Ethics:

Ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make decisions and lead their
lives.

Ethics is concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as moral
philosophy.

The term is derived from the Greek word ethos which can mean custom, habit, character or
disposition.

Ethics covers the following dilemmas:

 how to live a good life

 our rights and responsibilities
 the language of right and wrong
 moral decisions - what is good and bad?

Our concepts of ethics have been derived from religions, philosophies and cultures. They infuse
debates on topics like abortion, human rights and professional conduct.

Approaches to ethics

Philosophers nowadays tend to divide ethical theories into three areas: metaethics, normative
ethics and applied ethics.

 Meta-ethics deals with the nature of moral judgement. It looks at the origins and meaning
of ethical principles.
 Normative ethics is concerned with the content of moral judgements and the criteria for
what is right or wrong.
 Applied ethics looks at controversial ics like war, animal rights and capital punishment

What use is ethics?

 Ethics needs to provide answers. Photo: Geoffrey Holman ©
 If ethical theories are to be useful in practice, they need to affect the way human beings
behave.
 Some philosophers think that ethics does do this. They argue that if a person realises that
it would be morally good to do something then it would be irrational for that person not
to do it.
 But human beings often behave irrationally - they follow their 'gut instinct' even when
their head suggests a different course of action.
 However, ethics does provide good tools for thinking about moral issues.

Ethics can provide a moral map

  Most moral issues get us pretty worked up - think of abortion and euthanasia for starters.
Because these are such emotional issues we often let our hearts do the arguing while our
brains just go with the flow.
 But there's another way of tackling these issues, and that's where philosophers can come
in - they offer us ethical rules and principles that enable us to take a cooler view of moral
problems.
 So ethics provides us with a moral map, a framework that we can use to find our way
through difficult issues.

Ethics can pinpoint a disagreement

 Using the framework of ethics, two people who are arguing a moral issue can often find
that what they disagree about is just one particular part of the issue, and that they broadly
agree on everything else.
 That can take a lot of heat out of the argument, and sometimes even hint at a way for
them to resolve their problem.
 But sometimes ethics doesn't provide people with the sort of help that they really want.

Ethics doesn't give right answers

 Ethics doesn't always show the right answer to moral problems.

 Indeed more and more people think that for many ethical issues there isn't a single right
answer - just a set of principles that can be applied to particular cases to give those
involved some clear choices.
 Some philosophers go further and say that all ethics can do is eliminate confusion and
clarify the issues. After that it's up to each individual to come to their own conclusions.

Ethics can give several answers

 Many people want there to be a single right answer to ethical questions. They find moral
ambiguity hard to live with because they genuinely want to do the 'right' thing, and even
if they can't work out what that right thing is, they like the idea that 'somewhere' there is
one right answer.
 But often there isn't one right answer - there may be several right answers, or just some
least worst answers - and the individual must choose between them.
 For others moral ambiguity is difficult because it forces them to take responsibility for
their own choices and actions, rather than falling back on convenient rules and customs.

Ethics and people

Ethics is about the 'other'

Ethics is concerned with other people

At the heart of ethics is a concern about something or someone other than ourselves and our own
desires and self-interest.

Ethics is concerned with other people's interests, with the interests of society, with God's
interests, with "ultimate goods", and so on.

So when a person 'thinks ethically' they are giving at least some thought to something beyond
themselves.

Ethics as source of group strength

One problem with ethics is the way it's often used as a weapon.

If a group believes that a particular activity is "wrong" it can then use morality as the justification
for attacking those who practice that activity.

When people do this, they often see those who they regard as immoral as in some way less
human or deserving of respect than themselves; sometimes with tragic consequences.

Good people as well as good actions

Ethics is not only about the morality of particular courses of action, but it's also about the
goodness of individuals and what it means to live a good life.

Virtue Ethics is particularly concerned with the moral character of human beings.

Searching for the source of right and wrong

At times in the past some people thought that ethical problems could be solved in one of two
ways:

 by discovering what God wanted people to do

 by thinking rigorously about moral principles and problems

If a person did this properly they would be led to the right conclusion.

But now even philosophers are less sure that it's possible to devise a satisfactory and complete
theory of ethics - at least not one that leads to conclusions.

Modern thinkers often teach that ethics leads people not to conclusions but to 'decisions'.

In this view, the role of ethics is limited to clarifying 'what's at stake' in particular ethical
problems.

Philosophy can help identify the range of ethical methods, conversations and value systems that
can be applied to a particular problem. But after these things have been made clear, each person
must make their own individual decision as to what to do, and then react appropriately to the
consequences.

Are ethical statements objectively true?

Do ethical statements provide information about anything other than human opinions and
attitudes?

 Ethical realists think that human beings discover ethical truths that already have an
independent existence.
 Ethical non-realists think that human beings invent ethical truths.

The problem for ethical realists is that people follow many different ethical codes and moral
beliefs. So if there are real ethical truths out there (wherever!) then human beings don't seem to
be very good at discovering them.

One form of ethical realism teaches that ethical properties exist independently of human beings,
and that ethical statements give knowledge about the objective world.

To put it another way; the ethical properties of the world and the things in it exist and remain the
same, regardless of what people think or feel - or whether people think or feel about them at all.

On the face of it, it [ethical realism] means the view that moral qualities such as wrongness, and
likewise moral facts such as the fact that an act was wrong, exist in rerum natura, so that, if one
says that a certain act was wrong, one is saying that there existed, somehow, somewhere, this
quality of wrongness, and that it had to exist there if that act were to be wrong.

R. M Hare, Essays in Ethical Theory, 1989

Four ethical 'isms'

When a person says "murder is bad" what are they doing?

That's the sort of question that only a philosopher would ask, but it's actually a very useful way
of getting a clear idea of what's going on when people talk about moral issues.

The different 'isms' regard the person uttering the statement as doing different things.

We can show some of the different things I might be doing when I say 'murder is bad' by
rewriting that statement to show what I really mean:

 I might be making a statement about an ethical fact

o "It is wrong to murder"
o This is moral realism
 I might be making a statement about my own feelings
 o "I disapprove of murder"
o This is subjectivism
 I might be expressing my feelings
o "Down with murder"
o This is emotivism
 I might be giving an instruction or a prohibition
o "Don't murder people"
o This is prescriptivism

Moral realism

Moral realism is based on the idea that there are real objective moral facts or truths in the
universe. Moral statements provide factual information about those truths.

Subjectivism

Subjectivism teaches that moral judgments are nothing more than statements of a person's
feelings or attitudes, and that ethical statements do not contain factual truths about goodness or
badness.

In more detail: subjectivists say that moral statements are statements about the feelings, attitudes
and emotions that that particular person or group has about a particular issue.

If a person says something is good or bad they are telling us about the positive or negative
feelings that they have about that something.

So if someone says 'murder is wrong' they are telling us that they disapprove of murder.

These statements are true if the person does hold the appropriate attitude or have the appropriate
feelings. They are false if the person doesn't.

Emotivism

Emotivism is the view that moral claims are no more than expressions of approval or
disapproval.

This sounds like subjectivism, but in emotivism a moral statement doesn't provide information
about the speaker's feelings about the ic but expresses those feelings.

When an emotivist says "murder is wrong" it's like saying "down with murder" or "murder,
yecch!" or just saying "murder" while pulling a horrified face, or making a thumbs-down gesture
at the same time as saying "murder is wrong".

So when someone makes a moral judgement they show their feelings about something. Some
theorists also suggest that in expressing a feeling the person gives an instruction to others about
how to act towards the subject matter.
Prescriptivism

Prescriptivists think that ethical statements are instructions or recommendations.

So if I say something is good, I'm recommending you to do it, and if I say something is bad, I'm
telling you not to do it.

There is almost always a prescriptive element in any real-world ethical statement: any ethical
statement can be reworked (with a bit of effort) into a statement with an 'ought' in it. For
example: "lying is wrong" can be rewritten as "people ought not to tell lies".

Where does ethics come from?

Philosophers have several answers to this question:

 God and religion

 Human conscience and intuition
 a rational moral cost-benefit analysis of actions and their effects
 the example of good human beings
 a desire for the best for people in each unique situation
 political power

God-based ethics - supernaturalism

Supernaturalism makes ethics inseparable from religion. It teaches that the only source of moral
rules is God.

So, something is good because God says it is, and the way to lead a good life is to do what God
wants.

Intuitionism

Intuitionists think that good and bad are real objective properties that can't be broken down into
component parts. Something is good because it's good; its goodness doesn't need justifying or
proving.

Intuitionists think that goodness or badness can be detected by adults - they say that human
beings have an intuitive moral sense that enables them to detect real moral truths.

They think that basic moral truths of what is good and bad are self-evident to a person who
directs their mind towards moral issues.

So good things are the things that a sensible person realises are good if they spend some time
pondering the subject.
Don't get confused. For the intuitionist:

 moral truths are not discovered by rational argument

 moral truths are not discovered by having a hunch
 moral truths are not discovered by having a feeling

It's more a sort of moral 'aha' moment - a realisation of the truth.

Consequentialism

This is the ethical theory that most non-religious people think they use every day. It bases
morality on the consequences of human actions and not on the actions themselves.

Consequentialism teaches that people should do whatever produces the greatest amount of good
consequences.

One famous way of putting this is 'the greatest good for the greatest number of people'.

The most common forms of consequentialism are the various versions of utilitarianism, which
favour actions that produce the greatest amount of happiness.

Despite its obvious common-sense appeal, consequentialism turns out to be a complicated

theory, and doesn't provide a complete solution to all ethical problems.

Two problems with consequentialism are:

 it can lead to the conclusion that some quite dreadful acts are good
 predicting and evaluating the consequences of actions is often very difficult

Non-consequentialism or deontological ethics

Non-consequentialism is concerned with the actions themselves and not with the consequences.
It's the theory that people are using when they refer to "the principle of the thing".

It teaches that some acts are right or wrong in themselves, whatever the consequences, and
people should act accordingly.

Virtue ethics

Virtue ethics looks at virtue or moral character, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the
consequences of actions - indeed some philosophers of this school deny that there can be such
things as universal ethical rules.

Virtue ethics is particularly concerned with the way individuals live their lives, and less
concerned in assessing particular actions.
It develops the idea of good actions by looking at the way virtuous people express their inner
goodness in the things that they do.

To put it very simply, virtue ethics teaches that an action is right if and only if it is an action that
a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances, and that a virtuous person is someone
who has a particularly good character.

Situation ethics

Situation ethics rejects prescriptive rules and argues that individual ethical decisions should be
made according to the unique situation.

Rather than following rules the decision maker should follow a desire to seek the best for the
people involved. There are no moral rules or rights - each case is unique and deserves a unique
solution.

Ethics and ideology

Some philosophers teach that ethics is the codification of political ideology, and that the function
of ethics is to state, enforce and preserve particular political beliefs.

They usually go on to say that ethics is used by the dominant political elite as a tool to control
everyone else.

More cynical writers suggest that power elites enforce an ethical code on other people that helps
them control those people, but do not apply this code to their own behaviour.

Are there universal moral rules?

One of the big questions in moral philosophy is whether or not there are unchanging moral rules
that apply in all cultures and at all times.

Moral absolutism

Some people think there are such universal rules that apply to everyone. This sort of thinking is
called moral absolutism.

Moral absolutism argues that there are some moral rules that are always true, that these rules can
be discovered and that these rules apply to everyone.

Immoral acts - acts that break these moral rules - are wrong in themselves, regardless of the
circumstances or the consequences of those acts.

Absolutism takes a universal view of humanity - there is one set of rules for everyone - which
enables the drafting of universal rules - such as the Declaration of Human Rights.
Religious views of ethics tend to be absolutist.

Why people disagree with moral absolutism:

 Many of us feel that the consequences of an act or the circumstances surrounding it are
relevant to whether that act is good or bad
 Absolutism doesn't fit with respect for diversity and tradition

Different cultures have had different attitudes to issues like war ©

Moral relativism

Moral relativists say that if you look at different cultures or different periods in history you'll
find that they have different moral rules.

Therefore it makes sense to say that "good" refers to the things that a particular group of people
approve of.

Moral relativists think that that's just fine, and dispute the idea that there are some objective and
discoverable 'super-rules' that all cultures ought to obey. They believe that relativism respects the
diversity of human societies and responds to the different circumstances surrounding human acts.

Why people disagree with moral relativism:

 Many of us feel that moral rules have more to them than the general agreement of a group
of people - that morality is more than a super-charged form of etiquette
 Many of us think we can be good without conforming to all the rules of society
 Moral relativism has a problem with arguing against the majority view: if most people in
a society agree with particular rules, that's the end of the matter. Many of the
improvements in the world have come about because people opposed the prevailing
ethical view - moral relativists are forced to regard such people as behaving "badly"
 Any choice of social grouping as the foundation of ethics is bound to be arbitrary
 Moral relativism doesn't provide any way to deal with moral differences between
societies

Moral somewhere-in-between-ism

Most non-philosophers think that both of the above theories have some good points and think
that

 there are a few absolute ethical rules

 but a lot of ethical rules depend on the culture
Types of ethics
 Supernaturalism
 Subjectivism
 Consequentialism
 Intuitionism
 Emotivism
 Duty-based ethics
 Virtue ethics
 Situation ethics

About supernaturalism
Supernaturalism (God-based ethics)

This theory makes ethics depend on God. It teaches that:

 the only source of moral rules is God

 something is good because God says it is
 the way to lead a good life is to do what God wants

Can God be the ultimate source of good?

Supernaturalism relies on revelations from God ©

Throughout history one puzzle has made it difficult to base ethics on God:

Is a thing good because God desires it?

or

Does God desire a thing because it is good?

The Ancient Greek philosopher Plato concluded that God desires a thing because it is good.
God's desire doesn't make a thing good - the thing would be good regardless of God.

If Plato is right then the supernaturalism theory is pretty unhelpful, because it doesn't reveal what
makes something good or bad.

God's desire would be at best a useful way of discovering what is good and what is bad, but
wouldn't tell us anything more than that.

And here's another problem:

If God desired something that everyone thinks is bad - would that make it good?

Atheists and supernaturalism

Ethical atheists and supernaturalism

How do atheists derive their morals? Photo: Marcelo Terraza ©

If supernaturalism is true, how can atheists behave in a consistently moral way?

If religion is the only basis of ethics, it would seem that people who have no faith can have no
basis for their moral judgements, and nowhere to turn for guidance on how to live.

But atheists do behave in a consistent moral way, so where do such people get their morality
from?

And since atheists and believers totally disagree on the foundations underpinning moral rules, it's
surely strange that they so often agree on matters of right and wrong - since they have no
common basis for moral judgements, any agreement on moral rules must be coincidence.

One response the supernaturalist might offer is that the atheist does derive his or her ethics from
God, even though they are unaware of it. The supernaturalist might say that not believing in God
does not mean the atheist would have no awareness of a God-based ethics, and hence their
agreement can be explained despite the atheist's different beliefs.

Constructionism devalues God-based ethics

Some who are observant followers of a religion accept that God is a human construction and not
a supernatural being.

If this is so, then God-based ethics are no different from humanly constructed ethics based on
cultural traditions and rituals.

Different Gods leads to moral disagreement

Since there are many different religions, with different understandings of God and different
moral codes, God-based ethics is bound to produce moral disagreement.

God-based ethics provides no way of dealing with ethical conflicts between different religions.

Fearing God as a basis for good behaviour

People may follow the rules of God-based ethics because they are fearful of being punished by
God in this life or in some afterlife.

Many theologians teach that a fear- and power-based relationship with God is an inappropriate
relationship to have with a loving God and leads to a bad spiritual life.

Many theologians and ethicists argue that such a relationship with God provides a bad model for
human power and family relationships.

People may follow the rules of God-based ethics simply because they wish to behave in a way
that pleases God.

This is a more helpful model for human power and family relationships.

Discovering what is good

Discovering what is good

How do we know? ©

Even if people accept that things are good because God desires them they still face the problem
of discovering what God desires. Strictly speaking this does not count against Supernaturalism as
an intellectual position - it may be just be accepted that moral truths are hard to discover - but it
does highlight the difficulties.

Discovering God's will

There are several ways in which believers try to find out God's will in ethical matters:

 reading scripture - both to see what God says, and to find relevant examples
 listening to religious teachers
 prayer and meditation
 seeing what is consistent with God's general advice on how to live
 listening to the inner, God-driven, voice
 discussion with teachers and followers of the religion concerned

Many religious people use a combination of these in their approach to moral problems.

It is accepted by many believers that the ways of discovering God's will set out above don't give
direct access to God's will, but involve working through intermediaries. Hence the information is
passed through social, cultural, religious and psychological filters that can distort it.
Many hold that God's will is only directly known through revelation: God actually
communicating his/her will to the person concerned. However, revelation as a source of ethics
still presents a problem for certainty: how is the person to know that the revelation they have
received has actually come from God?

Subjectivism
Subjectivism (relativism)

There ain't no sin and there ain't no virtue. There's just stuff people do.

John Steinbeck, Grapes of Wrath

Subjectivism teaches that there are no objective moral truths out there.

 There are no objective moral facts. Therefore 'murder is wrong' can't be objectively true

Many forms of subjectivism go a bit further and teach that moral statements describe how the
speaker feels about a particular ethical issue.

 Moral statements are just factual statements about the attitude the speaker holds on a
particular issue
 So if I say "Lying is wrong", all I'm doing is telling you that I disapprove of telling lies

Some forms of subjectivism generalise this idea to come up with:

 Moral statements are just factual statements about the attitude normal human beings hold
on a particular issue

And this may ultimately lead us to this conclusion about moral truths:

 Moral judgements are dependent on the feelings and attitudes of the persons who think
about such things

Good points of subjectivism

Reflects the subjective elements of morality

 it reflects the close relationship between morality and people's feelings and opinions -
indeed it can cope with the contradictory moral views we often find ourselves wrestling
with

Reflects the evaluative elements of moral statements

  moral statements in everyday life make judgements ("lying is wrong"), factual statements
("cats have fur") don't

Shows that moral judgements communicate dis/approval

 it reflects the communication of approval and disapproval that seems to go along with the
everyday making of moral statements

May clarify what people are arguing about

 subjectivism may enable people disagreeing over the rightness or wrongness of some
issue to see that the real dispute is not about objective truth but about their own
preferences

Reflects the persuasive intentions behind ethical discussions

 subjectivism may also enable people engaging in moral argument to realise that they are
not arguing about objective truths but trying to persuade their opponent to adopt their
point of view

I disapprove: but surely ethics is about more than feelings ©

Bad points of subjectivism

The problem with subjectivism is that it seems to imply that moral statements are less significant
than most people think they are - this may of course be true without rendering moral statements
insignificant.

"If I approve of something, it must be good"

 Subjectivism seems to tell us that moral statements give information only about what we
feel about moral issues.
 If the simplest form of subjectivism is true then when a person who genuinely approves
of telling lies says "telling lies is good" that moral statement is unarguably true. It would
only be untrue if the speaker didn't approve of telling lies.
 So under this theory it seems that all the speaker has to do to prove that lying is good is to
show lots of evidence that they do indeed approve of lying - perhaps that they tell lots of
lies and feel good about it, indeed are surprised if anyone criticises them for being a liar,
and that they often praise other people for telling lies.
 Most people would find this way of approaching ethics somewhat unhelpful, and
wouldn't think it reflected the way in which most people talk about ethical issues.

Moral statements seem more than statements about feelings

  By and large if a person says something is wrong we usually get the message that they
disapprove of that something, but most of us probably think that the other person is doing
more than just telling us about their feelings.

How can we blame people if moral truths are always subjective?

 If moral statements have no objective truth, then how can we blame people for behaving
in a way that 'is wrong', i.e. if "murder is wrong" has no objective truth, then how can we
justify punishing people for murder?
 One answer is that we can justify punishment for murder on the basis of the objective
truth that most normal people in society disapprove of murder. If we do this, we should
not pretend that our justification is based on anything other than the majority view.

About consequentialism
Consequentialism: results-based ethics

The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy gives a plain and simple definition of

consequentialism:

Of all the things a person might do at any given moment, the morally right action is the one with
the best overall consequences.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Consequentialism

Consequentialism is based on two principles:

 Whether an act is right or wrong depends only on the results of that act
 The more good consequences an act produces, the better or more right that act

It gives us this guidance when faced with a moral dilemma:

 A person should choose the action that maximises good consequences

And it gives this general guidance on how to live:

 People should live so as to maximise good consequences

Different forms of consequentialism differ over what the good thing is that should be maximised.

 Utilitarianism states that people should maximise human welfare or well-being (which
they used to call 'utility' - hence the name).
 Hedonism states that people should maximise human pleasure.
 Other forms of consequentialism take a more subtle approach; for example stating that
people should maximise the satisfaction of their fully informed and rational preferences.
In practice people don't assess the ethical consequences of every single act (that's called 'act
consequentialism') because they don't have the time.

Instead they use ethical rules that are derived from considering the general consequences of
particular types of acts. That is called 'rule consequentialism'.

 So, for example, according to rule consequentialism we consider lying to be wrong

because we know that in general lying produces bad consequences.

Results-based ethics produces this important conclusion for ethical thinking:

 No type of act is inherently wrong - not even murder - it depends on the result of the act

This far-fetched example may make things clearer:

 Suppose that by killing X, an entirely innocent person, we can save the lives of 10 other
innocent people
 A consequentialist would say that killing X is justified because it would result in only 1
person dying, rather than 10 people dying
 A non-consequentialist would say it is inherently wrong to murder people and refuse to
kill X, even though not killing X leads to the death of 9 more people than killing X

Utilitarianism

Evaluating each decision would take too long. Photo: Liz Fagoli ©

The classic form of results-based ethics is called utilitarianism.

This says that the ethically right choice in a given situation is the one that produces the most
happiness and the least unhappiness for the largest number of people.

The appeal of results-based ethics

Results-based ethics plays a very large part in everyday life because it is simple and appeals to
common sense:

 It seems sensible to base ethics on producing happiness and reducing unhappiness

 It seems sensible to base ethics on the consequences of what we do, since we usually take
decisions about what to do by considering what results will be produced
 It seems easy to understand and to be based on common sense

Act consequentialism
Act consequentialism

Act consequentialism looks at every single moral choice anew. It teaches:

 A particular action is morally good only if it produces more overall good than any
alternative action.

Good points of act consequentialism

A flexible system

 Act consequentialism is flexible and can take account of any set of circumstances,
however exceptional.

Bad points of act consequentialism

Impractical for real life use

 while it sounds attractive in theory, it’s a very difficult system to apply to real life moral
decisions because:
o every moral decision is a completely separate case that must be fully evaluated
o individuals must research the consequences of their acts before they can make an
ethically sound choice
o doing such research is often impracticable, and too costly
o the time taken by such research leads to slow decision-making which may itself
have bad consequences, and the bad consequences of delay may outweigh the
good consequences of making a perfect decision
 but where a very serious moral choice has to be made, or in unusual circumstances,
individuals may well think hard about the consequences of particular moral choices in
this way

Bad for society

 some people argue that if everyone adopted act consequentialism it would have bad
consequences for society in general
 this is because it would be difficult to predict the moral decisions that other people would
make, and this would lead to great uncertainty about how they would behave
 some philosophers also think that it would lead to a collapse of mutual trust in society, as
many would fear that prejudice or bias towards family or other groups would more
strongly influence moral decisions than if people used general moral rules based on
consequentialism
 fortunately the impracticality of act consequentialism as a general moral process means
we don't have to worry much about this
Rule consequentialism
Rule consequentialism

Rule consequentialism bases moral rules on their consequences. This removes many of the
problems of act consequentialism.

Rule consequentialism teaches:

 Whether acts are good or bad depends on moral rules

 Moral rules are chosen solely on the basis of their consequences

So when an individual has a moral choice to make they can ask themselves if there's an
appropriate rule to apply and then apply it.

The rules that should be adopted are the rules that would produce the best results if they were
adopted by most people.

Philosophers express this with greater precision:

 an act is right if and only if it results from the internalisation of a set of rules that would
maximize good if the overwhelming majority of agents internalised this set of rules

And here's another version:

An action is morally right if and only if it does not violate the set of rules of behaviour whose
general acceptance in the community would have the best consequences--that is, at least as good
as any rival set of rules or no rules at all.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philisophy: Consequentialism

Good points of rule consequentialism

Practical and efficient

 Rule consequentialism gets round the practical problems of act consequentialism because
the hard work has been done in deriving the rules; individuals don't generally have to
carry out difficult research before they can take action
 And because individuals can shortcut their moral decision-making they are much more
likely to make decisions in a quick and timely way

Bad points of rule consequentialism

Less flexible
  Because rule consequentialism uses general rules it doesn't always produce the best result
in individual cases
 However, those in favour of it argue that it produces more good results considered over a
long period than act consequentialism
 One way of dealing with this problem - and one that people use all the time in everyday
life - is to apply basic rules, together with a set of variations that cover a wide range of
situations. These variations are themselves derived in the same way as the general rules

Other forms of consequentialism

Negative Consequentialism

Negative consequentialism is the inverse of ordinary consequentialism. Good actions are the
ones that produce the least harm.

 A person should choose the act that does the least amount of harm to the greatest number
of people.

Against consequentialism
Against consequentialism

Consequentialism has both practical and philosophical problems:

Future consequences are difficult to predict

 it's hard to predict the future consequences of an act

o in almost every case the most we can do is predict the probability of certain
consequences following an act
o and since my behaviour is based on my assessment of the consequences, should
the rightness or wrongness of an act be assessed on what I thought was going to
happen or what actually happened?

Measuring and comparing the 'goodness' of consequences is very difficult

 people don't agree on what should be assessed in calculating good consequences

o is it happiness, pleasure, satisfaction of desire or something else?
 It's hard to measure and compare the 'goodness' of those consequences
o how, for example, do you measure happiness?
o how do you compare a large quantity of happiness that lasts for a few minutes
with a gentle satisfaction that lasts for years?
o how do you measure any 'subjective' quality?
 Choosing different time periods may produce different consequences
 o for example, using cheap energy may produce good short-term economic results,
but in the long-term it may produce bad results for global climate

It is easy to bias in favour of particular groups

 choosing different groups of people may produce different consequences

o an act that produces a good result for group X may at the same time produce a bad
result for group Y, or for society in general
o so the ethical choices people make are likely to be different according to which
group they use for their moral calculations
 the most common solution to this problem is to look at the consequences for a large
group such as 'society in general'
 alternatively, ethicists can try to look at things from the standpoint of an 'ideal', fully
informed and totally neutral observer

It ignores things we regard as ethically relevant

 results-based ethics is only interested in the consequences of an act

 the intentions of the person doing the act are irrelevant
o so an act with good results done by someone who intended harm is as good as if it
was done by someone who intended to do good
 the past actions of the person doing the act are irrelevant
 the character of the person doing the act is irrelevant
 the fairness of the consequences are not directly relevant

And these are things that many think are relevant to ethical judgements.

However, in support of consequentialism it might be argued that many of the things listed above
do influence the good or bad consequences of an act, particularly when formulating ethical rules,
and so they become incorporated in consequentialist ethical thinking; but only through the back
door, not directly.

It doesn't take account of the 'fairness' of the result

We cannot predict every outcome of an event ©

Simple forms of consequentialism say that the best action is the one that produces the largest
total of happiness.

This ignores the way in which that happiness is shared out and so would seem to approve of acts
that make most people happy, and a few people very unhappy, or that make a few people
ecstatically happy and leave the majority at best neutral.

It also detracts from the value of individuals and their own interests and projects, other than
when those are in line with the interests of the group.
It can be inconsistent with human rights

Consider this situation:

A billionaire needs an organ transplant. He says that if he is given the next suitable organ he will
fund 1000 hip-replacements a year for 10 years. Giving him the next available organ means Mr
X, who was of the list, will die - but it also means that thousands of people will be very happy
with their new hips.

Consequentialism might be used to argue that Mr X's human rights (and his and his family's
happiness) should be ignored, in order to increase the overall amount of human well-being.

About intuitionism
Intuitionism

Intuitionism teaches three main things:

 There are real objective moral truths that are independent of human beings.
 These are fundamental truths that can't be broken down into parts or defined by reference
to anything except other moral truths.
 Human beings can discover these truths by using their minds in a particular, intuitive
way.

Intuitionism does not mean that all moral decisions are reached by relying on intuition. Intuition
enables the discovery of the basic moral truths, and everyday moral decision-making then
involves thinking about the choices available and making moral judgements in an ordinary sort
of way.

A leading UK intuitionist was the Cambridge philosopher G E Moore (1873-1954) who set out
his ideas in the 1902 book Principia Ethica.

If I am asked, What is good? my answer is that good is good, and that is the end of the matter. Or
if I am asked How is good to be defined? my answer is that it cannot be defined, and that is all I
have to say about it. But disappointing as these answers may appear, they are of the very last
importance.

My point is that good is a simple notion, just as yellow is a simple notion; that, just as you
cannot, by any manner of means, explain to anyone who does not already know it, what yellow
is, so you cannot explain what good is.

G E Moore, Principia Ethica

Or to put it at its simplest: 'Good' means 'good' and that's all there is to say about it.
Moore objected to something called 'the naturalistic fallacy', which states that moral truths can be
analysed in terms of physical or psychological things which exist in the natural world. Moral
truths were moral truths, and that was that.

Moore was a university professor, and his idea of what things were good, such as friendship and
the appreciation of beauty, was limited by his quiet and academic life. His writings didn't
demonstrate that his theory was likely to help deal with serious ethical dilemmas.

Other leading intuitionists were H A Pritchard (1871-1947) and W D Ross (1877-1971).

Bad points of intuitionism

Bad points of intuitionism

Philosophers object to intuitionism because:

 they don't think that objective moral truths exist

 they don't think that there is a process of moral intuition
 there's no way for a person to distinguish between something actually being right and it
merely seeming right to that person
 if intuitionism worked properly, everyone would come to the same moral conclusions,
but they don't

Objective moral truths don't exist

Many philosophers don't think that there are such things as objective moral truths. For them,
moral statements are not factual statements about how the world is.

Furthermore, it might be claimed that we could never know the truth, even if it existed
objectively, because knowledge requires testing in a properly scientific fashion, and that is not
available for moral statements.

Moral intuition doesn't exist

Intuitionism says humans can find moral truths for themselves. Photo: Jonathan Hillis ©

The idea that human beings have something called moral intuition is superficially attractive, but
doesn't easily stand up to inspection.

Is it another sense like sight or hearing? Probably not, since the moral truths that moral intuition
should detect don't seem to be out in the physical world.

Nor is it a process of reasoning, because intuitionists usually rule that out, too.
Perhaps it shows itself in moral emotions, like feelings of guilt? But although human beings
certainly have such feelings, the feelings could be the result of breaking internal mental rules of
conduct or breaching cultural rules, rather than of breaking objective moral rules.

Seeming right may not be the same as being right

When an intuitionist ponders a problem the only things they have to work with are their feelings,
thoughts and attitudes.

Working with these entirely subjective things the intuitionist arrives at moral intuitions, which he
then puts forward as objective truths.

But how does the intuitionist get from the subjective to the objective?

People reach different ethical conclusions

If there are real objective moral truths, then they are presumably the same for everyone. Yet
different people come to different conclusions faced with the same ethical problems.

Some people say that these moral truths are 'self-evident', but this just leaves the problem of
different things being self-evident to different selves!

About emotivism
Emotivism

Emotivism is no longer a view of ethics that has many supporters. Like subjectivism it teaches
that there are no objective moral facts, and that therefore 'murder is wrong' can't be objectively
true.

Emotivists teach that:

 Moral statements are meaningless.

This means that the first half of the statement 'it was wrong to murder Fred' adds nothing to the
non-moral information that Fred has been murdered.

 Moral statements only express the speaker's feelings about the issue.

Later emotivists added this idea to Emotivism:

 By expressing the speaker's feelings about a moral issue moral statements may influence
another person's thoughts and conduct.

Moral statements are meaningless

Moral statements try to persuade people to do, or not to do, what the speaker approves or
disapproves of ©

In Emotivism a moral statement isn't literally a statement about the speaker's feelings on the ic,
but expresses those feelings with emotive force.

When an emotivist says 'murder is wrong' it's like saying 'down with murder' or 'murder, yecch!'
or just saying 'murder' while pulling a horrified face, or making a thumbs-down gesture at the
same time as saying 'murder is wrong'.

At first sight this seems such a bizarre idea that you might wonder if anyone had ever seriously
thought it. One of the great philosophers of the 20th century certainly did:

The presence of an ethical symbol in a proposition adds nothing to its factual content. Thus if I
say to someone, 'You acted wrongly in stealing that money,' I am not stating anything more than
if I had simply said, 'You stole that money.'

In adding that this action is wrong I am not making any further statement about it. I am simply
evincing my moral disapproval of it. It is as if I had said, 'You stole that money,' in a peculiar
tone of horror, or written it with the addition of some special exclamation marks.

The tone, or the exclamation marks, adds nothing to the literal meaning of the sentence. It merely
serves to show that the expression of it is attended by certain feelings in the speaker.

A J Ayer, Critique of Ethics and Theology (Chapter 6 of Language Truth and Logic)

The reasons why some philosophers thought this are technical - they thought that ethical
statements could not be converted into statements that could be empirically tested, and thus
failed the verifiability criterion of meaning - which meant that they were meaningless.

Emotivism pays close attention to the way in which people use language and acknowledges that
a moral judgement expresses the attitude that a person takes on a particular issue. It's like
shouting "hurray", or pulling a face and going "ugh".

That's why this theory is called Emotivism, because it's based on the emotive effect of moral
language.

Influence
Moral statements attempt to influence people

Later theories of Emotivism taught that it was about more than just an expression of emotion -
the speaker is also trying to have an effect on the person they're talking to.
The American philosopher C. L. Stevenson said that the major use of ethical judgements...

...is not to indicate facts, but to create an influence. Instead of merely describing people's
interests, they change or intensify them...

...For instance: When you tell a man that he oughtn't to steal, your object isn't merely to let him
know that people disapprove of stealing. You are attempting, rather, to get him to disapprove of
it. Your ethical judgment has a quasi-imperative force which, operating through suggestion, and
intensified by your tone of voice, readily permits you to begin to influence, to modify, his
interests...

Mind, 1937

So when people disagree about an ethical issue, Emotivism makes it clear that each is trying to
persuade the other to adopt their attitude and follow their recommendations as to how to behave,
rather than giving information that might be true or false.

Emotivism versus Subjectivism

This version of emotivism gets round one of subjectivism's biggest problems. Consider this
example:

When one subjectivist says lying is bad, they're giving the information that they disapprove of
lying. If another subjectivist says lying is good, they're giving the information that they approve
of lying.

Since, according to the subjectivist view, both are reporting their own personal feelings, there
isn't actually anything that they disagree about.

But since people do sincerely disagree about moral issues, there must be more going on than
pure subjectivism allows, and this is included in Emotivism:

When an Emotivist says lying is bad they're giving the instruction "don't tell lies", while an
Emotivist who says lying is good is giving the instruction "do tell lies" - and we can see that
there is a clear disagreement between them.

Bad points of Emotivism

Emotivism says that moral statements just express our feelings ©

Emotivism has become unpopular with philosophers because the theory that led the Emotivists to
think that moral statements were meaningless has fallen from favour.

Less technically, if expressing moral judgements is really no more than expressing one's personal
opinion there doesn't seem any useful basis for arguing about moral judgements.
In practical terms, Emotivism falls down because it isn't very satisfying. Even (most)
philosophers think moral statements are more than just expressions of feeling.

And it's perfectly possible to imagine an ethical debate in which neither party has an emotion to
express.

Non-philosophers also think there is more to ethics than just the expression of an attitude or an
attempt to influence behaviour. They want a better explanation and foundation for shared
standards of morality than Emotivism can provide.

About duty-based ethics

Duty-based or Deontological ethics

Deontological (duty-based) ethics are concerned with what people do, not with the consequences
of their actions.

 Do the right thing.

 Do it because it's the right thing to do.
 Don't do wrong things.
 Avoid them because they are wrong.

Under this form of ethics you can't justify an action by showing that it produced good
consequences, which is why it's sometimes called 'non-Consequentialist'.

The word 'deontological' comes from the Greek word deon, which means 'duty'.

Duty-based ethics are usually what people are talking about when they refer to 'the principle of
the thing'.

Duty-based ethics teaches that some acts are right or wrong because of the sorts of things they
are, and people have a duty to act accordingly, regardless of the good or bad consequences that
may be produced.

Some kinds of action are wrong or right in themselves, regardless of the consequences.

Deontologists live in a universe of moral rules, such as:

 It is wrong to kill innocent people

 It is wrong to steal
 It is wrong to tell lies
 It is right to keep promises

Someone who follows Duty-based ethics should do the right thing, even if that produces more
harm (or less good) than doing the wrong thing:
People have a duty to do the right thing, even if it produces a bad result.

So, for example, the philosopher Kant thought that it would be wrong to tell a lie in order to save
a friend from a murderer.

If we compare Deontologists with Consequentialists we can see that Consequentialists begin by

considering what things are good, and identify 'right' actions as the ones that produce the
maximum of those good things.

Deontologists appear to do it the other way around; they first consider what actions are 'right' and
proceed from there. (Actually this is what they do in practice, but it isn't really the starting point
of deontological thinking.)

So a person is doing something good if they are doing a morally right action.

Good and bad points

Good points of duty-based ethics

 emphasises the value of every human being

o Duty-based ethical systems tend to focus on giving equal respect to all human
beings.
o This provides a basis for human rights - it forces due regard to be given to the
interests of a single person even when those are at odds with the interests of a
larger group.
 says some acts are always wrong
o Kantian duty-based ethics says that some things should never be done, no matter
what good consequences they produce. This seems to reflect the way some human
beings think.
o Rossian duty-based ethics modified this to allow various duties to be balanced,
which, it could be argued, is an even better fit to the way we think.
 provides 'certainty'
o Consequentialist ethical theories bring a degree of uncertainty to ethical decision-
making, in that no-one can be certain about what consequences will result from a
particular action, because the future is unpredictable.
o Duty-based ethics don't suffer from this problem because they are concerned with
the action itself - if an action is a right action, then a person should do it, if it's a
wrong action they shouldn't do it - and providing there is a clear set of moral rules
to follow then a person faced with a moral choice should be able to take decisions
with reasonable certainty.
o Of course things aren't that clear cut. Sometimes consequentialist theories can
provide a fair degree of certainty, if the consequences are easily predictable.
 o Furthermore, rule-based consequentialism provides people with a set of rules that
enable them to take moral decisions based on the sort of act they are
contemplating.
 deals with intentions and motives
o Consequentialist theories don't pay direct attention to whether an act is carried out
with good or bad intentions; most people think these are highly relevant to moral
judgements.
o Duty-based ethics can include intention in at least 2 ways...
o If a person didn't intend to do a particular wrong act - it was an accident perhaps -
then from a deontological point of view we might think that they hadn't done
anything deserving of criticism. This seems to fit with ordinary thinking about
ethical issues.
o Ethical rules can be framed narrowly so as to include intention.

Bad points of duty-based ethics

 absolutist
o Duty-based ethics sets absolute rules. The only way of dealing with cases that
don't seem to fit is to build a list of exceptions to the rule.
 allows acts that make the world a less good place
o Because duty-based ethics is not interested in the results it can lead to courses of
action that produce a reduction in the overall happiness of the world.
o Most people would find this didn't fit with their overall idea of ethics:

...it is hard to believe that it could ever be a duty deliberately to produce less good when we
could produce more...

A C Ewing, The Definition of Good, 1947

 hard to reconcile conflicting duties

o Duty-based ethics doesn't deal well with the cases where duties are in conflict.

Kantian duty-based ethics

Kantian duty-based ethics

Immanuel Kant ©

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was arguably one of the greatest philosophers of all time.

Kant thought that it was possible to develop a consistent moral system by using reason.
If people were to think about this seriously and in a philosophically rigorous manner, Kant
taught, they would realise that there were some moral laws that all rational beings had to obey
simply because they were rational beings, and this would apply to any rational beings in any
universe that might ever exist:

The supreme principle of morality would have an extremely wide scope: one that extended not
only to all rational human beings but to any other rational beings who might exist - for example,
God, angels, and intelligent extraterrestrials.

Samuel J. Kerstein, Kant's Search for the Supreme Principle of Morality, 2002

Kant taught (rather optimistically) that every rational human being could work this out for
themselves and so did not need to depend on God or their community or anything else to
discover what was right and what was wrong. Nor did they need to look at the consequences of
an act, or who was doing the action.

Although he expressed himself in a philosophical and quite difficult way, Kant believed that he
was putting forward something that would help people deal with the moral dilemmas of everyday
life, and provide all of us with a useful guide to acting rightly.

What is good?

Although Kantian ethics are usually spoken of in terms of duty and doing the right thing, Kant
himself thought that what was good was an essential part of ethics.

Kant asked if there was anything that everybody could rationally agree was always good. The
only thing that he thought satisfied this test was a good will:

It is impossible to conceive anything in the world, or even out of it, which can be taken as good
without limitation, save only a good will.

Immanuel Kant, Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals

All Kant means is that a good will alone must be good in whatever context it may be found.

It is not good in one context and bad in another.

It is not good as a means to one end and bad as a means to another.
It is not good if somebody happens to want it and bad if he doesn't.
Its goodness is not conditioned by its relation to a context or to an end or to a desire.

H J Paton, The Categorical Imperative, 1948 (layout by BBC)

Other things that we might think of as good are not always good, as it's possible to imagine a
context in which they might seem to be morally undesirable.
Kant then pondered what this meant for human conduct. He concluded that only an action done
for 'a good will' was a right action, regardless of the consequences.

But what sort of action would this be? Kant taught that an action could only count as the action
of a good will if it satisfied the test of the Categorical Imperative.

Kant's Categorical Imperative

The Categorical Imperative

Immanuel Kant ©

Kant's version of duty-based ethics was based on something that he called 'the categorical
imperative' which he intended to be the basis of all other rules (a 'categorical imperative' is a rule
that is true in all circumstances.)

The categorical imperative comes in two versions which each emphasise different aspects of the
categorical imperative. Kant is clear that each of these versions is merely a different way of
expressing the same rule; they are not different rules.

Moral rules must be universalisable

The first one emphasises the need for moral rules to be universalisable.

Always act in such a way that you can also will that the maxim of your action should become a
universal law.

To put this more simply:

Always act in such a way that you would be willing for it to become a general law that everyone
else should do the same in the same situation.

This means at least two things:

 if you aren't willing for the ethical rule you claim to be following to be applied equally to
everyone - including you - then that rule is not a valid moral rule. I can't claim that
something is a valid moral rule and make an exception to it for myself and my family and
friends.

So, for example, if I wonder whether I should break a promise, I can test whether this is right by
asking myself whether I would want there to be a universal rule that says 'it's OK to break
promises'.
Since I don't want there to be a rule that lets people break promises they make to me, I can
conclude that it would be wrong for me to break the promise I have made.

 if the ethical rule you claim to be following cannot logically be made a universal rule,
then it is not a valid moral rule.

So, for example, if I were thinking philosophically I might realise that a universal rule that 'it's
OK to break promises in order to get one's own way', would mean that no-one would ever
believe another person's promise and so all promises would lose their value. Since the existence
of promises in society requires the acceptance of their value, the practice of promising would
effectively cease to exist. It would no longer be possible to ‘break’ a promise, let alone get one’s
own way by doing so.

Moral rules must respect human beings

Kant thought that all human beings should be treated as free and equal members of a shared
moral community, and the second version of the categorical imperative reflects this by
emphasising the importance of treating people properly. It also acknowledges the relevance of
intention in morality.

Act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in that of another, always as an end
and never merely as a means.

...man and, in general, every rational being exists as an end in himself and not merely as a means
to be arbitrarily used by this or that will. In all his actions, whether they are directed to himself or
to other rational beings, he must always be regarded at the same time as an end...

Immanuel Kant, The Categorical Imperative

Kant is saying that people should always be treated as valuable - as an end in themselves - and
should not just be used in order to achieve something else. They should not be tricked,
manipulated or bullied into doing things.

This resonates strongly with disapproving comments such as "he's just using her", and it
underpins the idea that "the end can never justify the means".

Here are three examples of treating people as means and not ends:

 treating a person as if they were an inanimate object

 coercing a person to get what you want
 deceiving a person to get what you want

Kant doesn't want to say that people can't be used at all; it may be fine to use a person as long as
they are also being treated as an end in themselves.

The importance of duty

Do the right thing for the right reason, because it is the right thing to do.

Kant thought that the only good reason for doing the right thing was because of duty - if you had
some other reason (perhaps you didn't commit murder because you were too scared, not because
it was your duty not to) then that you would not have acted in a morally good way.

But having another reason as well as duty doesn't s an action from being right, so long as duty
was the ‘operational reason’ for our action.

If we do something because we know it's our duty, and if duty is the key element in our decision
to act, then we have acted rightly, even if we wanted to do the act or were too scared not to do it,
or whatever.

Rossian duty-based ethics

Rossian duty-based ethics

Kantian ethics seems pretty uncompromising and not really suited to the untidiness of many
moral choices that people have to make.

The 20th Century philosopher W. D. Ross [Sir David Ross] (1877-1971) suggested that it would
be helpful to look at two kinds of duty:

 Prima facie duties

 Actual duties

Prima facie duties

 are self-evident and obvious duties (prima facie is a Latin expression meaning 'on first
appearances' or 'by first instance')
 can be known to be correct if a person thinks about them and understands them:

when we have reached sufficient mental maturity and have given sufficient attention to the
proposition it is evident without any need of proof, or of evidence beyond itself

W D Ross, The Right and the Good, 1930

 should be promoted, "all things considered"

 can be outweighed by other prima facie duties.

Actual duties
This is the duty people are left with after they have weighed up all the conflicting prima facie
duties that apply in a particular case:

the ground of the actual rightness of the act is that, of all acts possible in the circumstances, it is
that whose prima facie rightness in the respects in which it is prima facie right most outweighs
its prima facie wrongness in any respects in which it is prima facie wrong.

W D Ross, The Right and The Good, 1930

Ross listed seven prima facie duties:

 Fidelity
 Reparation
 Gratitude
 Justice
 Beneficence
 Self-improvement
 Non-maleficence (avoiding actions that do harm)

Calling these 'duties' may be a bit misleading, as they are not so much duties as "features that
give us genuine (not merely apparent) moral reason to do certain actions".

Ross later described prima facie duties as "responsibilities to ourselves and to others" and he
went on to say that "what we should do (our duty proper [our actual duty]) is determined by the
balance of these responsibilities."

Problems with the Rossian approach

Ross's idea still leaves some problems:

 How can we tell which prima facie duties are involved in a particular case?
 How can we compare and rank them in order to arrive at a balance which will guide us as
to our actual duty?

Ross thought that people could solve those problems by relying on their intuitions.

Virtue ethics
Character-based ethics

 A right act is the action a virtuous person would do in the same circumstances.

Virtue ethics is person rather than action based: it looks at the virtue or moral character of the
person carrying out an action, rather than at ethical duties and rules, or the consequences of
particular actions.
Virtue ethics not only deals with the rightness or wrongness of individual actions, it provides
guidance as to the sort of characteristics and behaviours a good person will seek to achieve.

In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the whole of a person's life, rather than particular
episodes or actions.

 A good person is someone who lives virtuously - who possesses and lives the virtues.

It's a useful theory since human beings are often more interested in assessing the character of
another person than they are in assessing the goodness or badness of a particular action.

This suggests that the way to build a good society is to help its members to be good people,
rather than to use laws and punishments to prevent or deter bad actions.

But it wouldn't be helpful if a person had to be a saint to count as virtuous. For virtue theory to
be really useful it needs to suggest only a minimum set of characteristics that a person needs to
possess in order to be regarded as virtuous.

...being virtuous is more than having a particular habit of acting, e.g. generosity. Rather, it means
having a fundamental set of related virtues that enable a person to live and act morally well.

James F Keenan, Proposing Cardinal Virtues, Theological Studies, 1995

Principles

Virtue ethics teaches:

 An action is only right if it is an action that a virtuous person would carry out in the same
circumstances.
 A virtuous person is a person who acts virtuously
 A person acts virtuously if they "possess and live the virtues"
 A virtue is a moral characteristic that a person needs to live well.

Most virtue theorists would also insist that the virtuous person is one who acts in a virtuous way
as the result of rational thought (rather than, say, instinct).

The three questions

The modern philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre proposed three questions as being at the heart of
moral thinking:

 Who am I?
 Who ought I to become?
 How ought I to get there?

Lists of the virtues

What would a virtuous person do? ©

Most virtue theorists say that there is a common set of virtues that all human beings would
benefit from, rather than different sets for different sorts of people, and that these virtues are
natural to mature human beings - even if they are hard to acquire.

This poses a problem, since lists of virtues from different times in history and different societies
show significant differences.

The traditional list of cardinal virtues was:

 Prudence
 Justice
 Fortitude / Bravery
 Temperance

The modern theologian James F Keenan suggests:

 Justice
o Justice requires us to treat all human beings equally and impartially.
 Fidelity
o Fidelity requires that we treat people closer to us with special care.
 Self-care
o We each have a unique responsibility to care for ourselves, affectively, mentally,
physically, and spiritually.
 Prudence
o The prudent person must always consider Justice, Fidelity and Self-care.
o The prudent person must always look for opportunities to acquire more of the
other three virtues

Good points of virtue ethics

 It centres ethics on the person and what it means to be human

 It includes the whole of a person's life

Bad points of virtue ethics

 it doesn't provide clear guidance on what to do in moral dilemmas

o although it does provide general guidance on how to be a good person
o presumably a totally virtuous person would know what to do and we could
consider them a suitable role model to guide us
 there is no general agreement on what the virtues are
o and it may be that any list of virtues will be relative to the culture in which it is
being drawn up.
About situation ethics
Situation ethics (contextualism)

The right thing to do depends on the situation ©

In situation ethics, right and wrong depend upon the situation.

There are no universal moral rules or rights - each case is unique and deserves a unique solution.

Situation ethics rejects 'prefabricated decisions and prescriptive rules'. It teaches that ethical
decisions should follow flexible guidelines rather than absolute rules, and be taken on a case by
case basis.

...reflective morality demands observation of particular situations, rather than fixed adherence to
a priori principles

John Dewey and James H. Tufts, Ethics, 1922

So a person who practices situation ethics approaches ethical problems with some general moral
principles rather than a rigorous set of ethical laws and is prepared to give up even those
principles if doing so will lead to a greater good.

Since 'circumstances alter cases', situationism holds that in practice what in some times and
places we call right is in other times and places wrong...

For example, lying is ordinarily not in the best interest of interpersonal communication and
social integrity, but is justifiable nevertheless in certain situations.

Joseph Fletcher, Naturalism, situation ethics and value theory, in Ethics at the Crossroads, 1995

Situation ethics was originally devised in a Christian context, but it can easily be applied in a
non-religious way.

Elements of situation ethics

The elements of situation ethics were described by Joseph Fletcher, its leading modern
proponent, like this:

 Moral judgments are decisions, not conclusions

o Decisions ought to be made situationally, not prescriptively
o We should seek the well-being of people, rather than love principles.
 Only one thing is intrinsically good, namely, love: nothing else
o Love, in this context, means desiring and acting to promote the wellbeing of
people
 o Nothing is inherently good or evil, except love (personal concern) and its
opposite, indifference or actual malice
o Nothing is good or bad except as it helps or hurts persons
o The highest good is human welfare and happiness (but not, necessarily, pleasure)
o Whatever is most loving in a situation is right and good--not merely something to
be excused as a lesser evil
o Moral theology seeks to work out love's strategy, and applied ethics devises love's
tactics.
 Love "wills the neighbour's good" [desires the best for our neighbour] whether we like
them or not
o The ultimate norm of Christian decisions is love: nothing else
o The radical obligation of the Christian ethic to love even the enemy implies
unmistakably that every neighbour is not a friend and that some are just the
opposite.
 Love and justice are the same, for justice is love distributed
o Love and justice both require acts of will
o Love and justice are not properties of actions, they are things that people either do
or don't do
o Love and justice are essentially the same
o Justice is Christian love using its head--calculating its duties. The Christian love
ethic, searching seriously for a social policy, forms a coalition with the utilitarian
principle of the 'greatest good of the greatest number.'
 The rightness depends on many factors
o The rightness of an action does not reside in the act itself but in the loving
configuration of the factors in the situation--in the 'elements of a human act' --i.e.,
its totality of end, means, motive, and foreseeable consequences.

[The text above is based on material in Moral Responsibility: Situation Ethics at Work, by
Joseph Fletcher; Westminster Press, 1967]

Good and bad points

Good points of situation ethics

Situation ethics is a personal approach

It's personal

Situation ethics is sensitive to circumstances, context, particularity, and cultural traditions. Every
moral decision is required to demonstrate respect for individuals and communities and the things
that they regard as valuable.
This avoids the logical, detached, impersonal ways of thinking that some people think are
overemphasised in some other forms of ethics.

It's particular

Because moral decisions are treated on a case-by-case basis, the decision is always tailored to
particular situations.

It's based on doing good

Situation ethics teaches that right acts are those motivated by the wish to promote the well-being
of people.

Bad points of situation ethics

By the 1970s, situation ethics had been roundly rejected as no ethics at all...

Daniel Callahan, Universalism & Particularism, The Hastings Center Report, 2000

It excludes most universal moral truths

By doing this it seems to remove any possibility of guaranteeing universal human rights, and
satisfying human needs for a useful ethical framework for human behaviour.

It's not clear what 'love' means

Although the notion of love used in situation ethics seems attractive, it's pretty vague and can be
interpreted in many ways.

It's difficult to implement

Situation ethics seems to be little more than a form of act consequentialism, in that a person can
only choose the right thing to do if they consider all the consequences of their possible action,
and all the people who may be affected.

It can't produce consistent results

Situation ethics produces a lack of consistency from one situation to the next.

It may be both easier, and more just and loving, to treat similar situations similarly - thus
situation ethics should not be treated as a free-for-all, but should look for precedents while
continuing to reject rigid ethical rules.

It may approve of 'evil' acts

Situation ethics teaches that particular types of action don't have an inherent moral value -
whether they are good or bad depends on the eventual result.

So it seems that situation ethics permits a person to carry out acts that are generally regarded as
bad, such as killing and lying, if those acts lead to a sufficiently good result.

This is an uncomfortable conclusion, but one that affects other ethical theories as well.
Moreover, it does seem to be accepted in certain situations. As an obvious example, killing
people is generally regarded as bad, but is viewed as acceptable in some cases of self defence.

The popular TV drama 24 regularly brought up this issue with regards to torture. The characters
in the drama claimed they were justified in the (sometimes brutal) torture of suspects because the
information gained in doing so saved thousands of lives.