Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A.

Mohammed FUHSA

REMEDIAL BIOLOGY NOTES

DR UMAR AMINU MOHAMMED

LECTURE 5 - 9

OCTOBER, 2024

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY, FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF HEALTH

SCIENCES, AZARE

1
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Factors Affecting the Distribution of Organisms

Abiotic Factors

Definition: Abiotic factors are non-living components of the environment that affect the
distribution of organisms.

Examples:

- Temperature: Temperature affects the metabolic rate, growth, and development of

organisms.

- Light: Light intensity and quality affect photosynthesis, growth, and development of
organisms.

- Water: Water availability and quality affect the survival, growth, and development of
organisms.

- Soil: Soil texture, pH, and nutrient availability affect the growth and development of
organisms.

- Topography: Topography affects the distribution of organisms by creating different

microclimates and habitats.

Diagram: Abiotic Factors Affecting the Distribution of Organisms

2
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Abiotic Factors affecting Organism Source:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314145165Theroleofabioticfactorsmodulatingthepl
ant-microbe-soilinteractionsTowardsustainableagricultureAreview/figures?lo=1

How Abiotic Factors Affect the Distribution of Organisms:

Temperature:

- Optimum Temperature: The temperature range at which an organism grows and

develops optimally.

- Tolerance Range: The temperature range at which an organism can survive, but not
grow or develop optimally.

Light:

3
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

- Photoperiodism: The response of an organism to the duration of daylight or darkness.

- Light Intensity: The amount of light available affects photosynthesis and growth.

Water:

- Availability: The amount of water available affects the growth and development of
organisms.

- Quality: The quality of water affects the survival and growth of organisms.

Soil:

- pH: The pH of the soil affects the availability of nutrients and the growth of organisms.

- Nutrient Availability: The availability of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and

potassium affects the growth and development of organisms.

Biotic Factors

Definition: Biotic factors are living components of the environment that affect the distribution of
organisms.

Examples:

- Predation: The presence of predators affects the population size and distribution of prey
species.

- Competition: Competition for resources such as food, water, and light affects the
growth and development of organisms.

- Symbiosis: The interaction between two or more species affects the distribution of
organisms.

- Disease: The presence of diseases affects the population size and distribution of
organisms.

4
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Diagram: Biotic Factors Affecting the Distribution of Organisms

Biotic Factors: Source https://forestrypedia.com/locality-factors-biotic-factors-in/

How Biotic Factors Affect the Distribution of Organisms:

Predation:

- Predator-Prey Relationships: The interaction between predators and prey affects the
population size and distribution of both species.

- Defense Mechanisms: The development of defense mechanisms such as camouflage,

warning coloration, and chemical defense affects the distribution of prey species.

Competition:

- Resource Competition: Competition for resources such as food, water, and light affects
the growth and development of organisms.

5
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

- Interference Competition: Competition for space and territory affects the distribution of
organisms.

Symbiosis:

- Mutualism: The interaction between two or more species benefits both species,
affecting their distribution.

- Commensalism: The interaction between two or more species benefits one species, but
not the other, affecting their distribution.

- Parasitism: The interaction between two or more species benefits one species, but harms
the other, affecting their distribution.

Disease:

- Host-Pathogen Relationships: The interaction between hosts and pathogens affects the
population size and distribution of both species.

Symbiotic Interactions of Plants and Animals

(a) Energy Flow in the Ecosystem: Food Chains, Food Webs, and Trophic Levels

Definition: Energy flow refers to the movement of energy from one organism to another in an
ecosystem.

Food Chain: A series of organisms that eat other organisms, with each level representing a
trophic level.

Food Web: A network of food chains that are interconnected.

Trophic Levels: The position of an organism in a food chain, with producers (plants) at the base
and top predators at the top.

Diagram: Energy Flow in an Ecosystem

6
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Examples of Food Chains and Food Webs:

Grassland Ecosystem:

- Producer: Grass

- Primary Consumer: Insect

- Secondary Consumer: Mouse

- Tertiary Consumer: Hawk

Marine Ecosystem:

- Producer: Phytoplankton

- Primary Consumer: Zooplankton

- Secondary Consumer: Small Fish

- Tertiary Consumer: Large Fish

(b) Nutrient Cycling in Nature

7
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Definition: Nutrient cycling refers to the movement of nutrients through an ecosystem, from the
environment to organisms and back again.

Types of Nutrient Cycles:

- Carbon Cycle: The movement of carbon through an ecosystem, from the atmosphere to
organisms and back again.

- Water Cycle: The movement of water through an ecosystem, from the atmosphere to
organisms and back again.

- Nitrogen Cycle: The movement of nitrogen through an ecosystem, from the atmosphere
to organisms and back again.

i. Carbon Cycle

Steps:

1. Photosynthesis: Plants absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and convert it into organic
compounds.

2. Respiration: Organisms release CO2 back into the atmosphere through cellular
respiration.

3. Decomposition: Microorganisms break down dead organic matter, releasing CO2 back
into the atmosphere.

Diagram: Carbon Cycle

8
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

ii. Water Cycle

Steps:

1. Evaporation: Water evaporates from the surface of the earth into the atmosphere.

2. Condensation: Water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into clouds.

3. Precipitation: Water falls back to the earth as precipitation (rain, snow, sleet, or hail).

4. Runoff: Precipitation flows over the surface of the earth, eventually returning to bodies
of water.

9
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Diagram: Water Cycle. Source https://www.adda247.com/school/water-cycle-diagram/

iii. Nitrogen Cycle

Steps:

1. Nitrogen Fixation: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric N2 into ammonia

(NH3).

2. Ammonification: Ammonia is converted into ammonium ions (NH4-).

3. Nitrification: Ammonium ions are converted into nitrate ions (NO3-).

4. Denitrification: Nitrate ions are converted back into atmospheric N2.

10
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Diagram: Nitrogen Cycle. Source https://www.suezwaterhandbook.com/water-and-

generalities/what-water-should-we-treat-and-why/natural-water/nitrogen-cycle

Natural Habitats

(a) Aquatic Habitats

Definition: Aquatic habitats are environments where water is the primary component,
supporting a diverse range of plant and animal life.

Types of Aquatic Habitats:

- Ponds: Small, shallow bodies of freshwater, often with limited water flow.

- Streams: Narrow, flowing bodies of freshwater, often connecting ponds and lakes.

- Lakes: Large, deep bodies of freshwater, often with slower water flow.

11
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

- Seashores: Coastal areas where the land meets the sea, characterized by saltwater and
tidal influences.

- Mangrove Swamps: Coastal ecosystems found in tropical and subtropical regions,

characterized by mangrove trees and a mix of fresh and saltwater.

Characteristics of Aquatic Habitats:

Water Quality: pH, temperature, oxygen levels, and nutrient availability affect the types of
organisms that can survive.

Water Flow: Currents, tides, and waves influence the distribution of organisms and the shape of
the habitat.

Light: Amount and quality of light affect photosynthesis and the growth of aquatic plants.

Examples of Organisms in Aquatic Habitats:

Ponds: Water lilies, fish, frogs, and insects.

Streams: Fish, crayfish, and aquatic insects.

Lakes: Fish, water birds, and aquatic plants.

Seashores: Crabs, shellfish, seaweed, and seagulls.

Mangrove Swamps: Fish, shrimp, mangrove trees, and birds.

(b) Terrestrial/Arboreal Habitats

Definition: Terrestrial habitats are environments where the primary component is land,
supporting a diverse range of plant and animal life. Arboreal habitats are environments where
organisms live in trees.

Types of Terrestrial/Arboreal Habitats:

- Tree-tops: The uppermost part of trees, providing a habitat for birds, insects, and
epiphytes.

12
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

- Abandoned Farmland: Areas of land previously used for agriculture, now supporting a
mix of wildflowers, grasses, and weeds.

- Dry Grassy Field (Savanna): Open grasslands with scattered trees, often found in
tropical and subtropical regions.

- Burrow or Hole: Underground habitats created by animals, such as rabbits, moles, and
ants.

Characteristics of Terrestrial/Arboreal Habitats:

Soil Quality: pH, nutrient availability, and moisture levels affect the types of organisms that can
survive.

Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and sunlight influence the distribution of organisms and the
growth of plants.

Topography: The shape and features of the land influence the creation of habitats and the
distribution of organisms.

Examples of Organisms in Terrestrial/Arboreal Habitats:

Tree-tops: Birds, insects, and epiphytes.

Abandoned Farmland: Wildflowers, grasses, weeds, and small mammals.

Dry Grassy Field (Savanna): Grasses, wildflowers, antelopes, and predators like lions and
leopards.

Burrow or Hole: Rabbits, moles, ants, and other underground-dwelling organisms.

Local (Nigerian) Biomes

a. Tropical Rainforest

Definition: A tropical rainforest is a biome characterized by high temperatures, high humidity,

and heavy rainfall throughout the year.

13
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Location: Found in the southern part of Nigeria, including the Niger Delta and Cross River
regions.

Characteristics:

- High Biodiversity: Home to a wide variety of plant and animal species.

- Dense Canopy: Continuous layer of leaves and branches that filters sunlight.

- High Temperature: Average temperature ranges from 20-30°C.

- High Humidity: Relative humidity is often above 60%.

14
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Examples of Organisms in Tropical Rainforest:

Trees: Khaya ivorensis (Mahogany), Milicia excelsa (Iroko), and Diospyros ebenum (Ebony).

Animals: Pan troglodytes (Chimpanzees), Loxodonta africana (African Elephants), and

Crocodylus niloticus (Nile Crocodiles).

Plants: Nephrolepis exaltata (Boston Fern), Paphiopedilum spp. (Venus Slipper Orchids), and
Begonia spp. (Begonias).

b. Guinea Savanna (Southern and Northern)

Definition: A savanna is a biome characterized by grasslands with scattered trees.

Location: Found in the middle belt of Nigeria, including the Guinea savanna in the south and the
northern Guinea savanna.

Characteristics:

- Grasslands: Open grasslands with scattered trees.

- Scattered Trees: Trees are scattered and not dense like in the tropical rainforest.

- Seasonal Rainfall: Rainfall is seasonal, with a dry season and a wet season.

- Temperature: Average temperature ranges from 20-30°C.

Examples of Organisms in Guinea Savanna:

Trees: Acacia senegal (Gum Arabic Tree), Adansonia digitata (Baobab), and Vitellaria
paradoxa (Shea Tree).

Animals: Phacochoerus africanus (Warthog), Panthera leo (Lion), and Damaliscus lunatus
(Topi antelop).

Plants: Hyparrhenia rufa (Jaragua Grass), Pennisetum purpureum (Elephant Grass), and Zea
mays (Maize).

c. Sudan Savanna

15
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Definition: A savanna is a biome characterized by grasslands with scattered trees.

Location: Found in the northern part of Nigeria, including the Sudan savanna.

Characteristics:

- Grasslands: Open grasslands with scattered trees.

- Scattered Trees: Trees are scattered and not dense like in the tropical rainforest.

- Seasonal Rainfall: Rainfall is seasonal, with a dry season and a wet season.

- Temperature: Average temperature ranges from 20-30°C.

Examples of Organisms in Sudan Savanna:

Trees: Acacia senegal (Gum Arabic Tree), Adansonia digitata (Baobab), and Vitellaria
paradoxa (Shea Tree).

Animals: Phacochoerus africanus (Warthog), Panthera leo (Lion), and Damaliscus lunatus
(Topi antelop).

Plants: Hyparrhenia rufa (Jaragua Grass), Pennisetum purpureum (Elephant Grass), and Zea
mays (Maize).

d. Desert

Definition: A desert is a biome characterized by low rainfall, high temperatures, and limited
vegetation.

Location: Found in the northeastern part of Nigeria, including the Chad Basin.

Characteristics:

- Low Rainfall: Average rainfall is less than 250 mm per year.

16
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

- High Temperature: Average temperature ranges from 25-35°C.

- Limited Vegetation: Vegetation is limited due to the harsh climate.

Examples of Organisms in Desert:

Plants: Opuntia spp. (Prickly Pear Cactus), Aloe spp. (Aloe Vera), and Commiphora africana
(African Myrrh).

Animals: Camelus dromedarius (Dromedary Camel), Androctonus mauretanicus (Death stalker

Scorpion), and Uromastyx spp. (Dabb Lizards).

Insects: Cataglyphis bombycina (Desert Ant), Tenebrio molitor (Mealworm Beetle), and Musca
domestica (Housefly).

e. Highlands of Montane Forests and Grasslands of the Obudu -, Jos -, Mambilla - Plateaus

Definition: A montane forest is a biome characterized by cooler temperatures, higher rainfall,

and unique vegetation.

Location: Found in the highlands of Nigeria, including the Obudu, Jos, and Mambilla Plateaus.

Characteristics:

- Cooler Temperatures: Average temperature ranges from 15-20°C.

- Higher Rainfall: Average rainfall is higher than in the lowlands.

- Unique Vegetation: Vegetation is unique and adapted to the cooler climate.

Examples of Organisms in Montane Forests and Grasslands:

Trees: Pinus spp. (Pine), Quercus spp. (Oak), and Cupressus spp. (Cypress).

Animals: Cercopithecus ascanius (Red-tailed Monkey), Tragelaphus scriptus (Bushbuck), and

Sylvicapra grimmia (Duiker).

17
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Plants: Nephrolepis exaltata (Boston Fern), Paphiopedilum spp. (Venus Slipper Orchids), and
Begonia spp. (Begonias). :

The Ecology of Populations

a. Population Density and Overcrowding

Definition: Population density refers to the number of individuals of a species per unit area.

Overcrowding: When the population density exceeds the carrying capacity of the environment,
leading to reduced resources and increased competition.

Example: A forest with 100 trees per hectare may be considered overcrowded, while a forest
with 10 trees per hectare may be considered under crowded.

b. Adaptation for Survival

Definition: Adaptation refers to the process by which an organism becomes better suited to its
environment.

Factors that bring about competition:

- Limited resources (food, water, space, light)

- Overcrowding

- Environmental stressors (temperature, drought, pollution)

i. Intra-specific competition:

Definition: Competition between individuals of the same species.

Example: Male peacocks competing for mates.

ii. Inter-specific competition:

Definition: Competition between individuals of different species.

Example: Wolves and bears competing for food in a forest.

18
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

iii. Relationship between competition and succession:

Definition: Succession refers to the process of change in the species composition of a community
over time.

Example: After a forest fire, grasses and shrubs may compete for resources, leading to the
establishment of a new community.

c. Factors Affecting Population Sizes

i. Biotic Factors:

Food: Availability of food resources affects population size.

Pest: Presence of pests can reduce population size.

Disease: Outbreaks of disease can reduce population size.

Predation: Presence of predators can reduce population size.

Competition: Competition for resources can reduce population size.

Reproductive Ability: Ability of individuals to reproduce affects population size.

ii. Abiotic Factors:

Temperature: Extreme temperatures can affect population size.

Space: Availability of space affects population size.

Light: Availability of light affects population size.

Rainfall: Availability of water affects population size.

Topography: Shape and features of the landscape affect population size.

Pressure: Atmospheric pressure can affect population size.

pH: Acidity or basicity of the environment can affect population size.

d. Ecological Succession

19
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

i. Primary Succession:

Definition: Succession that occurs in a newly formed or disturbed area, such as after a volcanic
eruption or glacier retreat.

Example: Formation of a new ecosystem on a volcanic island.

ii. Secondary Succession:

Definition: Succession that occurs in an area where a community has been disturbed, such as
after a forest fire or clear-cutting.

Example: Regrowth of a forest after a fire.

20
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

SOIL

Soil is the loose surface material that covers most land. It consists of inorganic particles and
organic matter. Soil provides the structural support for plants used in agriculture and is also their
source of water and nutrients.

a. Characteristics of Different Types of Soil

Sandy Soil:

- Soil Structure: Coarse, loose, and gritty texture.

- Porosity: High porosity, allowing for good drainage.

- Capillarity: Low capillarity, making it difficult for water to rise up the soil profile.

- Humus Content: Low humus content, making it prone to erosion.

Loamy Soil:

- Soil Structure: Well-balanced mixture of sand, silt, and clay.

- Porosity: Moderate porosity, allowing for good drainage and aeration.

- Capillarity: Moderate capillarity, allowing for good water retention.

21
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

- Humus Content: Moderate humus content, making it fertile and suitable for plant
growth.

Clayey Soil:

- Soil Structure: Fine, dense, and sticky texture.

- Porosity: Low porosity, making it prone to waterlogging.

- Capillarity: High capillarity, allowing for good water retention.

- Humus Content: High humus content, making it fertile and suitable for plant growth.

Diagram: Soil Triangle

Soil Texture Triangle

Soil is partially comprised of a collection of three minerals: silt, sand, and clay. The proportion

of each of these minerals can be classified into a soil texture type which determines how the soil

responds and behaves. Each mineral has its benefits and challenges, like the ability to hold onto

nutrients and water or how quickly it does or doesn't drain after a heavy downpour. Knowing

what kind of soil you're gardening with can help a great deal in promoting plant health.

22
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

The U.S. Department of Agriculture soil texture diagram.

b. Components of the Soil

Inorganic Components:

- Minerals: Sand, silt, clay, and other inorganic compounds.

- Rocks and Stones: Large rocks and stones that make up the soil profile.

Organic Components:

- Humus: Decomposed plant and animal matter.

- Plant Residues: Dead plant material, such as roots and stems.

23
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Soil Organisms:

- Microorganisms: Bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that break down organic
matter.

- Invertebrates: Earthworms, insects, and other invertebrates that contribute to soil

structure and fertility.

Soil Air:

- Oxygen: Essential for plant growth and microbial activity.

- Carbon Dioxide: Produced by microbial activity and plant respiration.

Soil Water:

- Water Holding Capacity: Ability of the soil to hold and release water.

- Water Infiltration: Rate at which water enters the soil profile.

Diagram: Soil Profile

24
 Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

Soil Profile

c. Soil Fertility

Loss of Soil Fertility:

- Soil Erosion: Loss of topsoil due to wind or water erosion.

- Nutrient Depletion: Depletion of essential nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

- Soil Compaction: Compaction of the soil, reducing its ability to hold water and air.

Renewal and Maintenance of Soil Fertility:

- Addition of Organic Matter: Adding compost or manure to improve soil structure and
fertility.

- Crop Rotation: Rotating crops to maintain soil fertility and reduce pest and disease
pressure.

- Conservation Tillage: Reducing tillage to minimize soil disturbance and preserve soil
structure.

25
Remedial Biology Lecture Note by Dr. U. A. Mohammed FUHSA

26