CHIAROSCURO: A SINGER'S APPROACH TO EXPLORING ARTISTIC

INDIVIDUALITY IN INTERPRETATION

by

JANENE M. NELSON

A LECTURE DOCUMENT

Presented to the School of Music and Dance

and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts

June 2013
 ll

"Chiaroscuro: A Singer's Approach to Exploring Artistic Individuality in Interpretation,"

a lecture-document prepared by Janene M. Nelson in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the Doctor of Musical Arts degree in the School of Music and Dance.

This lecture-document has been approved and accepted by:

J·---u_ flt'' / V / c2 () /3
Date

Committee in Charge: Milagro Vargas, Chair

Eric Mentzel
Dr. Frank Diaz

Accepted by:

Ann B. Tedards, Associate Dean and Director of Graduate Studies,

School of Music and Dance
 iii

© 2013 Janene M. Nelson

CURRICULUM VITAE

NAME OF AUTHOR: janene Marie Nelson

GRADUATE AND UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS ATTENDED:

University of Oregon, Eugene

Central Washington University, Ellensburg
Western Oregon University, Monmouth

DEGREES AWARDED:

Doctor of Musical Atis, Vocal Performance, 2013, University of Oregon

Master of Music, Vocal Performance, 2007, Central Washington University
Bachelor of Science, Business Administration, 2005, Western Oregon University
Bachelor of Science, Vocal Performance, 2002, Western Oregon University

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE:

Insttuctor of Voice, Western Oregon University, 2011-present

Graduate Teaching Fellow, University of Oregon, 2008-2012
Instmctor of Voice, Central Washington University, 2007-2008
Graduate Teaching Assistant, Central Washington University, 2006-2007

GRANTS, AWARDS, AND HONORS:

Exine Bailey Music Scholarship, University of Oregon, 2012

Helen Snelling Music Scholarship, Central Washington University, 2007
Music Depatiment Scholarship, Westem Oregon University, 2001
Laurels Scholar, Westem Oregon University, 1998-2002

v
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page

I. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 1

Genesis of Idea...................................................................................................... 1

The Value of a Chiaroscuro Pathway to Interpretation........................................ 3

Research Parameters ... .. ... ... .... ..... .. ..... ....... ... ... .... ....... ..... ... ......... ... .... .... .... .... .... .. 5

II. UNDERSTANDING CHIAROSCURO................................................................. 6

Definitions............................................................................................................. 6

Chiaroscuro and the Arts...................................................................................... 10

Chiaroscuro and Perception ................................................................................. 16

Ill. UNDERSTANDING INTERPRETATION......................................................... 24

Singing Philosophies............................................................................................. 24

Interpretive Challenges......................................................................................... 31

III. APPROACHING VOCAL LITERATORE.......................................................... 35

Chiaroscuro Interpretation Analysis..................................................................... 35

IV. ENGAGING IN THE CHIAROSCURO PROCESS............................................ 48

IV. CONCLUSION..................................................................................................... 55

APPENDICES ............................................................................................................ 59

A. IfMusic be the Food ofLove, Z. 379a ............................................................. 59

B. {f Music be the Food ofLove, Z. 379c ............................................................. 61

C. GUIDELINES FOR SINGERS........................................................................ 64

D. COMPENDIUM OF CHIAROSCURO TERMS............................................. 68

E. SUPPLEMENTAL SOURCES........................................................................ 69

REFERENCES CITED............................................................................................... 71

vi
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

GENESIS OF THE IDEA

In the spring of2012, I began collaborating with University of Oregon Professor

Milagro Vargas to coordinate a voice studio recital centered on the themes of darkness

and light. I proposed the theme in response to a request made by Professor Vargas and,

after sharing my thoughts for a concept that allowed for interpretive inventiveness across

the studio's varied repettoire, she suggested that the theme be extended beyond the idea

of darkness and light to encompass the concept of chiaroscuro. Chiaroscuro is an Italian

term for the contrast and interplay of light and dark. This term is most commonly

associated with the Renaissance painting teclmique, but modern interpretation of the term

has broadened to include all significant contrasts between light and dark as seen in mt,

literature, film, and music. It was Professor Vargas' intention that this reimagining of the

theme would explore not only the extremes of darkness and light, but also include the

nuances and overlapping possibilities that exist between them. The result was

Chiaroscuro: An Evening of Song That Explores Color, Emotion, and Imagination, a

recital that explored a wide range of vocal literature through the concept of chiaroscuro.

As my fellow singers and I reflected on the different elements of chiaroscuro that each of

us uncovered in our individual selections, I found myself fascinated by the concept's

seemingly universal capacity to depict music in a fresh way. The studio was comprised of

undergraduate students, master's students, and doctoral students, and this approach to the

literature allowed everyone to unearth something new. This process captured my

curiosity as to whether a chiaroscuro-based pathway to interpretation could benefit

singers at all levels of expertise.

1
 Artistic interpretation is a vital component of a singer's development, yet it can

present unique challenges. Unlike technical proficiency, which is often approached as a

collection of skills that can each be improved by breaking them down into smaller tasks,

interpretation tends to emphasize the philosophical and less tangible elements of musical

expression. The areas that comprise interpretation-such as familiarity with style,

informed performance practice, textual analysis, and character study---{;ontain elements

that may be broken down somewhat systematically; however, to a great extent they

remain more difficult to codify. The process of acquiring skills in musicianship and

technicalmaste1y can be largely objective, as much of it relates to issues of accuracy and

efficiency: components that can be measured. Examples of such activities include breath

support, intonation, rhytlun, and tempo. In contrast, elements of the process of

interpretation can be largely subjective, as it often results from a singer's individual

perception of the musical, poetic, and dramatic content, as influenced by his or her own

experiences and attitudes. As described by English baritone Thomas Hemsley in Singing

and Imagination, 1 interpretation requires a singer to channel the instinctive responses that

impel him or her to express emotion into vocal intention, while simultaneously honoring

the conception of the music and poetly provided by the composer.

Hemsley's description of interpretation underscores the daunting challenge young

singers face. When tasked with demonstrating a distinct understanding of style, historical

context, and dramatic nuance, many singers stmggle to attain the same sense of

accomplishment that can be more clearly conveyed through an accurate display of

musicianship. Often this leads to a fear of getting the "wrong" answer, under the

1 Thomas Hemsley, Singing and Imagination: A human approach to a great musical tradition
assumption that there is only one answer to uncover. This cycle of uncertainty results in

singers who, while musically and vocally strong, lack the ability to trust their own

instincts and ideas. Singers who fall into this trap end up making safe, uninspired

interpretive choices instead of taking license to explore the literature through a fully

realized and authentic interpretation.

This is where chiaroscuro can be a valuable lens. Singers are familiar with the

term as a component of ideal vocal sound that possesses a balance of clarity and depth.

Adapting this concept to a philosophical, interpretive stance, the essence of chiaroscuro

can be seen as the idea that lightness and darkness are not mutually exclusive extremes,

but rather mutually reliant elements that pervade emotion, art, and sound. Through this

new lens, singers are permitted the freedom to escape the rigid concepts of "right" and

"wrong" and discover a personal and unique interpretive voice. This pathway to

interpretive individuality is by no means an invitation to chaos by which a singer

disregards historical and stylistic practices or replaces disciplined score study and

research. It is meant as a supplement to these practices through which a singer might find

an opportunity to engage with the music in a more authentic and visceral way.

THE VALUE OF A CHIAROSCURO PATHWAY TO INTERPRETATION

The purpose of this document is to explore artistic interpretation of vocal

literature through a chiaroscuro lens. A chiaroscuro pathway to interpretation consists of

identifYing both the numerous ways in which darkness and light are evident, and how

these various expressions of darkness and light interrelate and inform each other.

Embracing the innate interdisciplinary nature of music performance-which aligns

musical interpretation and teclmical development with visual art, literature, theatre,

history, linguistics, and social science-this process can provide a unifying lens through

which singers may respond to, analyze, and experience vocal literature. The intended

result of this exploration is an organic and personal means of approaching interpretation

that simultaneously honors the integrity of the musical work. This requires an

understanding of chiaroscuro, both the development of the technique in visual art as well

as its adaptation to literaty and performing arts (including vocal pedagogy). Equally vital

is the identification of obstacles faced by modern singers in the process of interpretation,

including an examination of different schools of thought regarding interpretation. In my

experience, singers have often subscribed to one of two major philosophies: the belief

that first and foremost a consistent tone and beautiful sound should be valued above all or

the belief that expression of the musical and poetic ideas should be of primaty

consideration and inform the vocal sound. This component of the research will provide an

historical context for the different methods used by singers in approaching interpretation,

and will inform the development of useful interpretation guidelines.

Once this foundation is established, the practical application of a chiaroscuro

framework for interpretation will be explored through analysis of a piece from the

standard repertoire. The studio recital that inspired this research allowed an initial inquily

into how chiaroscuro elements may relate and intertwine, in a way that shifted and

emiched my understanding of each piece. I found that fascinating dichotomies often exist

between the core idea of the stmy or sentiment and the technical demands imposed by the

composition itself. The dramatic idea expressed by the emotional content of the poetry

and musical texture may lean strongly to one side of the chiaroscuro spectrum, while

4
elements such as tessitura and phrasing may lean in the other direction. Drastic contrasts

or shifts in text may be set to identical melodies, as is often the case in strophic music,

and subtle harmonic cues or articulations which are identified as "light" or "dark" may

provide a deeper sense of the musical and dramatic journey.

This research will culminate in the development of guidelines that singers and

teachers may use as an artistic tool. The focus is on applications of chiaroscuro in the

interpretive process and the benefits of using the insights gained through this process to

inform the musical intentions and vocal sound. The ultimate objective of this research is

to provide a clearly organized pathway to interpretation that serves both the content of the

music and the individuality of the singer.

RESEARCH PARAMETERS

While a well-founded overview of chiaroscuro in both an historical and voice

pedagogy context will be included, an in-depth discussion of these ideas is not the focus

of this research. Instead, emphasis will be placed on illustrating the components of the

interpretive process and how singers might engage in it, rather than identifYing definitive

answers that might result from the process. It is imperative that readers recognize that

two different singers engaging in this process with the same composition will most likely

arrive at different conclusions, and my analysis will be provided as an example of one of

many possible inte1pretations. Additionally, while recognition of chiaroscuro as a crucial

element of ideal vocal production in singing will be addressed, this document will not

focus on the technical means for achieving chiaroscuro as applied to the vocal

mechanism itself.

r:;
 CHAPTER TWO: UNDERSTANDING CHIAROSCURO

The cross-disciplinmy nature of chiaroscuro creates a natural kinship to the art of

vocal performance, in which integration of diverse fields of knowledge is an essential

component. In order to develop the foundations of a chiaroscuro pathway to

interpretation, a deeper understanding of chiaroscuro, its historical context and meanings,

and its application to individual perception is needed.

DEFINITIONS

Three specific concepts are of primaty significance throughout this research:

chiaroscuro, at1istic interpretation, and individuality. While a general understanding of

these concepts may be fairly commonplace, the specific context with which they are used

in this research requires pat1icular definition and clarification.

The term chiaroscuro is a compound word ofltalian origin that combines the

word chiaro, which translates in English to clear or bright, and scuro, which translates to

dark or obscured. The synthesis of these two terms into one independent term transcends

the meaning of the individual words to describe the contrast and interplay oflight and

dark. This juxtaposition of darkness and light explores subtle distinctions and points of

convergence between these elements-not only the extremes-and acknowledges the

essential interdependence of each element on the other. This interdependence is vital to

the understanding of chiaroscuro, because it speaks to the fundamental nature oflight

and dark: the inextricable intersection of these two ideas is inherent to their existence.

Even the most basic and literal definitions of light and dark require a reference to the

opposite as a necessary means of establishing comprehension. Light and dark can both be
defined in tenus of weight, texture, and clarity, yet these definitions and perceptions rely

on the contrast of one term to the other.

For the purposes of this research, this fundamental understanding of chiaroscuro

has been contextualized to provide a framework for artistic interpretation in singing. To

this end, the concept of chiaroscuro embodies the idea that lightness and darkness are not

simply polar opposites, but interdependent elements that permeate understanding,

creativity, and performance. For instance, the contrast of light to dark as a symbol for

good and evil, joy and pain, or clarity and ambiguity is present in everything fi·om

dramatic structure and poetic word choice to melodic contour and musical timbre. In

Western culture, commonly accepted idioms and allusions provide a context for light as

the embodiment of knowledge, purity, truth, joy, and life itself, while darkness

characterizes that which is sinister, remote, secretive, and often deadly. Furthe1more,

musical elements, such as tonality, meter, or texture, can be classified as dark or light as

well, based on their particular function within the composition. Conventional perception

suggests that, in standard Western art music, elements such as major tonality or duple

meter possess the qualities oflightness and clarity, while elements such as minor tonality

or triple meter possess the qualities of darkness and uncertainty. Ultimately, singers may

find meaning in the music by approaching vocal literature in terms of the balance of

darkness and light. It is the intention of this research to demonstrate the value in this type

of interpretive framework, with the understanding that this is merely one potential

manner of many by which a singer may choose to explore interpretation.

The notion of miistic interpretation covers a wide range of ideas. German soprano

Lotte Lehmann (1888-1976) offers a succinct and powerful definition: "Interpretation

7
means: individual understanding and reproduction ... imitation is and can only be the

enemy of artistry."2 This description is quite poignant when compared to traditional

definitions of the term inletpretation, such as to "tell the meaning of," to "bring to

realization by perf01mance or direction," or to "conceive in the light of individual belief,

judgment, or circumstance." 3 However, there is value in exploring these more forthright

depictions as well, as each one alludes to a key component of interpretation. Certainly the

first of these definitions addresses an essential component of interpretation in singing:

communication. In many ways we could just as easily call ourselves artistic

communicators, as it is widely accepted that communication of the music, text, emotion,

and mood--otherwise known as meaning-is one of our primary objectives. The second

of these definitions is also quite sound, as it refers to the execution of the composition by

what is often referred to as inhabitation. Inhabitation concerns the act of occupying and

existing within the environment, circumstances, and persona presented by the

composition. Ultimately, it is the final of these latter definitions that connects so directly

with Lehmann's assessment, because it speaks to the issue of individuality. To "conceive

in the light of individual belief, judgment, or circumstance" indicates a method of

informed creativity, defined by Lehmann as "individual understanding." In essence,

interpretation requires not only communication and dramatic realization, but also the

originality that springs from the imagination of the performer.

Exploration of the ways in which a singer might channel his or her unique

qualities into music performance requires a closer examination of the concept of

2 Lotte Lehmann, More Than Singing: The ln/elpre/alion ofSongs (New York: Boosey &
Hawkes, 1945), 6.

3 lvferriam-Webster Online, 2010 ed., s.v. "Interpretation."

individuality. Looking back to the roots of the term, we see that it initially related to the

state of being indivisible. 4 To this effect, individuality represents an element that is

inseparable from the whole; in this case, that whole is the singer.

Singers possess individuality in two distinct ways: through the instrumt;nt itself

and through interpretation of the musical literature. American soprano Sylvia McNair

puts it another way:

"Singers want to work. They see what gets cast and think, 'Ifl can only sound
like that.' And so they try to copy the most popular singers ... when they should
be trying to be unique. I have a favorite phrase: the vocal fingerprint. Every voice
should sound like one of a kind, as unique as a fingerprint."'

McNair's assessment sheds light on a crucial obstacle for singers: embracing

individuality as an asset. Often singers can become discouraged due to a focus on what

their voice "isn't," and the way that contradicts their desires to perform certain repettoire

or pursue certain oppmtunities. Individuality plays a patticularly significant role in the

life of a singing musician because it is innate to the vocal instrument. Each voice is

unique. A vital part of interpretation and artistry for a singer is learning to love the

instrument you were bom with, understanding and embracing its natural aptitude for

cettain sounds and literature, and putting that to the most effective use in service of the

mUSlC.

4 Merriam-Webster Online, 2010 ed., s.v. "Individuality."

5
James Inverne. "From Her Mouth to God's Ear," Ravinia Magazine, July 2011,
http://sylviamcnair.com/20 11/06/15/from-her-mouth-to-gods-ear (accessed January 20, 20 13).

q
CHIAROSCURO AND THE ARTS

The concept of adopting the definition of chiaroscuro to a separate artistic

medium is hardly a new conceit. The term has been embraced by an array of disciplines

throughout the visual, performing, and literary arts, and adapted to express the nature of

how the core aesthetic of chiaroscuro is realized. Over time the term has evolved to

embrace increasingly layered connotations of the dark-light relationship.

References to the elements of chiaro and scuro as fundamental elements of mt

can be traced back as far as the late fourteenth century; however, the traditionally

accepted definition of the combined term-specifically depicting the contrast and

interplay of light and dark-is a product of the sixteenth century. 6 The discriminating use

of light, shadow, and perspective to create a visual dimension of depth was used by a

variety of artists at this time, including Ugo da Carpi (1480-1532), Raphael (1483-1520),

Andrea del Sarto (1486-1530), and Michelangelo da Caravaggio (1571-1610). As it

evolved, the definition of chiaroscuro broadened to include many of the earlier

conceptions of the idea: both descriptions-such as those presented by artists such as

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472)-and

representations, such as the ancient monochrome paintings of fomth and fifth century

Greece. 7 Both da Vinci and Albetti embraced the shared properties of light and shadow in

chiaroscuro, what da Vinci referred to as the "synthesis of opposites." Da Vinci wrote of

the "median, which cam10t be called either chiaro or scuro, but participates equally of

6Evelyn Lincoln, The Invention of the Italian Renaissance Printmaker (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 2000), 71.

7 Lincoln, Italian Renaissance Printmaker, 80.

10
this chiaro and scuro," and Alberti saw them as "opposites to be mediated," espousing

the idea that all colors embodied some gradations of black and white. 8

The development of chiaroscuro techniques in painting and print making evolved

concurrently and most ce11ainly informed and influenced each other. Ugo da Carpi's

developments in woodcuts, seen at the time as the primary example of chiaroscuro,

initially used multiple engraved blocks to layer different shades of black ink on paper.

While this revolutionary process was the epitome of chiaroscuro technique, it was

understood that these images were inspired by the art of wash drawings. 9 These drawings

used diluted paint to create a wash of color on the canvas, which obscured brushstrokes

and created a sense of depth, while definition was created through distinct forms drawn in

pencil. 10 As da Carpi's processes became more advanced, he embraced a wider range of

ink colors-such as browns, blues, yellows, and greens-and explored varying intensities

of individual hues by layering multiple imprints of the same block and ink pigment to

reach the desired result. This latter technique mirrors the developments in monochrome

painting that del Smto explored in his renowned "fresco paintings" for the Chiostro della

Scalzo in Florence. 11 These varied and expanding representations of chiaroscuro

demonstrate the concept's innate capacity for adaptation, as well as its inherent focus of

attention to opposites.

In literature, chiaroscuro serves both a thematic and structural function. It is often

described in literary terms as the use of, "such elements as light and shadow in

8
Lincoln, Italian Renaissance Printmaker, 72.
9
Lincoln, Italian Renaissance Printmaker, 82.

10
Encyclopaedia Brittanica Online, 2010 ed., s.v. "Wash drawing."

11
Lincoln, Italian Renaissance Printmaker, 81.

11
descriptive writing to serve a symbolic function." 12 In this manner, the elements of light

and dark (and manifestations thereof) are used to reinforce larger thematic ideas,

establish tone, describe characters and environments, and convey emotion and meaning.

This commonly occurs in the way physical environn1ents -ranging from buildings and

towns to forces of nature and weather-are described to foreshadow or emphasize action

in the plot. Genres and literary devices can also be considered chiaroscuro techniques by

using the fusion of contrmy elements vital to satire, paradox, or irony to represent an

idea, character, or dramatic world. These elements can be seen in the darkly delicious

events of Roald Dahl's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, or the sweet yet biting

commentaty of Oscar Wilde's The Importance of Being Ernest, just to name a few.

This two-tiered realization of chiaroscuro can also be seen in cinematic art.

Cinematographers use different combinations of artificial and natural light sources to

create a visual representation of mood and character. Lighting aesthetic is a vital means

of cinematic storytelling, and low-key lighting (emphasizing shadows by using a lower

13
ratio of light to accentuate contours) is often used as a chiaroscuro film technique. This

visual embodiment of chiaroscuro brings the thematic ideas to life, most notably in

genres such as film noir and dark comedy, each of which have distinctive storytelling

elements that are complemented by their equally distinctive visual representations. The

common themes of film noir, such as moral ambiguity, fatal attraction, and the

contradictory complexity of allegiances and motives, are communicated through

12
Donald A. Ringe. "Chiaroscuro as an Artistic Device in Cooper's Fiction," Publications of the
Modem Language Association, Vol. 78, No.4 (1963): 351.

13
Angela Vacche. "Chiaroscuro: Caravaggio, Bazin, Storaro," Senses of Cinema, 53 (2009),
http://sensesofcinema.com/2009/feature-articles/chiaroscuro-caravaggio-bazin-storaro (accessed December
21, 2012).

17
 14
obscured faces, smoky settings, and glossy flashbacks. This particular evolution of

chiaroscuro demonstrates a rich marriage of both the visual and litermy adaptations, and

has resulted in some of the most psychologically and visually compelling films of the last

seventy years.

Music is among the performing art disciplines that have also adopted the concept

of chiaroscuro and adapted the meaning to its own purpose. There is a notable distinction

to made here, as performing arts differ fundamentally from visual and litermy arts. In

general, the artistic process is comprised of two functions: creation and expression. In the

visual and litermy atis both functions are generally fulfilled by the same artist, yet in the

performing mis often the creator is different from the performer. The nature of this

dynamic requires exploration of chiaroscuro both in composition (creation) and in

perf01mance (expression). A number of composers throughout hist01y have explored

diverse combinations of timbres, harmonies, and variations off01m that could be

described as chiaroscuro, such as the pairing of different instmment and voice timbres in

the oratorios of J.S. Bach or the layering of contrasting motives in the works of Debussy.

However, if we look to direct references to the term chiaroscuro by musicians

themselves, more often we see it used in reference to musical execution.

Musically speaking, the term chiaroscuro is frequently used in reference to

phrasing, whether in respect to dynamic profile or inflection. The contrast of piano to

forte has often been described in terms of light and shade, as evidenced by quotes from

noted musicians such as Leopold Mozart (1719-1787), C.P.E. Bach (1714-1788), and

14 Alex Ballinger and Danny Graydon. The Rough Guide to Film Noir. (London: Rough Guides
Publishing, 2007), 217.
Johann Quantz (1697-1773). 15 Mozart makes a clear connection between musical

chiaroscuro and the painting technique:

"Indeed, one must know how to change from soft to loud without direction and of one's
own accord, each at the right time; for this, in the familiar language of painters, means
light and shade." 16

Quantz elaborates on this idea, relating musical chiaroscuro to intention:

"Good execution must be diversified. Light and shadow must be continuously

interchanged. For in truth you will never move the listener if you render all the notes at
the same strength or the same weakness; if you perform, so to speak, always in the same
colour, or do not know how to raise or moderate the tone at the proper time." 17

This understanding of musical chiaroscuro relates to interpretation in pmiicular, as it

largely refers to the realization of the music in performance as opposed to merely what is

indicated in the score. While composers do indicate expressive markings to vmying

degrees of specificity and frequency, they also expect a certain level of musicality and

musical intelligence. Depending on the cultural norms, prevailing performance practice,

and circumstances smTOunding the composition, many expressive ideas may have been

omitted from the score because they were implicitly understood and, therefore,

considered too obvious to mention.

Chiaroscuro has also gained notable use in the area of vocal pedagogy as a

description of ideal tone quality. In this pmiicular context, there are countless subjective

interpretations of how the chiaroscuro sound might be described, as well as vmying

perspectives on the physical means by which this sound is most effectively achieved. The

basic definition of a vocal tone that is simultaneously dark and bright refers to a sound
15
David Blum, Casals and the Art of flllerpretation (New York: Holmes and Meier Publishers,
1977), 17-18.

16
Ibid.

17
Ibid.

14
that embodies the qualities of brilliance and roundness that individually could become
18
either shrill or muffled, respectively. While there are varying perspectives on how this

sound is best achieved, many pedagogues agree that it is the result of a firm glottal

closure combined with expansion in the phmynx so that the resulting harmonic spectrum
19
sounds both warm and resonant. The chiaro timbre of the voice is often referred to in

terms of light, clarity, and energy, by descriptors such as squillo, ring, brilliance, or

vitality. The scuro timbre of the voice is often referred to in terms of texture, shape, and

dimension, by descriptors such as velvet, depth, roundness, and warmth.

The teachings of the renowned Spanish baritone and vocal pedagogue Manuel

Garcia II (1805-1906) have played a pivotal role in modem understanding of the

chiaroscuro vocal sound. In addition to explicitly defining and classifYing the two

timbres, which he referred to as clair and sombre, he advocated the notion that these two

elements need not exclusively exist in equal measure. Garcia encouraged the borrowing

of one timbre from the other, allowing these varied sounds of differing propmiions to

expand into an infinite collection of vocal colors. To this end, his writings on the subject

demonstrated the means by which these diverse vocal colors could be used to express an

array of emotions? 0 This pursuit is the ultimate objective of a chiaroscuro approach to

interpretation. By weaving the tlu·ead of chiaroscuro tlu·ough the interpretive process, the

results can then be applied to achieve the unique vocal chiaroscuro that most effectively

18
Berton Coffin. Historical Vocal Pedagogy Classics. (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,
1989), 21-22.

19
James Stark. Bel Canto: A HistOI)' of Vocal Pedagogy. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1999), 34.

20 Stark, Bel Canto, 39.

1'>
expresses a piece of music, an individual phrase, a particular moment, or even a single

pitch.

It is not hard to imagine why so many artistic forms have embraced chiaroscuro.

If we accept that the nature of art is to reflect the human condition and experience, one

that is mired in complexity and contradiction, then it is only rational that the means of

reflecting that condition would itself be composed of these elements. Art that is truly

satisfYing requires more than a one-dimensional view of simplicity, beauty, or truth; it

demands the depth of what lies beneath.

CHIAROSCURO AND PERCEPTION

Established theories of human thought, dating as far back as ancient Greece,

provide suppott for this idea of the "synthesis of opposites" as an element of how

individuals process and engage with the world around them. This con·elation between

chiaroscuro and perception-or what is more specifically known in the philosophical

community as perceptual experience-is essential to a chiaroscuro pathway to

interpretation. (The difference between "perception" and "perceptual experience" is a

crucial distinction, as references to perception outlined in this research are based in a

21
philosophical understanding of "our knowledge of the world around us," as opposed to

a cognitive psychological understanding of perception). This view of perception, as

defined by philosophers such as Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and P. F. Strawson (1919-

2006), allows for the concept of a shared world that all people inhabit, yet is processed

and regarded differently by each person.

21
Johannes Roessler, Perception, Causation, and Objectivity (New York: Oxford University
Press,2011) 104.

1fl
 In an attempt to establish both a context and basic structure for acquiring the

personal awareness that miistic interpretation demands, this research will briefly explore

several theories of perception and learning presented throughout history. The concept of

allied yet contrary elements-inherent in chiaroscuro--can be seen in Socrates' (469-399

BCE) Argument from Opposites, Claude Levi-Strauss' (1908-2009) themy of

anthropological structuralism, and Patricia Shehan Campbell's Atis Process. The

discussion of these theories within this research is meant to underscore the presence and

identification of opposing forces in our understanding of the world, so that we may

classify these forces within the chiaroscuro framework. It is not meant to suggest that

chiaroscuro was an original component of their work, as there is no evidence to suggest

this.

The concept of correlation between opposites was relatively well established by

Socrates' time, with evidence tracing it as far back as Homer (c. 800-c. 750 BCE)? 2 In

Plato's (423-347 BCE) account of Socrates' final days entitled Phaedo, Plato details

Socrates' philosophical examination of existence through a dialogue with Cebes (430-350

BCE), one of Socrates' disciples and friends. Socrates posits that all living things that

possess an opposite, in fact, emerge from that opposite. Socrates demonstrates numerous

examples of this mutual reliance, such as great and small, strong and weak, and hot and

cold. He argues that for something to be greater, stronger, or hotter, it must at one point

have been smaller, weaker, or colder, respectively. 23 Socrates' themy underscores the

inherent relationship between opposites that exists in chiaroscuro: understanding of light

22 G. E. R. Lloyd, Polarity and Analogy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966) 105-06.

2 3 Harold North Fowler, trans., Plato in Twelve Volumes, Vol. I (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press 1966), 70-71.

17
(or that which is represented by light) cannot be achieved without understanding of dark

(or that which is represented by dark).

Socrates' argument further states that a spectrum exists between the two

opposites, through which one element either increases or decreases to the other. He refers
24
to this as the "process of generation." This description of the incremental shifts that

exist in the continuum between polar opposites further demonstrates the itmumerable

shades of grey that run the gamut from light to dark. It is within these infinite possibilities

that chiaroscuro can unlock a singer's individuality through the process of interpretation.

This idea of intercotmectedness inspires inquiry and investigation on the part of the

singer, whether addressing the imagery evoked by poetic language, the musical color

created by a particular harmony or texture, or the emotional state suggested by a story or

dramatic moment.

We can build on the concept established by Socrates by looking at Claude Levi-

Strauss' formative work in structural anthropology. Levi-Strauss' writings center around

the idea of"binary opposites," (more simply defined as two contradictoty elements)
25
which "coexist and synthesize towards a solution." The fundamental dynamic of

chiaroscuro, in which two interdependent contrasting elements interact in service of a

more complex result, can be found in this explanation of the nature of human perception.

Viewed tluough this conceptual constmct, all elements of life, culture, and knowledge

can be classified into one of two contradictory elements that, when combined, create a

result of greater depth and dimension than either single element could achieve on its own.

24 Ibid.

25 Claude Levi-Strauss, "Structuralism and Ecology," Social Science Informationl2 (1973): 7.

1R
Fmthermore, Levi-Strauss' examination of the nature of myths revealed a number of
26
shared structural and thematic components across cultures and time periods. This

recognition of the innate complexity of the world around us, and the elements that

comprise it, may allow singers to move beyond the obvious and explore a deeper

understanding of vocal literature and performance.

Looking at the intention behind Levi-Strauss' work can enhance the idea of

exploring meaning through a chiaroscuro approach. In the second volume of his writings

titled Structural Anthropology, Levi-Strauss states that, "Structural anthropology strives

to answer the question ofmeaning."27 This assettion alludes to the influence of linguistic

structuralism on his work, as linguistic structuralism embraces the concept that

evetything in both the physical and metaphysical world is absent of meaning until

assigned meaning by the human mind and expressed through language. 28 The pursuit of

meaning is at the hemt of this chiaroscuro pathway to interpretation, which encourages

exploration of how composers expressed meaning through their shaping and

manipulation of opposing musical, textual, and emotional forces.

Establishing a framework through which to explore these relationships oflight

and dark is essential to engaging in a chiaroscuro process. As learning processes also

play a key role in perception and creativity, it is only logical that an approach to learning

aimed at interpreters of music should emerge from an mts-centered place. Patricia Shehan

26
Claude Levi-Strauss, "The Structural Study of Myth," The Joumal of American Folklore 68
(1955): 429.

27 Claude Levi-Strauss, Structural Anthropology: Volume 2. (Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1983), 10.

28
Peter Berry, Beginning themy: an introduction to litermy and cultural themy, 3d ed. (New
York: Manchester University Press, 2009), 39.
Campbell's "arts process" provides an excellent definition of how this may be achieved.

Campbell outlines six essential steps to mis learning: perceiving, responding, skills
29
development, evaluating, understanding, and creating. Campbell's process has been

used in a variety of music education contexts as a way of experiencing and understanding

culture through its distinct musical content and values. Campbell asserts that elements

such as range, tessitura, form, rhythm, and text reflect the needs and values of the society

they represent. 30 The mis process incorporates the individuality of personal perception,

the creativity and understanding of interpretation, and development of technical

execution into one concrete approach to learning. When applied to the preparation and

performance of vocal literature, a chiaroscuro lens can be applied to each of her

processes to provide a unique framework for analysis and meaningful consideration,

while also affording significant capacity for a diverse range of questions and answers.

While this research focuses on areas of philosophical thought that advocate the

concepts of opposing forces, interdependence, and the search for meaning, there are

many diverse and compelling ideas regarding human thought and behavior that challenge

such claims. Aristotle's (384-322 BCE) writings on the nature of opposites diverged

from those of Socrates, classifYing distinct types of opposites and distinguishing between

differences such as conelatives, contraries, and positive-negative relationships. This

taxonomy tested the preconceived notion that all opposites are interdependent, arguing

29 Patricia Shehan Campbell and Carol Scott-Kassner, Music in Childhood: From Preschool
through the elementm)' grades, 3'd ed. (Belmont, CA: Thomson Schirmer, 2006), 363-64.

30
Patricia Shehan Campbell and Megan M. Perdue, "Musical Matters in the Songs Children Sing."

70
that certain pairings that appear opposite are merely different circumstances of the same

condition, such as sight and blindness. 31

Similar to the points of distinction between Socrates and Aristotle, many modern

and post-modern theorists took exception with the assumptions presented at the core of

structuralist thought. Philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) and his followers

argued that theories presented by Levi-Strauss and his contemporaries were designed in a

mmmer that made it difficult to either prove or disprove their premise, resulting in a

dichotomy where central ideas were accepted as tlue by their advocates, yet easily

dismissed by critics. A particular point of contention was the nature of existence.

Structuralists such as Levi-Strauss referred to life and death as clear examples of polar

opposites while post-modernists viewed life and death as varied properties of existence

itself. Anthropologist Stanley Diamond (1922-1991) pointed to primitive cultures as a

representation of this divergent understanding of existence: "In a primitive culture "life"

and "death"- which the secular mind conceives as irreconcilable-may not be perceived as
32
polar at all, but rather as aspects of a single condition, the condition of existence."

While the arguments of Aristotle and Heidegger may oppose some of the

fundamental claims made by Socrates and Levi-Strauss, respectively, they are not in and

of themselves incompatible with a chiaroscuro understanding of perception. Socrates and

Levi-Strauss provide arguments rooted in the relationships between clearly defined

opposites at the extreme ends of the spectrum. These obvious contrasts provide a clear

demonstration of the fundamental chiaro and scuro elements and draw connections

31 Lloyd, Polarities. 161.

32 Stanley Diamond, In Search of the Primitive: A Critique of Civilization, (New Brunswick: NJ:
Transaction Publishers, 1974), 308.

71
between them, making them ideally suited to an initial definition of what chiaroscuro

perception might look like. The arguments made by Aristotle and Heidegger seek to

classifY subtler distinctions and exist more fully within the intersection of dark and light.

They embody a truly chiaroscuro nature, demonstrating the capacity of such a pathway to

perceive the same thing from a variety of different, even contradictory perspectives.

Ultimately, the discussion of historical theories regarding perception and

opposites presented in this research is centered on cultural manifestations as opposed to

cognitive mechanisms. Levi-Strauss' conceptions of how the mind processes information

are clearly a significant and valuable contribution to the study of human thought,

establishing a foundation for modern understanding of the brain. Recent discoveries in

the area of neuroanthropology have revealed the considerable complexity of the brain and

its functions, and a modern understanding of mental processes diverges somewhat from

Levi-Strauss' conclusions. 33 However, the sources used in this research are not intended

to make a definitive statement about the nature of psychology and mental processing.

They are valuable as an historical basis for the prevalence of certain customs, ideas, and

experiences in Western culture, and the multitude means of expressing these shared

instances in a meaningful way.

These contrasting ideas regarding perception present varied ways of exploring

individual attitudes and identity, tools that are essential to mtistic interpretation. Cursory

observations in using chiaroscuro as an interpretive lens strongly suggest that it provides

a broad spectrum of accessibility. Westem culture embraces a dynamic of conflicting

emotions, beliefs, and assumptions as a constant part of everyday life. This acceptance of

33
Greg Downey, author of"Thinking through Claude Levi-Strauss, Neuroanthropology Blog,
article posted November 8, 2009, http:i/neuroanthropology.net/2009/11/08/thinking-through-claude-levi-
strauss/ (accessed March 25, 2013).

77
the presence of and relationship between opposing forces in the world informs how

singers respond to the poe!ly, music, and characters they explore. The extent to which

this informs the perspective of different individuals may be diverse, but it is still well

contained within a framework of this nature.

 CHAPTER THREE: UNDERSTANDING INTERPRETATION

It stands to reason that an understanding of philosophies and approaches

regarding singing must be established prior to exploring an alternative method of

engagement. Examining prevailing attitudes-as well as some of the prominent artists

who espouse them--offers invaluable insight into the nature of modern interpretation,

how it has evolved, and the challenges faced by singers today.

For the purposes of this research, two major singing philosophies will be

discussed. Notable singers, pedagogues, and pianists have demonstrated allegiance to one

or the other of these philosophies of singing. This is evident not only through their

atiistry, but also through their writings and remarks. We are able to draw certain

conclusions regarding interpretation based on these sources. Special attention was paid in

the selection of singers for this research, in an effmi to account for the differences in

national singing aesthetics.

SINGING PHILOSOPHIES

The two contrasting philosophies explored in this research will be referred to as

primacy ofbeaut!fiil sound and primacy of expression and meaning. My use of the word

primacy in each of the titles is intended to bring attention to the impetus of each

approach. It is imperative to note that mastery of vocal technique and musicianship is of

great significance to proponents of both philosophies. Both approaches share a dedication

to musical excellence by both technical and expressive means; however, the methods by

which such excellence is achieved differ significantly. In a broad sense, we can begin to

identify these differences of opinion upon broaching the subject of interpretation.

74
 Primacy of Beautifi.tl Sound can be defined as a philosophy of singing that values

a consistent tone and beautiful sound above all else. Champions of the primacy of

beautiful sound contend that expression is so innate to the music that the only

interpretation necessmy is an exceptional execution of the compositional material. This

philosophy is characterized by rigid adherence to purity of vocal production and

consistency of timbre throughout the entire range of the voice, the latter of which was

"considered ideal" 34 in the operatic tradition of the early and mid-twentieth century.

According to this approach, the primary consideration of singing is beautiful tone, and

drama, meaning, and expression are secondmy objectives.

It is quite possible that the perceived decline in vocal artistry and technical

mastety over the course of the last century contributed significantly to this particular

point of view. Skilled and studied veterans of the vocal arts are often faced with an

increasing number of developing performers who place a premium on putting a "personal

stamp" on the music without placing equal emphasis on flawlessness of technique and

adherence to the material presented in the score. This can result in a certain

disillusionment regarding the future of vocal performance, a sentiment that has been

expressed by many artists, dating as far back as the German singer and pedagogue Emma

Seiler (1821-1886) in the mid-nineteenth century. Seiler refers to the ideals and

objectives of vocal artistry during the seventeenth century, placing emphasis on the union

of highly-developed vocal skill and informed expressivity that allowed the great singers

of that era to captivate an audience with their emotions and imaginations. Her

disenchantment with the values of modern singers appears to stem from a perceived shift

34 Bruce J. Saxon, liner notes to Soprano Assoluta, Maria Callas, STKM Records, BOOSIJW I Tl,
CD, 2011.
in intention, no longer rooted in the act of moving the listener but rather in a pursuit of

personal satisfaction for the performer:

"The dramatic singer was now strongly tempted to neglect the externals of his ati
for the resthetic, purely inward conception of the music. Certain, at least, it is that
to the neglect of the training of the voice (Tonbildung), and to the style of writing
of our modern composers-a style unsuited to the art of singing, and looking
only to its spiritual element-the decline of this art is in part to be traeed ... True
it is, that a beautiful tone of voice (Gesangston), which must be considered the
foundation and first requisition of fine singing, is more and more rare among our
singers, male and female, and yet it is just as important in music as perfect form
35
in the creations of the sculptor."

Many modern-day performers and pedagogues echo Seiler's argument regarding

the importance of beauty of tone. In the first half of the twentieth century, cultivating a

singing voice with an even tone throughout the entire range was considered a hallmark of

vocal achievement. Artists as accomplished as Italian tenor Luciano Pavarotti (1935-

2007) shared in this notion:

" ... Agility, elasticity, smooth, even flow of liquid, well-focused sound,
uniformity of color ... every singer needs all of [these] qualities as part of their
36
technical equipment."

This uniformity serves the axiom that a crucial objective of singing is the formation of

beautiful tone. German baritone Horst Gunther ( 1913-20 13) puts this idea into more

distinct terms:

"All singing, all perception of vocal literature I experienced in my youth, was

based on the same sound quality: opera, operetta, oratorio, Lied, Melodic [sic],
light classical music, dance music, folk music-all was based on the same vocal
technique-with stylistic changes-and the goal was to make the voice, the
sound, beautiful." 37

35
Emma Seiler, The Voice in Singing, Trans. Herman Hemholtz (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott &
Co., 1879), 27.
36
Helena Matheopolous, The Great Tenors fi"om Caruso to the Present (New York: The Vendome
Press, 1999), 98.

37
Horst Giinther, "Mental Concepts in Singing: A Psychological Approach, Part!," The NATS
Journal (48), May/June 1992,4.

?.li
 Giinthcr's sentiments are passionately upheld by renowned vocal pedagogue

Richard Miller (1926-2009):

"Continuous vocal sound will of its own accord 'move' the phrase and give it
'direction.' ... Communication of musical and textual values best occurs when
sound, not interpretive gimmick1y, is the medium of their conveyance." 38

Miller's reference to "interpretive gimmickry" sheds light on the widely varied concepts

regarding not only the validity and need for interpretation, but what constitutes

interpretation in the first place. This issue is not unique to music. Consider the stance of

American litermy icon Susan Sontag (1933-2004):

"Today is such a time, when the project of interpretation is largely reactionary,

stifling ... the effusion of interpretations of ari today poisons our sensibilities. In a
culture whose already classical dilemma is the hypertrophy of the intellect at the
expense of energy and sensual capability, interpretation is the revenge of the
intellect upon ali. "39

Clearly, divergent ideas on the act of interpretation have an impact on how its role in the

artistic process is perceived.

Primacy of Expression and Meaning offers a different outlook on interpretation. It

is defined as a philosophy of singing that values vocal sound that is informed by

expression of the unique musical, poetic, and dramatic ideas presented by a piece of vocal

literature. Champions of the primacy of expression and meaning assett that the

responsibility of the singing artist extends a step fmiher to imbue the sound with the

color, emotion, character, and mood implied by the composer. This philosophy is

characterized by a commitment to expression and communication first and foremost.

Embracing the perspective that beauty is only one component of the complex emotional

38
Richard Miller, On the Art qfSinging (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), 123.
39
Susan Sontag, Against InteJpretation and Other Essays (New York: MacMillan) 200 I), 7.

?.7
and musical ideas conveyed in vocal literature, this approach assetts that vocal quality

must be expettly and meaningfully varied in order to suitably express these ideas.

Fmthermore, this approach advocates a commitment to teclmical vocal skill that allows

for effective expression of a diverse array of ideas as opposed to one that is simplistically

confined to the beautiful.

There is an identifiable connection between this philosophy and the belief that

music must be performed in order to fulfill its ultimate creative purpose. More aptly

stated by Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855):

"Music exists only in the moment of its performance, for if one were ever so
skillful in reading notes and had ever so lively an imagination, it cannot be
denied that it is only in an unreal sense that music exists when it is read. It really
exists only being performed." 40

This conviction maintains that content in the musical score must be transformed into

sound to truly be considered music. Typically when the term 'music' is used to describe

an element of human experience or a component of culture, it is musical sound that is

being evoked. If musical ideas must be brought to life to exist, then it stands to reason

that the resulting sound is meaningful and thereby obliges the performer to imbue the

music with as much meaning as possible. This notion pays reverence not only to the

tradition of music that preceded notation, but also to the essence of music as an mt form.

Among singers who ascribe to this philosophy, musicianship and technique are of

high priority. Consider German baritone Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau's (1925-2012) account

of the role interpretation and individuality played in his technical training:

"Only by example (and not by shortcuts based on career decisions) can critical
understanding and its relationship to interpretation be learned ... technique and
interpretation always [go] hand in hand."

40
Sorcn Kierkegaard, Either/Or, Trans. David F. Swenson and Lillian M. Swenson (Princeton:
Princeton University Press, 1944), 66-67.

7.R
This sense of individuality as an invaluable musical asset, as well as an inherent element

in the process of artistic preparation, is expounded on by English alto Dame Janet Baker

(b. 1933):

"We're all singing the same repertoire- presumably on a certain level we are all
singing vety well. The thing that sets us apart, like all human beings, is the
personality of the human being behind all this and there are never two of us
totally alike. And so the great artist brings that sense of uniqueness to everything
they do and it's unmatchable. It's why I think there should never be any jealousy
between singers, because, no matter what we do, we are all quite different from
one another.n41

The impact of this teclmique-interpretation relationship on timbre is stated succinctly by

German soprano Lotte Lehmann:

"The voice must be capable of responding with the greatest subtlety to every
shade of each emotion. But it must be subordinate, it must only be the
foundation, the soil from which flowers true mi. " 42

and defined in greater detail by Spanish tenor Placido Domingo (b. 1941 ):

"To really sing, you must delve deeply and meticulously into the score and seek
to unravel all its secrets, all the little things behind the notes and between the
lines. For instance, whenever there is a change of key there is also usually a
change of mood-from joy to wistfulness or whatever-and you must modulate
your voice accordingly, even though the audience may be unaware of it. Equally
important is to color your voice according to the instrumentation. Being a tenor
doesn't mean you have to sing with the same voice all the time. Although you
only have one voice its color can, and should, vary tremendously with the
character and style of the music, and especially the orchestration, which, in
. everyt1ung.
opera, IS . "43

These singers continually return to the artistic impulse as they further develop the

practical means of conveying expression, demonstrating how teclmica1 development and

miistic expression seamlessly coexist, inform, and inspire each other.

41
Sean Rafferty. Interview with Dame Janet Baker. Radio Interview. London, May 19, 2012.
42
Lehmann, More than Singing, 10.

43
Helena Matheopolous, The Great Tenors from Caruso to the Present (New York: The Vendome
Press, 1999), 109.
 In addition to the perspectives provided by singers themselves, teachers of

singing, both in the present and as far back as the begirming of the art form, advocate

individuality and interpretation. If we study the writings of Pier Francesco Tosi (c. 1653-

1732), we see that he quite simply advocates the creativity of the singer: "To copy is the

part of a Scholar, that of a Master is to invent. " 44 (A modern language understanding of

the roles of"scholar" and "master" would result in "student" and "artist," respectively). 45

This sentiment is paralleled closely by the philosophy of modern American vocal

pedagogue Clifton Ware (b. 1937):

"Outstanding song interpreters ... freely incorporate their emotional lives into
their singing ... by manipulating tone color, tempi, or dynamics ... performances
[by Joutstanding singers demonstrate consistently how they create unique and
exciting song interpretations." 46

Perhaps the crux of this philosophy is most aptly stated by opera manager Herbert

Witherspoon (1873-1935):

"No teaching of an art can be entirely mechanical, nor can it be entirely

scientific. It must return again and again to the art itself for further inspiration, in
order that Technique, rightly developed, may be the servant of Expression and
Interpretation. "47

Returning to the role of timbre in expression, we may return to the wisdom of

Garcia, who states quite beautifully: "Timbre ... fmm[s] an inarticulate language

composed of tears, intetjection, cries, sighs, etc., which one could properly name the

language of the soul." Speaking to this issue in pmticular, there is much to learn as well

44
Pier Francesco Tosi. Observations on the Florid Song: Facsimile ofthe 1736 English Edition,
Trans. John Ernest Galliard (London: Travis and Emery Music, 201 0), 152.
45
Coffin, Historical Vocal Pedagogy, 4.
46
Clifton Ware, Basics of Vocal Pedagogy: The Foundation and Process of Singing (Boston:
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1998), 236.
47
Coffin, Historical Vocal Pedagogy, 89-90.
from the collaborative keyboardists so well versed in the vocal repertoire and yet

removed from the vocal instrument. American pianist and coach Robert Spillman

asse1ts:

"Besides the more obvious consideration of wanting a beautiful vocal sound,

performers need to seek shadings of timbre which will suppm1 their
interpretations ... [this] may reflect choices regarding Stimmung, character, or
dramatic intent; they may also be latent in the details of the language and of the
musical setting .... the interpretations and decisions are based first and foremost
upon understanding the poetic text and how the composer is conveying that text
48
in musical sound.,

Spillman's assessment of the role of timbre establishes a clear lineage between the

composer's musical conception of meaning and the evocative, meaningful sound used by

the singer to give that concept life.

There is value to both of these approaches to singing; however, this does not

necessarily render them equal. The tenets of primacy of beautiful sound are well founded

and apt, but they stop short of the final essential element of artistic singing perfmmance.

Primacy of expression and meaning absorbs all the principles of primacy of beautiful

sound and infuses them with the expressivity (and subsequent expressive tools) that

makes a vocal performance complete. A chiaroscuro pathway to inte1pretation is

essentially a process of engaging in interpretation that functions within the ideals of a

primacy of expression and meaning approach.

INTERPRETIVE CHALLENGES

Infmmed by the wisdom and intention of these different approaches to mtistry, it

is beneficial to also identifY the major obstacles that singers face in the process of

48
Deborah Stein and Robert Spillman, Poe fly into Song: Pe1jormance and Analysis of Lieder
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 87
interpreting vocal literature and how a chiaroscuro approach might help to overcome

them. Too often, when faced with the myriad challenges of interpreting classical vocal

literature, singers strive for the explicitly evident or even "correct" interpretation. It is the

aim of this research to compel singers at every level to consider a different approach to

meeting these challenges in pursuit of a more satisfying result.

As has been alluded to by many of the noted professionals referenced in this

research, one of the initial (and most debilitating) challenges to interpretation is the

fallacy that the "correct" interpretation already exists. This is often the result of a singer's

rigid allegiance to established ideas regarding performance practice. German mezzo-

soprano Christa Ludwig identifies this problem in her memoir:

"Everyone experiences life differently, so everyone's interpretation of a song will

be a little different, too. And there are no laws about how songs must be
done ... There are always exceptions, and one of the greatest challenges a singer
faces is to know when it's right to break the rules, and when it isn't."49

Singers must engage their creativity, take risks, and learn to ttust themselves in order to

develop as interpreters.

Many singers reach an interpretive "dead-end" by failing to engage in a continued

process of refining interpretive choices. This demonstrates another way in which

technical development and miistty are often approached as mutually exclusive pursuits.

As a singer continues polishing a particular piece, there is never a point at which he or

she stops working towards an improved sound, a purer vowel, or a more efficient breath.

However, this unending dedication to excellence does not always translate to

interpretation. It is not unconm1on for singers to let interpretation become stagnant by

"Christa Ludwig, In My Own Voice: Memoirs (New York: Limelight Editions, 1999), 149.

17.
replicating the same ideas in the same way without continued exploration. Lotte

Lehmarm warns against this:

"Everything which breathes the breath of life is changeable: a momentary feeling

often makes me alter an interpretation. Do not build up your songs as if they were
encased in stone walls-no they must soar from the warm, pulsing beat of your
own heart, blessed by the inspiration of the moment." 50

Singers must continue to chamtel their imaginations to explore different possibilities to

express the music and text emotionally, infusing each perfotmance with the continually

developing nuance of their own identity and experiences.

Complacency in interpretation itself is not the only way interpretation suffers. It is

all too tempting to avoid literature that highlights vocal flaws or weaknesses and only

"play to the strengths." While this is good advice for auditions, the only sure way of

developing a complete and versatile instrument is by tackling technical challenges head

on. Clu·ista Ludwig considers this:

"Although I hate to admit it, vocal limitations can be a blessing. Ifl'd had a voice
right from the beginning with which I could have sung everything from top to
bottom without difficulty, I probably would have learned very little. I would have
sung without thinking ... trying to solve vocal problems makes you study more
intensely and that's when you can really learn something and discover your own
special way of interpreting a song or opera role."

The appreciation and growth that develops tlu·ough such struggles provides breadth of

both teclutical faculty and character. The singer trades a limited amount of time battling

these limitations yet gains a multitude of expressive resources that are truly lasting.

A chiaroscuro approach has the potential to address each of these challenges. It

can bypass the absolutes of "right" and "wrong" and uncover tangible, vibrant

relationships within the piece. The realization that the balance and interplay of light to

dark can exist in varying degrees within that relationship allows singers to explore a

50
Lehmann, Afore Them Singing, I 0.

:n
unique, living, breathing interpretation of the piece each time it is performed. The

personal growth a singer experiences from working through vocal challenges cannot help

but impact his or her ever-evolving sense of perception, intensifying the concept of depth

and dimension so crucial to chiaroscuro. This is the type of universality a chiaroscuro

approach has the potential to provide: a loose structure for interpretive reflection that can

be tailored to each singer's individual circumstances, gifts, and points of view.

 CHAPTER FOUR: APPROACHING VOCAL LITERATURE

A deeper understanding of these concepts can only truly be attained through

practical application. The following chapter will recount observations gathered from

approaching a specific piece of vocal literature through chiaroscuro-inf01med

interpretation. Based on criteria including accessibility of language, familiarity of form,

and adaptability of chosen text, the piece selected for this demonstration of the

chiaroscuro pathway is Henry Purcell's if Music Be the Food of Love.

Late in his career, British composer Hemy Purcell (1659-1695) composed three

settings of Colonel Hemy Heveningham's (1651-1700) poem if Music Be the Food of

Love for solo voice and continuo. The first of these pieces was composed in 1692 and has

since become one of Purcell's most well known contributions to vocal literature. The

third version, a distinctly more intricate and dramatic version from his collection of songs

Orpheus Brilannicus, was composed in 1695 shortly before Purcell's death. These two

versions (Z. 379a and Z. 379c) will be the subject of chiaroscuro analysis in this

research. 51

CHIAROSCURO INTERPRETATION ANALYSIS

At this point it should be reiterated that the intention of this inquiry is not to

replace the principles of artistic and vocal preparation that include score study, stylistic

and historical research, and poetic and dramatic analysis. The objective is to explore the

literature through different means in hopes of opening up a fresh avenue of creativity and

understanding in relation to the vocal literature.

51
Full scores for both versions of Purcell's piece can be found in Appendices 1 and 2.
 Approaching the pieces from a perspective of contrasting collaborative forces

reveals a number of ideas about the nature of Purcell's settings. The textual, character,

and musical observations gleaned from this perspective provide some exciting

opportunities for interpretation. Initially each of these areas will be explored individually

through a chiaroscuro framework; however, the intrinsically cyclical nature of exploring

meaning, in which each area informs and impacts the others, will undoubtedly reveal

crucial overlapping connections.

Chiaroscuro exploration begins with an analysis of the text. The first line of

Heveningham's text (and the title of Purcell's settings) is actually a quote from William

Shakespeare's (1564-1616) play Twelflh Night. Heveningham uses the idea presented by

this quote as the catalyst for an impassioned ode to music:

If music be the food of love,

Sing on till I am fill'd with joy;
For then my list'ning soul you move
To pleasures that can never cloy.
Your eyes, your mien, your tongue declare
That you are music ev'rywhere.

Pleasures invade both eye and ear,

So fierce the transp011s are, they wound,
And all my senses feasted are,
Tho' yet the treat is only sound,
Sure I must perish by your charms,
Unless you save me in your anns.

There are several elements at work in the text that suggest a chiaroscuro relationship,

such as word choice, contradictoty word pairings, and philosophical questions. A line-

by-line analysis of the poem offers the opportunity not only for in-depth engagement with

the text, but also an outline of the dramatic action--otherwise kuown as dramaturgy-of

the character's experience.

 The first statement of the text proclaims, "If music be the food of love, sing on

till I am filled with joy." This conditional statement sets up an important relationship

between the physical appetite for sustenance and the emotional appetite for love and joy.

This seemingly sweet sentiment actually begs the question, "At what point is an

individual's appetite for love satisfied?" Unlike physical cues that make excess food

undesirable, conventional wisdom regarding love is that a person can never have too

much. This ode to excess (consistent with the meaning and context of the statement as

used in Shakespeare's play) sets up a vital philosophical dichotomy, rich in chiaroscuro

qualities, by demonstrating how an excess of something seen as good or pleasurable

(chiaro) actually has the potential to be painful (scw·o). The pleasure-pain duality is then

explored through various descriptions throughout the poem, set in motion by this initial

statement.

"For then my list'ning soul you move to pleasures that can never cloy," provides

an answer to our philosophical question by stating that the gratification derived from

music is incapable of leading to distaste. The word "cloy" is an acutely chiaroscuro term,

as it means to "disgust or sicken [someone] with an excess of sweetness, richness, or

sentiment." 52 This phrase also specifies that music consumed resides in the soul,

continuing the elegance of the food metaphor.

The final phrase of the first strophe continues the exalting tone, as it states, "Your

eyes, your mien, your tongue declare that you are music ev'rywhere." The word mien is

unusual in modern English, representing an individual's demeanor or outward expression

52
Oxford Dictionmy Online, 2013 ed., s.v. "Cloy."

17
of mood. 5 3 The idea presented here by assigning distinct features to music, an othe1wise

ethereal and fleeting concept, can be seen as an image1y-based representation of

chiaroscuro. Filtered through the concept as used by painters and visual artists, we can

see the description of music take distinct form. The transparent and diffuse embodiment

of music becomes more defined as a physical (albeit figurative) entity that now possesses

facial features and countenance. The way in which music communicates with the speaker

of the poem is suddenly far more direct.

The second strophe of text has a more assertive and descriptive tone, evoking

strong imagery tlu·ough pairings of seemingly contradict01y words or ideas. The initial

plu·ase, "Pleasures invade both eye and ear, so fierce the transp01ts are, they wound,"

suddenly imbues the consumption of music's decadent sound with a sense of

forcefulness. The chiaroscuro dichotomy of pleasure fiercely invading the listener to the

point of inflicting pain reopens the question at the hemt of the poem. At first it appeared

that such beauty could never cause harm, but as the listener takes in more and more, the

intensity of joy begins to cross over into more complex emotions.

The following plu·ase begins to explain the root of this shift. "And all my senses

feasted are, tho' yet the treat is only sound," suggests that this invasion has intensely

engaged all of the speaker's senses, yet pleasure is only found through the sense of

sound. The description of the senses being "feasted upon" is vivid, creating a powerful

contrast between the pangs of sight, taste, smell, and touch and the joyful relief of sound.

Singers have a unique conception of how the senses engage tlu·ough music due to the

physical makeup of the voice, and the concept of experiencing music through all senses is

ce1tainly not a foreign one.

53
Merriam-Webster Online, 2010 ed., s.v. "Mien."
 The final phrase of the poem suggests a paradox in which the root of this

discomfort is also the cure. "Sure I must perish by your charms, unless you save me in

your arms," continues the use of chiaroscuro word pairings with the concept of being

enraptured to the point of death. However, it also provides a means of relief by pointing

to music's capacity to rescue the speaker from this fate. This idea can be connected to the

concept of chiaroscuro in musical execution, suggesting that the passionate intensity of

climactic musical moments must occasionally subside in order to provide the listener

with emotional and sensual release. Music is so enticing that speaker cannot willingly

resist it, yet perhaps it is within the nature of music to offer reprieve.

Shifting the focus of analysis from text to character reveals the dramatic

escalation of Heveningham' s loaded text. Looking more broadly at the relationship

between the two strophes, the sweet enthusiasm of the first stophe is notably more chiaro

than the anxious intensity of the second strophe. This creates an emotional outline and

trajectmy for the sentiments expressed by the speaker. Some element of the action must

change to account for the shift between music's charming demeanor at the end of the first

strophe and it's fierce invasion of the senses at the beginning of the second.

This emerging emotional sketch sheds light on a significant rhetorical device used

by Heveningham throughout the poem: personification of music. With the exception of

the first line, which is the Shakespeare quote, all of Heveningham' s text addresses music

with the personal pronoun 'you,' as if to imbue it with human fonn. This creates a much

more personal relationship between the speaker and music. Music-in its personified

incarnation-is making choices that the speaker must react to; it is sweet and blissful, yet
enticing and powerful. The arc of that relationship, from the initial point of joy to the

brink of death and the plea for mercy is a spectrum of chiaroscuro tones.

The presence of a strophic musical form often compromises a singer's dramatic

instinct because many singers interpret this form as a homogenization of the text and

choose to replicate the same vocal choices despite the change in textual meaning. When a

poem such as this is read aloud, the natural build of intensity that exists within the text is

exemplified by a reader's voice rather instinctively. The act ofmiuoring the dramatic

action of the poetty with the sound created by the spoken voice is often achieved through

the freedom of expressive tools such as speed, pitch variance, and volume. In truth,

transferring this dramatic intent to singing simply requires different vocal tools, such as

phrasing and color. An understanding of the dramatic arc of the text presented in the

analysis above would render a one-size-fits-all vocalism illogical and uninspired. Ideally,

chiaroscuro exploration may serve to spark the type of creative inquiry in a singer that

gives form, shape, and personality to different stanzas of strophic music, providing

distinctive meaning that can more easily be translated into secure interpretive choices.

Tuming to an analysis of the musical conceptions of this text, it is evident that

Purcell makes a distinctive statement with each of these two drastically different settings.

The musical treatment of the text and dramatic action in each setting brings to life

different ideas about Heveningham's poem. Purcell's capacity to perceive the same text

in such varied and unique ways is a testament to the broadening landscape of

interpretation encompassed by a chiaroscuro-informed pathway. The tuneful simplicity

of the first version, a sweet, chiaro response to the text's initial sentiment, is contrasted

against a deeply passionate and florid scuro representation of the text's vivid extremes.

40
 Purcell's first setting was originally composed in the key of G minor in a 2/2

meter. The piece encompasses a range of an octave and a fourth and consists of near

constant rhythmic movement. The atmosphere that is created musically is one that

underscores excitement and intense desire-as demonstrated by the moving eighth-note

patterns and expansive range of each phrase--colored by the implication of suffering

suggested by the minor key. The chiaroscuro dynamic is immediately evident here, as

Purcell juxtaposes the joyful sentiment expressed in the beginning of the poem with the

foreboding effect of the G minor tonality. Purcell's choice of key bears significance here,

as G minor carries an established association with death in the English music tradition

that predates Purcell's work by several generations. Notably, all of Purcell's settings of

this text are originally composed in G minor. 54

The form of this setting is strophic and employs a great deal of repetition. There

are two distinct ways that repetition is used to create tension within the piece, the first of

which is tlll'ough immediate repetition of text. With the exception of the final phrase of

each strophe-which is repeated with the same text and melody-Purcell heightens the

intensity of repeated text by also setting it in a musical sequence. Examples of this are

provided in Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2.

FIGURE 1.1 m. 4-5

...''
\.
i .,I I
""
...
'' '
'j,

.,;· "'j'
-:'!

i -
. ~·
J
'
:-;It'.:: "il, 1'1'·,, •}lh -.in.:• ~~-; I' '-l:l'' "il
"

54
Curtis Alexander Price, Hemy Purcell and the London Stage (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1984), 23.

41
FIGURE 1.2 m. 8-11

The second way that Purcell builds tension through repetition is through the

reiteration of musical material. This provides interesting insights as to how certain

motives may function at different times. For instance, in the first strophe Purcell sets the

final pmt of the phrase 'Sing on till I am fill'd with joy' with a sighing figure of steady

eighth notes which are grouped in slurred pairs (Figure 1.3).

The same musical material is used in the second strophe to set the phrase 'So fierce the

transports are, they wound.' In this case the first syllable of the word 'transp01ts' is set

with melismatic word painting over six slurred eighth notes (Figure 1.4).

FIGURE 1.4 m. 28

47
This example demonstrates how the same pitches and rhythmic values can serve very

different expressive functions within the context of a strophic piece. This recognition of

distinct functions impacts the color and breath used to execute the motives, yet must also

contain a varied emotional meaning that causes the singer to sigh at one moment and be

whisked away in the other.

Purcell's third setting shares some similarities with the first. Both settings are

originally composed in the key of G minor, and Purcell uses some of the same devices.

Of pmticular note is the shift to the relative major on the first appearance of the word

'love,' which is achieved through use of the raised seventh at the close of the initial

phrase. Nevettheless, the constant driving motion of the first setting is absent in this third

version, which broadens to reflect on ideas at length through extended melismatic

material, often on a single word. This effect is achieved by a through-composed form in

two parts: the first stanza is set in an expansive 4/4 meter, while the second stanza is

primarily set in a spritely 3/8 meter, with a return to the duple immediately preceding the

penultimate phrase.

Purcell uses range to a different effect in this setting, alternating phrases that

encompass a smaller range-such as a fifth-with phrases that explore a more substantial

range, such as a ninth. Purcell also uses particular tessituras to represent the character of

the embellished words within these pairings. For instance, in the first stanza the words

expressing emotions, such as "joy" and "pleasures," sit in a high tessitura with ample

time above the staff. This is in contrast to the words expressing actions, such as "sing"

and "move," which sit in a lower tessitura. (Figures 2.1 & 2.2 and 2.3 & 2.4 appear on

the following pages).

41
FIGURE 2.1m. 6-7

FIGURE 2.2 m. 9-10

, ___ _
FIGURE 2.3 m. 13-14

FIGURE 2.4 m. 16-18

44
 Purcell also uses a diverse palate of rhythmic figures in this setting, including

many dotted rhytlm1s. Dotted rhytlillls frequently close out melismatic material and are

used to provide clarity and distinction leading into the cadence. Purcell uses this effect to

emphasize certain textual elements that are not as prominent in his first setting, such as

the word "never" in the phrase "to pleasures that can never cloy" (Figure 2.5).

FIGURE 2.5 m. 18-19

The use of dotted figures within melismatic material is also used to give a certain

momentum to the overall musical line. An excellent example ofthis can be seen in his

setting of the word 'music' in the phrase "that you are music ev'rywhere," which is also

one of only two moments in the piece in which Purcell repeats the same text and pitches.

In the first appearance of this material he uses constant sixteenth notes leading to the top

of the phrase, at which point he shifts the impetus by grouping two sixteenth notes with a

thirty-second note and a dotted sixteenth (Figure 2.6 appears on the following page).

4S
FIGURE 2.6 m. 25-26

In the second appearance of this material, he begins the mel ism a with this same dotted

rhytlm1ic motive and then proceeds to altemate groupings of steady sixteenth notes with

this dotted motive, creating a different sense of motion for the final statement of the idea

(Figure 2. 7).

FIGURE 2.7 m. 31-32

~.:m-
~= - - . ·-~-
:!:~--=- ,: i
-
1
. -·
.~··- ~-·-==-:.-::--,.~. ~@~----
- -·~- .. - - --
__ :': - -~
-- .-~""'·
. . .
: ·- :; -: :
Mu-- ·---·----·-f"k,

~
::.E=--·
-~
-w ---·
---i----~----~--·~----~--··
--- -----
_,.._.
---- -· ---
----
---- -- -·' "' -----··
--- ---- -
--·-- --•
..= ------··

-----· ---
-~Be-'--· ----~--------- ... -·----------'"':

This distinct approach to repetition has other implications as well. Text repetition

is used nearly as often in this setting as it is in the first; however, Purcell rarely sets full

musical sequences without infusing the melodic structure with variations. Rather more

striking than using repetition as a point of emphasis is how Purcell's constant

restatements of text accentuate the significance of a phrase that is set only once. This

411
absence of repetition, as used in the final phrase, is remarkably effective in making an

emotional statement and defining the distinctive character of this version. While the form

and rhythmic motion of the first setting lend it a simple and direct character, the copious

embellishments of the third setting imply powerlessness in the face of music's wiles. In

this setting, only music (in its personified form) can relieve the speaker from this

irrepressible passion, and Purcell's exclusion of a second statement of the final plea,

"unless you save me in your arms," allows the following silence to become part of the

musical expression.

This analysis of Purcell's pieces demonstrates how encouraging a singer to

identify chiaroscuro-based contrasts and dualities-not only in an intellectual sense

through recognition but also in a personal sense through emotion---{;an provide a

substantive process for examining meaning. This experience may inspire increased

confidence in the singer and allow them to be more courageous about expressing a

personal point of view through interpretation. The anticipated outcome for the singer is

informed risk-taking, a vital element of artistic interpretation. For instance, what might it

mean to a singer to experience beauty or pleasure so intense and captivating that it cannot

be sustained? Does focusing on that contradiction bring about images, memories, or

sensations that can be channeled into an interpretive performance? A chiaroscuro

pathway provides a framework for exploring questions that are personal and intuitive as

well as artistic and imaginative.

47
 CHAPTER FIVE: ENGAGING IN THE CHIAROSCURO PROCESS

Like most approaches to interpretation, the chiaroscuro process isolates the

elements of music, text, and character in order to analyze them individually and then

rebuild the whole. This pathway is not a shortcut or a replacement for vital preparation,

such as analysis of historical, poetic, dramatic, and stylistic context and practices. Once

that work has been done, the chiaroscuro process can function in a similar way to a

Schenkerian analysis: a structural process for exploring and uncovering relationships and

patterns of meaning in the music. Ideally, the chiaroscuro process may serve as a

potential pathway to consider the piece differently and spark creativity that is perhaps

undiscovered by other means.

The chiaroscuro process is designed to guide singers through a self-informed

performance experience by serving as an outlet for them to explore their individuality-

the innate musical and expressive gifts that make them unique-in interpretation. This is

where Campbell's "arts processes" can be of great use. Adapting each of the six

processes to the exploration of vocal literature provides defined areas and teclmiques

through which to apply a chiaroscuro lens.

If upon choosing to study a piece of music a singer first reads the text and listens

to a recording, here lies an opportunity to engage in the first two mis processes and begin

to enter the chiaroscuro landscape. The first two processes are perceiving and

responding, which require the singer to answer two fairly direct questions: I) What did

you read/hear? and 2) How did it make you feel? Responding to a piece of music or

musically set text will often lead to a sense of mood and atmosphere, while perceiving

details about the music or text will identify specific features of the music that create that

4R
response. Answering these questions, even in the most basic sense, provides singers with

vital information about themselves, both as individuals and as musicians. A singer may

discover that his or her initial response to a piece is impacted by a general temperament,

such as pessimism or optimism (another chiaroscuro dichotomy), or a preference for

specific musical motives and textures or particular rhetorical devices in the text. This

process engages a singer's curiosity by reflecting not merely on how the piece impacted

him or her, but how the composer and poet manipulated their artistic resources to create

that impact. This deeper recognition of individuality allows the singer to recognize the

resources he or she possess as well, and begins the process of imagining how to put those

resources to the most effective use.

Following this examination is the third process, skills development, which allows

the singer to identity the musical and vocal skills required to both execute the material

and create the mood. At this point the technical and expressive converge, allowing

elements of technique to connect to expressive ideas and develop concunently. This

relationship flourishes when each informs the other: the development of vocal skill

should serve to express the attistic ideas of the singer, and the emotional ideas should

serve as opportunities to meet technical challenges with creative solutions. This speaks to

the impmtance of the word "exploration." Each piece, each phrase, each moment is

different: one may require attention to a perfectly crafted legato line to bring an

emotional idea to life, while another may require an unusual dramatic premise or

relationship to deliver the utmost clarity of diction. The crucial element is that tln·oughout

the skills development process the approach to the attistic and the technical is one of a

partnership, not one of divide and conquer.

 Skills development is not isolated to the vocal instrument. This process also

includes deeper engagement with a contextual understanding of the piece. Development

of stylistic skills, consultation of original source texts and language resources, and

continued study of historical and cultural influences all occur in this central process. The

opportunities for chiaroscuro connections in this process are vast. Considering the issues

faced by composers and poets throughout histmy-ranging from struggles of national

identity and creative freedom to illness and social controversy-there are many

opportunities to contemplate the interaction of opposing forces and their impact.

Contextual understanding connects to the ideas presented by Claude Levi-Strauss,

Socrates, and others. What opposing cultural influences led to the operas of Gluck or the

development of nu!lodie? How does a singer's own biases color their perception of poetic

texts, musical genres, or performance practices? These all speak to developing an

authentic at1istic identity, the aim of a chiaroscuro approach.

These three initial steps establish a foundation that allows the processes of

evaluating, understanding, and creating to flourish. Singers can evaluate the

effectiveness of how their technical choices convey meaning, as well as their assumptions

or conceptions regarding the piece. Understanding can be gained through continued depth

of exploration, for as interpretation progresses, new questions will arise and new truths

will become apparent. The point at which a singer achieves a level of excellence and

freedom that allows for risk taking and originality in each performance is the creating

process, when the literature, vocalism, and style are prepared at such a level that each

perfmmance is an exercise in freshness and imagination.

r;o
 There are countless ways that singers can connect these processes to chiaroscuro.

Ideally, a chiaroscuro approach to interpretation will inspire an increased range of

possibilities for the singer. Development and expansion of both emotional and poetic

vocabulary, as well as curiosity and inquily, serve as pivotal elements of exploring depth

and individuality as a vocal artist. The connotation, nuance, and idiomatic context of

language is rich with meaning, and deeper consideration of these elements provides a

singer with a greater store of interpretive resources. Appendix 3 details additional

guidelines for engaging in this concept, such as developing an emotional "color wheel"

devised of chiaro, scuro, and chiaroscuro terms, or identifying the foreground and

background elements of the piece through analysis guidelines.

As the impetus for this research sprang from a first-hand awareness of the

challenges instructors face in teaching interpretation skills, the chiaroscuro process also

seeks to provide opportunities for voice instructors to more effectively engage in that

dialogue. This process can vary considerably based on the age and skill level of each

individual student, yet hopefully it can act as a unifying medium through which singers

with a variety of experiences and talents can communicate as equals. This can prove

particularly useful in studio classes or group voice classes, where the experience levels

and mastery offmmal tetminology may vary significantly.

Instructors provide the invaluable link between the singer's artistic conception

and the demonstration of that concept. From the perspective of a chiaroscuro pathway,

this may range from introducing the concept and channeling a singer's thinking to

helping them identify any holes or missing steps in their process or even challenging their

assumptions. Often singers are asked to "dig deeper" into the meaning of a piece, and

~1
chiaroscuro offers a tangible means by which to do just that through engaging creativity

and imagination in a different way.

An example of how a chiaroscuro perspective may be used to solve a common

interpretive challenge can be seen in the way vocalism is related to mood. A common

trap for young singers is to assume that a "dark" piece (i.e. a piece with a solemn

message, in a minor key, etc.) requires an equally dark vocal sound. This often results in

phonation that lacks sufficient resonance and sounds muffled or "woofy ." A chiaroscuro

solution to this familiar struggle would be to introduce the idea of a "chiaro" vocalism

working in tandem with the "scuro" mood. This suggestion opens the door to a discussion

of everything from how chiaroscuro can exist in an intersection of technique and

meaning to how specific vowels, consonants, and phrase contours balance light and dark.

Appendix 4 details a comprehensive list of chiaro, scuro, and chiaroscuro tetms that

instructors can use to spark a singer's imagination, engage their curiosity, and expand

their expressive vocabulaty.

It should be noted that the chiaroscuro process might also prove extremely

helpful in the interpretation of both modern and early music. These two genres provide

unique challenges for singers who are accustomed to consulting various or "definitive"

interpretations of the pieces in their repertoire. The experience of creating an original

interpretation without other intetpretations to draw on opens up a whole new world of

intetpretive freedom, which some singers may find more ovetwhelming than liberating.

A chiaroscuro process can provide direction by building an interpretation out of the

identifiably familiar elements and creating a palpable form to the piece, which can then

be infused by the individuality and ingenuity of the singer. The presence of elements such
as text, rhythm, and melody is fairly constant, and these elements retain similar functions

in both standard repertoire and early and new repertoire. For instance, a singer can

analyze a text and deliver it expressively whether it is sung, spoken, or somewhere in

between (as in Sprechstimme), any of which might be the case in a newly composed

work. Fmihermore, text can be sung meaningfully regardless of whether the assigned

pitches have regular rhythmic values and meter or have flexible temporal constraints as

one might find in early music. Using chiaroscuro thinking to unearth the character and

journey of the piece provides the foundation for a singer to translate this character into

sound through the expressive use of a wide range of tools, such as consonants, breath,

articulations, text emphasis, and tone color.

While the method would obviously require some creative adapting, it is clear that

the chiaroscuro process need not be limited to singers. Instmmentalists may benefit from

a new lens through which to view their repertoire, which contains the same musical and

dramatic elements contained in vocal literature. While text clearly does not serve the

same function in instrumental music that it does in vocal music, extra-musical

elements-including but not limited to texts-are an ideal fit for chiaroscuro exploration.

This research has specifically referenced the reflections of Robert Spillman, one

of many notable collaborative pianists who have contributed to the existing scholarship

on song interpretation. The nature of the relationship between piano and voice in song

literature renders these contributions extremely valuable, and underscores one of the

ways text can influence an instrumental player. If we investigate Spillman's ideas on

piano interpretation, he places an emphasis on informed timbres, such as emulating the

pianoforte or what he calls an "orchestral palette" based on the context of the piece. 5 5

This idea is highly compatible with the chiaroscuro process as it allows pianists to

detem1ine for themselves what balance of dark to light exists for each of those

soundscapes, and how tools such as attack, touch, pedal, and decay can be used to bring

that sound to fruition. This can be of pmiicular use to collaborative pianists when faced

with accompaniments of sparser textures that require a great deal of color for expressive

purposes.

Another source of inspiration for instmmentalists interested in a chiaroscuro

process comes from Spanish cellist and conductor Pablo Casals (1876-1973). Renowned

for his innovative interpretations of both solo cello and symphonic literature, Casals

maintained: "Technique, wonderful sound ... all of this is sometimes astonishing-but it is

not enough." 56 The natural timbre of the cello seems a perfect fit for chiaroscuro, with its

warm yet energetic sound (although cellist Jacqueline DuPre bemoaned its limiting color

in comparison to the voice). Investigating form, range, and rhythm through a chiaroscuro

lens certainly allows for a fresh and creative approach.

55 Stein and Spillman, Foeti)' into Song, 84-85.

56
David Blum, Casals and the Art of lnteJpretation (New York: Holmes and Meier Publishers,
1977), I.

S4
 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION

Approaching interpretation from the perspective of contrasts between dark and

light opens up an array of intuitive creative opportunities that take advantage of the

imagination's capacity for identifying and classifying opposing elements. Chiaroscuro

can embody a vast array of meanings and interpretations, providing both freedom and

structure in the intetpretive process. Musical, textual, and dramatic elements can be

broken down and analyzed as complex, gratifying elements of a living, breathing artistic

whole.

A chiaroscuro process can be a compelling pathway to interpretation because it

embraces the complexity of the human experience. This is significant because, while

complexity may not always be positive, it is a truth that transcends emotion, action, and

intellect. When seemingly dissimilar entities interact to form something else, it is

fascinating and worthy of exploration. Personal identity becomes evident from this

process, and a truly captivating artistic interpretation must be as multifaceted as an

individual. Just as no individual should tolerate being reduced to a single identifying

characteristic, no composition should be reduced to a singular, perfi.mctory emotion or

idea. To paraphrase Albert Einstein, "Everything should be made as simple as possible,

but no simpler." 57

Ultimately, this chiaroscuro pathway is focused on the process of interpretation.

Like the artistic works that inspired the term, chiaroscuro intetpretation provides a sense

57
Albert Einstein, On the Method o[Theoretica/ Physics, Trans. Sonja Bargmann (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1954), 270. The original quote is: "It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all
thc01y is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to
surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience."

ss
of foreground and background within the musical work. It brings into focus the elements

of the poetry, character, and music that a singer responds to most distinctly and impels

the singer to conununicate those elements to the audience. One singer may engage in it

and find that he or she finally understands and connects with a piece that was initially

abstract, while yet another singer may find that he or she discovers a fresh perspective on

a familiar and frequently performed work. This is what is so distinctive about a

chiaroscuro pathway to interpretation: it is fluid. It is not limited to the initial learning

and interpretation process; it can be revisited to ensure a continually evolving

interpretation of music that represents the evolving gifts, skills, and spirit of the

perf01mer. While a singer may certainly find other effective means of analyzing vocal

literature and informing interpretation, a chiaroscuro-informed process invites an

atmosphere of creativity in which exploring a piece becomes a cycle of responding,

asking, imagining, teaming, and reevaluating.

This research focuses largely on the way in which a chiaroscuro lens can aid the

interpretation of standard vocal literature, yet there are several additional areas where a

chiaroscuro pathway may be valuable. These areas include choral ensembles, sacred

music, and role interpretation.

While no specific references to choral performance were made in this research,

applications of chiaroscuro interpretation in a vocal ensemble setting offer a significant

opp011unity for exploration. Choral performance is an innately chiaroscuro experience, as

it involves the combining of varied individual voice timbres to create a new sound. The

accessibility of the chiaroscuro concept and its tem1inology may provide conductors with

a new avenue for expressing both musical and interpretive ideas.

 Another area with a seemingly intrinsic cmmection to chiaroscuro is the genre of

sacred music, which lends itself to the chiaroscuro concept thematically, musically, and

textually. Sacred texts, pm1icularly those relating to Western religions, offer extensive

allusions to dark and light. These ideas are expressed musically tlu·ough different timbres,

instruments, ranges, and textures, offering insights into cultural context. A chiaroscuro

framework may also provide a different pathway for singers to connect with the dramatic

action and character of sacred works without becoming preoccupied with the ideology

behind them. The spiritual connotation of these pieces can be a challenge for certain

singers, and chiaroscuro may serve to neutralize an overly delicate treatment of sacred

works and allow singers to connect with them as the vibrant dramatic works they are.

Applying a chiaroscuro lens to dramatic action and music as it pet1ains to one

character over the course of a song-cycle, oratorio, or opera also presents an opportunity

for fm1her exploration, as it would engage a singer's imagination and curiosity to explore

relationships in a larger context. Deeper consideration of chiaroscuro in areas such as

character study, the emotional journey as a shifting balance oflight and dark, and

interpretation of recuning musical motives provides exciting possibilities for examination

of relationships across a variety of contexts.

This research briefly touched on how a chiaroscuro pathway could be useful for

interpretation of early and modern music; however, the application of chiaroscuro to

cet1ain crucial elements of these genres of music is wm1hy of deeper examination.

Concepts such as mensuration-which, for both genres, can manifest outside the

traditional structure commonly applied to the majority of solo vocal literature-and

temperament-which may apply to tuning other than equal temperament in early music

t;7
and the use of microtones in modern music-offer a vast opportunity for exploring

chiaroscuro thinking and interpretation.

The chiaroscuro pathway addresses the process of interpretation without

identifYing specific objectives or desired results. It exists to present questions for

consideration, not to provide definitive answers. The outcomes from exploring this

process are sure to be wide-ranging and infinite, and may potentially play a role in the

development of distinctive and personal vocal mtistty. A constant and continuing

dialogue on both the baniers and approaches to developing interpretive skills is an

impmtant one. Artistty demands courage and imagination, and interpretation cannot exist

as a separate entity from technical skill. This research is designed to identifY these

challenges, and potentially provide a different pathway to interpretation that ties

imagination, personal reflection, and creative exploration to the rich tradition of artistic

expression represented by chiaroscuro.

 APPENDIX ONE: If Music be the Food of Love, Z. 379a58

2ti

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 59
APPENDIX TWO: If Music be the Food ofLove, Z. 379c

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Henry Purcell, Orpheus Brittanicus (London: J. Hepinstall, 1698), 6.

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 APPENDIX THREE: GUIDELINES FOR SINGERS

The following guidelines are provided as an introductory aid to using chiaroscuro to

enhance the interpretation process.

FREE ASSOCIATION

The simplest way to use the chiaroscuro process is by sitting down with your

chosen composition and listing everything you can identifY, free from judgment. Create a

master list for the text and a separate one for the music. Once you've completed these

lists, compare them side-by-side and look for significant contrasts and similarities. This

straightforward process is a surefire way to enter into a chiaroscuro mindset. An example

of what this might look like is included in the figure below:

TEXT ELEMENTS MUSIC ELEMENTS

1. Addresses "Love" as a person 1. Minor keyI

2. Contrasting word pairs (pleasures 2. Duple meter

invade, perish [by your] chmms)

3. First stanza sweeter (filled, move, 3. Strophic form

pleasures)

4.Second stanza more forceful (fierce, 4. Constantly moving eighth notes

wound, feast)

5. Animation of the senses (listening soul, 5. Melodic sequences

invade eye and ear)

LIGHT AND SHADOW ASSESSMENT

Visual representations of chiaroscuro draw focus to a pmticular element by using

light as a method of emphasis and using shadow to provide contrast and dimension.

Vocal literature can be analyzed in a similar construct by approaching each element

(music, drama, and text) and identifying A) the point of emphasis (focus) and B) how that

emphasis is achieved. This allows for a process of working from the "big picture" to the

more specific and nuanced details. Consider the questions below:

TEXT

1. What is the focal point of the song textually?

2. How is this achieved?

a. Key words or phrases

b. Repetition of text that retains a different meaning

c. Similar phrases with distinctive modifications to the use oflanguage

d. Word choice (what does the language mean to the character, what is the

significance of using a pmticular word or phrase)

DRAMA

I. What is the focal point of the song dramatically?

2. How is this achieved?

a. "Climax" of the emotion and/or story

b. Most poignant or meaningful moment

c. Character realization and/or arrival point

d. "Punchline" of a joke and/or humorous stmy

liS
MUSIC

I. What is the focal point of the song musically?

2. How is this achieved?

a. Pitch duration (longer note values)

b. Range (extremes at the top or bottom of the vocal range)

c. Dynamics (extremes at the top or bottom of dynamic range, sub ito

markings, etc.)

d. Tempo (drastic or significant shifts)

e. Phrase contour (longer or shorter, different trajectory)

f. Articulations (accents, tenutos, slurs, sforzandi, etc.)

SCOPE

I. Once these questions have been answered for the piece as a whole, consider them

by sections in the form (ABA, strophic, etc.), then for each phrase.

2. Consider what contrasts exist that bring identified elements into the foreground.

COLOR WHEELS

In painting, there are three primmy colors and from those you get three more

colors and so on. This idea has obvious applications for chiaroscuro if you think in

varying shades of white, black, and gray. This exercise is a little more detailed, but

essentially it allows you to create an "emotional color wheel." Start with two or three

contrasting emotions or states of being, such as joy, pain, and humor. Out of those three,

you see the "colors" that exist by mixing two adjacent colors. For instance, sarcasm

hh
might result from the intersection of pain and humor; elation might result from the

combination of humor and joy; bittersweet might result from pain mixed with joy. This

process spawns specificity, providing you with a number of ideas to chose from and from

which to develop unique vocal colors.

The first step to this chiaroscuro exercise is to select one chiaro emotion, one

scuro emotion, and one chiaroscuro emotion (examples can be found in the compendium

of terms in Appendix Four). Once these emotions have been placed on the "color wheel,"

proceed to brainstorm what might result from a combination of any two adjacent

emotions. This process can continue indefinitely, building layer upon layer of emotional

complexity for use in interpretation. See illustrated example in the figure below:

Joy

joy
elation

(,7
 APPENDIX FOUR: COMPENDIUM OF CHIAROSCURO TERMS

The following terms are categorized by general association. Words that typically

represent light are in the chiaro categmy, words that typically represent dark are in the

scuro categmy. This list is designed as an entry point to spark the imagination, not as a

complete, unchangeable collection.

CHIARO SCURO CHIAROSCURO

Good Evil Bittersweet

Heroic Tragic Tragic-Hero

Hopeful Hopeless Cloying

Victorious Defeated Ironic

Optimistic Skeptical Ambitious

Trusting Suspicions Boisterous

Decadent Lacking Pensive

Joyful Forlorn Remorseful

Triumphant Disappointed Paradoxical

Rewarding Punishing Striving

Rejoicing Despairing Ambivalent

Conquering Succumbing Rehabilitated

Pure Contaminated Compromised

Content Miserable Poignant

Ecstatic Enraged Fervent

Embraced Isolated Nostalgic

Peaceful Disturbed Sententious

f)fl
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