UNIT-I
1. Evolution of Programming & Languages
Explanation: Programming languages have evolved to make coding easier and more powerful,
moving from machine language to high-level languages like C, which is easier to understand and
write.
2. Problem Solving through Programming
Explanation: Programming is used to create solutions to real-world problems by breaking down
complex tasks into simpler steps and implementing them as code.
3. Writing Algorithms & Pseudo Code
Definition: An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to solve a problem. Pseudo code is a high-level
description of an algorithm written in a simple, language-like form.
Example (Pseudo code to add two numbers):
Start
Input num1, num2
sum = num1 + num2
Print sum
End
Explanation: Pseudo code helps plan the logic of the code in simple steps before actual coding.
4. Comments in C
Single-line Comment
Syntax:
// This is a single-line comment
Explanation: Used for short notes about the code; C ignores the comment during compilation.
Multi-line Comment
Syntax:
/* This is a multi-line comment */
Explanation: Used for longer explanations or to temporarily remove code during debugging.
5. Structure of a C Program
Explanation: A basic C program consists of headers, the main() function, and statements within { }.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello, World!");
return 0;
Explanation: #include imports libraries, and main() is where execution starts.
6. Input and Output Statements
Input (scanf) and Output (printf)
Example:
int age;
printf("Enter your age: ");
scanf("%d", &age);
printf("Your age is %d", age);
Explanation: scanf reads user input, and printf displays text to the screen.
7. Variables and Identifiers
Definition: A variable is a named location in memory to store data. An identifier is the name given to a
variable.
Syntax:
int age;
Explanation: int declares an integer variable age that can store a whole number.
8. Constants, Keywords
Constants: Fixed values that do not change during program execution.
Keywords: Reserved words in C, like int, float, return, which cannot be used as variable names.
Example:
const int MAX = 100;
Explanation: const defines a constant integer MAX.
9. Values, Names, Scope, Binding
Scope
Example:
int main() {
int x = 5; // x has local scope within main
Explanation: Variables declared inside a function have a local scope, accessible only within that
function.
Binding - Explanation: Binding is the association of variables with values, such as int x = 5;, where x
is bound to 5.
10. Storage Classes
Definition: Storage classes determine the scope, lifetime, and visibility of variables.
Example:
static int count = 0;
Explanation: static preserves a variable’s value even after the function in which it’s declared ends.
11. Numeric Data Types
Integer
Example:
int age = 21;
Explanation: Declares an integer age to store whole numbers.
Floating Point
Example:
float price = 19.99;
Explanation: Declares a floating-point variable price for decimal values.
12. Non-Numeric Data Types
Char
Example:
char grade = 'A';
Explanation: Declares a character variable grade to store single characters.
String
Example:
char name[] = "John";
Explanation: Declares a character array name to store a string.
13. L-value and R-value in Expressions
Example:
int x = 5; // x is L-value, 5 is R-value
Explanation: L-value is a variable on the left of =, R-value is a value on the right.
14. Increment and Decrement Operators
Syntax:
int x = 5;
x++; // Post-increment
++x; // Pre-increment
Explanation: ++ increases x by 1; -- decreases it by 1.
15. Comma, Arrow, and Assignment Operators
Comma Operator
Example:
int a = 1, b = 2;
Explanation: Allows multiple expressions to be evaluated in a single line.
Arrow Operator (For Pointers to Structs)
Example:
struct Point { int x, y; };
struct Point *p = &point;
p->x = 10;
Explanation: Accesses members of a struct through a pointer.
Assignment Operator
Example:
int x = 5;
Explanation: Assigns a value to a variable.
16. Bitwise and Size-of Operators
Bitwise Operator
Example:
int x = 5 & 3;
Explanation: Performs bitwise operations, here & for bitwise AND.
Size-of Operator
Example:
printf("%lu", sizeof(int));
Explanation: Returns the size of a data type in bytes.
17. Arithmetic, Relational, and Logical Operators
Arithmetic Operators
Example:
int sum = 5 + 3;
Explanation: +, -, *, / for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Relational Operators
Example:
int x = 5, y = 3;
if (x > y) { printf("x is greater"); }
Explanation: >, <, >=, <= compare two values.
Logical Operators
Example:
if (x > 0 && y < 5) { printf("Condition met"); }
Explanation: &&, ||, ! are used to combine logical expressions.
18. Conditional (Ternary) Operator
Syntax:
int x = (y > 0) ? 1 : 0;
Explanation: Returns 1 if y is positive, otherwise 0.
19. Operator Precedence
Explanation: Determines the order in which operators are evaluated. Multiplication * and division /
have higher precedence than addition + and subtraction -.
20. Expressions with Pre/Post-Increment Operators
Example:
int x = 5;
int y = x++;
Explanation: y is assigned 5, then x is incremented to 6.
UNIT-II
1. Conditional Control Statements
Simple if Statement
Definition: Executes a block of code if a specified condition is true.
Syntax:
if (condition) {
// code to execute if condition is true
Example:
int age = 18;
if (age >= 18) {
printf("You are eligible to vote.\n");
Explanation: This program checks if the age is 18 or older. If true, it prints a message indicating
eligibility to vote.
if...else Statement
Definition: Provides an alternative set of code to execute if the condition is false.
Syntax:
if (condition) {
// code if true
} else {
// code if false
Example:
int age = 16;
if (age >= 18) {
printf("Eligible to vote.\n");
} else {
printf("Not eligible to vote.\n");
Explanation: If age is less than 18, it will print "Not eligible to vote"; otherwise, it prints "Eligible to
vote."
else if and Nested if Statements
Definition: else if provides multiple conditions, and a nested if contains an if within another if.
Syntax:
if (condition1) {
// code if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// code if condition2 is true
} else {
// code if both conditions are false
Example:
int marks = 85;
if (marks >= 90) {
printf("Grade: A\n");
} else if (marks >= 80) {
printf("Grade: B\n");
} else {
printf("Grade: C\n");
Explanation: This code assigns grades based on marks, demonstrating both else if and
conditional branches.
2. Switch Case
Definition: The switch statement allows a variable to be tested for equality against multiple values.
Syntax:
switch (expression) {
case constant1:
// code
break;
case constant2:
// code
break;
default:
// code
Example:
int day = 3;
switch (day) {
case 1: printf("Monday\n"); break;
case 2: printf("Tuesday\n"); break;
case 3: printf("Wednesday\n"); break;
default: printf("Invalid day\n");
Explanation: The code displays the day based on the value of day. Each case provides a different
message.
3. Unconditional Control Statements
break Statement
Definition: Exits a loop or switch statement.
Example:
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
if (i == 3) break;
printf("%d ", i);
Explanation: The loop stops when i equals 3, so only 1 2 are printed.
continue Statement
Definition: Skips the current loop iteration and continues with the next.
Example:
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
if (i == 3) continue;
printf("%d ", i);
Explanation: The code skips 3 and prints 1 2 4 5.
goto Statement
Definition: Transfers control to a labeled statement.
Example:
int x = 1;
if (x == 1) goto label;
printf("This won't print.\n");
label:
printf("Jumped to label!\n");
Explanation: If x equals 1, it jumps to label.
4. Looping Control Statements
for Loop
Syntax:
for (initialization; condition; update) {
// code
Example:
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
printf("%d ", i);
Explanation: Prints numbers from 1 to 5.
while Loop
Syntax:
while (condition) {
// code
Example:
int i = 1;
while (i <= 5) {
printf("%d ", i);
i++;
Explanation: Prints numbers from 1 to 5 while the condition is true.
do...while Loop
Syntax:
do {
// code
} while (condition);
Example:
int i = 1;
do {
printf("%d ", i);
i++;
} while (i <= 5);
Explanation: Executes the code at least once, then checks the condition.
Nested Loops
Example:
for (int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {
printf("%d ", j);
printf("\n");
Explanation: Uses a for loop inside another for loop to print a matrix.
5. Introduction to Arrays
1D Array Declaration and Initialization
Syntax:
int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};
Explanation: Declares an array of 5 integers.
Accessing and Indexing 1D Arrays
Example:
printf("First element: %d\n", arr[0]);
Explanation: Accesses the first element using index 0.
2D Array Declaration and Initialization
Syntax:
int arr[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}};
Explanation: Declares a 2x3 array.
Accessing Elements in 2D Arrays
Example:
printf("Element at [1][2]: %d\n", arr[1][2]);
Explanation: Accesses the element at row 1, column 2.
6. Pointers
Pointer Declaration and Dereferencing
Syntax:
int x = 10;
int *ptr = &x;
printf("Value at ptr: %d\n", *ptr);
Explanation: Declares a pointer to x and uses * to access the value.
Void Pointers
Definition: A pointer with no specific data type; can point to any data type.
Example:
void *ptr;
int x = 10;
ptr = &x;
printf("Void pointer points to: %d\n", *(int*)ptr);
Explanation: A void pointer points to x, cast to an int.
Pointer-based Array Manipulation
Example:
int arr[3] = {1, 2, 3};
int *ptr = arr;
for (int i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
printf("%d ", *(ptr + i));
Explanation: Uses a pointer to iterate through an array.
UNIT-III
1. String Basics
String Declaration and Initialization
Syntax:
char str[20] = "Hello, world!";
Explanation: Declares a character array str and initializes it with the string "Hello, world!".
2. String Functions
gets() and puts()
Example:
char str[50];
printf("Enter a string: ");
gets(str);
puts("You entered:");
puts(str);
Explanation: gets() takes a string input from the user, and puts() outputs it.
getchar() and putchar()
Example:
char ch;
printf("Enter a character: ");
ch = getchar();
printf("You entered: ");
putchar(ch);
Explanation: getchar() reads a single character, and putchar() prints it.
printf()
Example:
printf("Hello, %s!", "world");
Explanation: printf() outputs formatted text; %s is used to print strings.
3. Built-in String Functions
atoi
Example:
char str[] = "123";
int num = atoi(str);
printf("Converted number: %d", num);
Explanation: atoi() converts a string to an integer.
strlen
Example:
char str[] = "Hello";
printf("Length: %lu", strlen(str));
Explanation: strlen() returns the length of the string.
strcat
Example:
char str1[20] = "Hello, ";
char str2[] = "world!";
strcat(str1, str2);
printf("%s", str1);
Explanation: strcat() appends str2 to str1.
strcmp
Example:
char str1[] = "apple";
char str2[] = "orange";
if (strcmp(str1, str2) == 0) {
printf("Strings are equal");
} else {
printf("Strings are not equal");
Explanation: strcmp() compares two strings lexicographically.
4. Additional String Functions
sprintf
Example:
char buffer[50];
int num = 123;
sprintf(buffer, "Number: %d", num);
puts(buffer);
Explanation: sprintf() formats data into a string stored in buffer.
sscanf
Example:
char str[] = "123 456";
int a, b;
sscanf(str, "%d %d", &a, &b);
printf("a = %d, b = %d", a, b);
Explanation: sscanf() reads formatted data from a string.
strrev (if available in your compiler)
Example:
char str[] = "Hello";
strrev(str);
printf("%s", str);
Explanation: strrev() reverses the string in place.
strcpy
Example:
char src[] = "Hello";
char dest[20];
strcpy(dest, src);
printf("%s", dest);
Explanation: strcpy() copies src into dest.
strstr
Example:
char str[] = "Hello, world!";
char *pos = strstr(str, "world");
printf("Found at position: %s", pos);
Explanation: strstr() finds a substring within a string.
strtok
Example:
char str[] = "apple,banana,orange";
char *token = strtok(str, ",");
while (token != NULL) {
printf("%s\n", token);
token = strtok(NULL, ",");
Explanation: strtok() splits a string into tokens based on a delimiter.
5. Operations on Strings
Example:
char str1[20] = "Hello";
char str2[20] = "World";
printf("Concatenated: %s", strcat(str1, str2));
Explanation: Demonstrates concatenation as one of the common string operations.
6. Function Basics
Function Prototype Declaration and Definition
Example:
void greet(); // Prototype
void greet() { // Definition
printf("Hello, student!");
Explanation: Defines a function greet and its prototype.
Actual and Formal Parameters
Example:
void display(int num) { // Formal parameter
printf("Number: %d", num);
int main() {
int n = 5;
display(n); // Actual parameter
Explanation: Shows how n is the actual parameter passed to display.
Function with and without Arguments
Example:
void greet() { printf("Hello!"); }
void greetUser(char *name) { printf("Hello, %s!", name); }
Explanation: greet() has no arguments; greetUser takes a string as an argument.
Function with and without Return Values
Example:
int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }
void display() { printf("Hello"); }
Explanation: add returns an integer, while display has no return value.
7. Call by Value and Call by Reference
Call by Value
Example:
void increment(int x) { x++; }
Explanation: Call by value passes a copy; changes in the function do not affect the original variable.
Call by Reference
Example:
void increment(int *x) { (*x)++; }
Explanation: Call by reference passes an address, so changes affect the original variable.
8. Passing Array to Function
Example:
void printArray(int arr[], int size) {
for (int i = 0; i < size; i++) {
printf("%d ", arr[i]);
Explanation: The entire array arr is passed to the function to print each element.
Passing Array Elements to Function
Example:
void displayElement(int element) {
printf("Element: %d", element);
Explanation: Passes individual elements instead of the entire array.
9. Function Pointers
Example:
void greet() { printf("Hello!\n"); }
int main() {
void (*ptr)() = greet;
ptr();
Explanation: ptr is a function pointer that stores the address of greet, which is then called.
