocols
are not designed to handle the growing demands of IIoT applications.

• To overcome these challenges, industry players are constantly working on developing

new and improved industrial protocols. Standardization efforts and the incorporation
of robust security features are crucial steps in enhancing the interoperability and
security of industrial protocols for IIoT systems.
Industrial IoT Communication
Comparing Industrial Protocols: Pros and Cons
Industrial protocols play a crucial role in Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) applications,
facilitating communication between various devices and systems in the industrial
environment. Each protocol has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, depending on
the specific requirements of the application.

• One widely used protocol is Modbus, known for its simplicity and easy integration. It
operates over serial, Ethernet, or TCP/IP connections, and supports both master/slave
and client/server communication models.

• However, Modbus lacks security features and scalability, making it more suitable for
smaller installations.

• On the other hand, PROFINET offers high-performance communication and real-time

data exchange. It is a flexible and versatile protocol that supports both Industrial
Ethernet and wireless communication.
Industrial IoT Communication

• PROFINET also provides advanced diagnostic capabilities and integrated safety

functions. However, its implementation complexity and higher cost make it more
suitable for larger and more complex IIoT applications.

• Ethernet/IP is another popular protocol that combines standard Ethernet with the
Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) for seamless communication. It offers excellent
interoperability and high-speed data transfer rates. However, Ethernet/IP requires
more bandwidth and may encounter compatibility issues with non-Ethernet devices.

• When selecting an industrial protocol for IIoT applications, it is essential to consider

factors such as security, scalability, performance, and cost.

Evaluating the pros and cons of each protocol can help businesses make an informed
decision to meet their specific needs.
Industrial IoT Communication
Industrial Protocol Selection Considerations

Regarding Industrial IoT (IIoT), selecting the right industrial protocol is crucial for
seamless communication and interoperability among devices and systems. The protocol
choice depends on various factors, including the specific application requirements,
network infrastructure, scalability, security, and cost.

• One of the primary considerations is the data transfer rate. Protocols like Modbus,
which are widely used in industrial automation, offer lower data transfer rates but
can still be suitable for applications where real-time data is not critical.

• On the other hand, protocols like OPC provide high-speed data transfer, making them
ideal for applications that require real-time monitoring and control. Reliability and
fault tolerance are also vital considerations.
Industrial IoT Communication
• Some protocols, such as PROFIBUS or PROFINET, offer robust error correction
mechanisms, ensuring that data integrity is maintained even in harsh industrial
environments. These protocols are widely adopted in applications where reliability is of
utmost importance, such as process control and manufacturing.
• Security is a growing concern in the IIoT landscape. Protocols like MQTT and AMQP
(Advanced Message Queuing Protocol) offer built-in security features, including
encryption and authentication, protecting sensitive data from unauthorized access.
Considering the increasing number of cyber threats, selecting a protocol with robust
security features is a must for any IIoT deployment.

In conclusion, selecting the right industrial protocol requires careful consideration of

factors like data transfer rate, reliability, security, and application requirements. By
choosing the appropriate protocol, industries can harness the full potential of IIoT,
achieving improved efficiency, productivity, and cost savings.
Industrial IoT Communication
Future Trends in Industrial Protocols
As the Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) continues to grow and evolve, industrial
protocols play a crucial role in enabling seamless and efficient communication between
devices and machines.
• To keep pace with the advancements in technology, several future trends are expected
to shape the landscape of industrial protocols. One prominent trend is the adoption of
open standards and interoperability. A few famous examples of open standards are
XML, SQL, and HTML.
• With the increasing complexity of industrial systems, compatibility among different
protocols has become imperative. Open standards provide a common framework for
various protocols to coexist, facilitating device interoperability and promoting seamless
integration.
• Another significant trend is the implementation of real-time communication protocols.
Industrial IoT Communication
• As industries become more reliant on real-time data and analytics, protocols that can
deliver information with minimal latency are gaining traction. Real-time protocols
ensure prompt communication between devices, allowing for immediate decision-
making and enhancing overall operational efficiency.
• Moreover, the integration of wireless protocols is expected to play a pivotal role in the
future of industrial IoT. Wireless networks offer greater flexibility, mobility, and
scalability compared to traditional wired connections. By leveraging wireless protocols,
industrial IoT systems can expand their reach and enable connectivity in areas that
were once challenging to access.

In conclusion, the future of industrial protocols in the realm of Industrial IoT is headed
towards open standards, real-time communication, and wireless integration. These
trends aim to drive innovation, enhance interoperability, and streamline industrial
processes. Embracing these developments will empower businesses to fully leverage the
potential of IIoT and stay ahead in the competitive industrial landscape.
 Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
Software Defined Networking (SDN) is an approach to networking that uses software-
based controllers or application programming interfaces (APIs) to communicate with
underlying hardware infrastructure and direct traffic on a network.

Traditional Network
Software-defined network

https://www.vmware.com/topics/glossary/content/software-defined-networking.html
Advantages of Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
Software-defined networking (SDN) offers several advantages over traditional networking
architectures, including:
Centralized Network Control: One of the key benefits of SDN is that it centralizes the
control of the network in a single controller, making it easier to manage and configure the
network. This allows network administrators to define and enforce network policies in a
more granular way, resulting in better network security, performance, and reliability.
Cost Savings: With SDN, network administrators can use commodity hardware to build a
network, reducing the cost of proprietary network hardware. Additionally, the
centralization of network control can reduce the need for manual network management,
leading to cost savings in labor and maintenance.
Programmable Network: In an SDN environment, network devices are programmable and
can be reconfigured on the fly to meet changing network requirements. This allows
network administrators to quickly adapt the network to changing traffic patterns and
demands, resulting in better network performance and efficiency.
Advantages of Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
Enhanced Network Security: The centralized control of the network in SDN makes it easier
to detect and respond to security threats. The use of network policies and rules allows
administrators to implement fine-grained security controls that can mitigate security risks.
Scalability: SDN makes it easier to scale the network to meet changing traffic demands.
With the ability to programmatically control the network, administrators can quickly adjust
the network to handle more traffic without the need for manual intervention.
Simplified Network Management: SDN can simplify network management by abstracting
the underlying network hardware and presenting a logical view of the network to
administrators. This makes it easier to manage and troubleshoot the network, resulting in
better network uptime and reliability.

Overall, SDN offers a more flexible, programmable, and centralized approach to networking
that can result in significant cost savings, enhanced network security, and improved
network performance and reliability
How does SDN work? Or Architecture of SDN
The architecture of software-defined networking (SDN)
consists of three main layers: the application layer, the
control layer, and the infrastructure layer. Each layer
has a specific role and interacts with the other layers to
manage and control the network.
Infrastructure Layer: The infrastructure layer is the
bottom layer of the SDN architecture, also known as the
data plane. It consists of physical and virtual network
devices such as switches, routers, and firewalls that are
responsible for forwarding network traffic based on the
instructions received from the control plane.
Control Layer: The control layer is the middle layer of
the SDN architecture, also known as the control plane.
It consists of a centralized controller that communicates
with the infrastructure layer devices and is responsible
for managing and configuring the network.
How does SDN work? Or Architecture of SDN
The controller interacts with the devices in the infrastructure layer using protocols such as
Open Flow to program the forwarding behaviour of the switches and routers. The controller
uses network policies and rules to make decisions about how traffic should be forwarded
based on factors such as network topology, traffic patterns, and quality of service
requirements.
Application Layer: The application layer is the top layer of the SDN architecture and is
responsible for providing network services and applications to end-users. This layer consists of
various network applications that interact with the control layer to manage the network.

Examples of applications that can be deployed in an SDN environment include network

virtualization, traffic engineering, security, and monitoring. The application layer can be used to
create customized network services that meet specific business needs.
The main benefit of the SDN architecture is its flexibility and ability to centralize control of the
network. The separation of the control plane from the data plane enables network
administrators to configure and manage the network more easily and in a more granular way,
allowing for greater network agility and faster response times to changes in network traffic.
Disadvantages of Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
While software-defined networking (SDN) has several advantages over traditional
networking, there are also some potential disadvantages that organizations should be
aware of. Here are some of the main disadvantages of SDN:

Complexity: SDN can be more complex than traditional networking because it involves a
more sophisticated set of technologies and requires specialized skills to manage. For
example, the use of a centralized controller to manage the network requires a deep
understanding of the SDN architecture and protocols.
Dependency on the Controller: The centralized controller is a critical component of SDN,
and if it fails, the entire network could go down. This means that organizations need to
ensure that the controller is highly available and that they have a robust backup and
disaster recovery plan in place.
Compatibility: Some legacy network devices may not be compatible with SDN, which
means that organizations may need to replace or upgrade these devices to take full
advantage of the benefits of SDN.
Disadvantages of Software-Defined Networking (SDN)
Security: While SDN can enhance network security, it can also introduce new security risks.
For example, a single point of control could be an attractive target for attackers, and the
programmability of the network could make it easier for attackers to manipulate traffic.
Vendor Lock-In: SDN solutions from different vendors may not be interoperable, which
could lead to vendor lock-in. This means that organizations may be limited in their ability to
switch to another vendor or integrate new solutions into their existing network.
Performance: The centralized control of the network in SDN can introduce latency, which
could impact network performance in certain situations. Additionally, the overhead of the
SDN controller could impact the performance of the network as the network scales.

In summary, while SDN offers many benefits, organizations should carefully consider the
potential drawbacks before implementing an SDN solution. A thorough evaluation of the
organization's needs and existing infrastructure, as well as a comprehensive understanding
of the benefits and limitations of SDN, is critical to making an informed decision.
Overall, SDN is an emerging technology that has the potential to transform the way
networks are designed, deployed, and managed.
How is SDN different from Traditional Networking?
The key difference between SDN and traditional networking is infrastructure: SDN is
software-based, while traditional networking is hardware-based. Because the control plane
is software-based, SDN is much more flexible than traditional networking. It allows
administrators to control the network, change configuration settings, provision resources,
and increase network capacity—all from a centralized user interface, without adding more
hardware.

There are also security differences between SDN and traditional networking. Thanks to
greater visibility and the ability to define secure pathways. SDN offers better security in
many ways. However, because software-defined networks use a centralized controller,
securing the controller is crucial to maintaining a secure network, and this single point of
failure represents a potential vulnerability of SDN.