Ch 3

Personality

What is Personality?
Personality is a characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and behaving. It embraces
moods, attitudes, and opinions and is most clearly expressed in interactions with other
people. It also includes behavioral characteristics (both inherent and acquired), which
distinguish one person from another and which can be observed in people’s relations to
the environment and to the social group.

Major Determinants of Personality:

The determinants of personality can be grouped in five broad categories:
1. Biological Factors
2. Cultural Factors
3. Family Factors
4. Social Factors
5. Situational Factors

1. Biological Factors: It can be further classified into three parts:

a. Heredity: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at the time of
conception. The characteristics such as body type, build, facial attractiveness, eye
colour, hair colour, height, temperament, sex, energy level and reflexes are generally
inherited from the parents either completely or partially.
This approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual’s personality lies in
the molecular structure of the genes.
b. Brain: Another biological factor that can influence personality is the role of the brain
in an individual. Although researchers have made some promising inroads, they are
still unable to prove empirically the contribution of the human brain in influencing
personality.
Preliminary results from various researches have given an indication that, a better
understanding of human personality and behaviour might come from the study of the
brain.
c. Physical Features: Another important factor that can influence personality is the
‘physical characteristics’ of an individual. It is believed that this factor plays an
important role in determining one’s behaviour in any organisation.
 Physical feature may involve the height of a person (short or tall), his colour (white or
black), health status (fat or skinny), beauty (handsome or ugly) etc. These factors get
involved while interacting with other people and they contribute in the development of
personality in many ways.

2. Cultural Factors: Culture defines the norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs which are
passed from one generation to another. Every individual learns different values and
behavioural ways from the culture to which he/ she belongs. The way people develop
their attitude towards independence, competition, aggression, risk taking, cooperation
etc. is determined by the culture.
Every culture has its own sub-cultures, which further establish moral values, style of
dress, standards of cleanliness, definition of success etc. These cultural sub groups
have great influence on personality development of an individual. For example: A girl
who is born and brought up in a rich family of an urban area will behave differently
from a girl who is born and brought up in a poor family of slum area.

3. Family Factors: Family is one of the most important factors that impact the
personality development of an individual, especially in the early phase of life. A
substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment
created by the parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality
development. For example, children brought up in a cold, unstimulating home are
much more likely to be socially and emotionally maladjusted than children who are
raised by parents in a warm, loving and stimulating environment.
Every child identifies a role model in the family and tries to behave like that role
model. Parents, especially, play a very crucial role in this identification process, which
is extremely important for an individual’s early personality development.

4. Social Factors: Various groups and relevant people of the society, as well as the
organisation exert a great influence on the personality development of an individual.
This phenomenon is called socialisation.
Through this process of socialisation, a person learns and acquires the behaviour
patterns that are customary and acceptable to the family, society, and organisations.
This process is especially relevant to organisational behaviour because it is not
confined to early childhood alone, rather it takes place throughout a person’s life.

5. Situational Factors: Everyday an individual has to interact with a number of

situations, which do not remain constant. An individual’s personality, though generally
stable and consistent, does change in different situations.
Situations can either encourage or discourage an individual to behave in a specific
way Thus, the varying demands of different situations bring out different aspects of
one’s personality.
Measurement of Personality:
Here are some common personality types and frameworks relevant to organizational
settings:
▪ Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)
▪ Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
▪ Type A and Type B Personality Theory
▪ Holland’s Occupational themes (RIASEC)
▪ DISC Personality Assessment

▪ The Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN):

• The Big Five model helps us to grasp and explain how people differ in personality,
through five main dimensions. It is widely used in research, clinical practice, and
various other fields to assess personality traits and their implications for behaviour,
relationships, and well-being. Each letter in OCEAN represents one of the following
traits:
❖ Openness to Experience (O)
• This dimension addresses an individual’s range of interest and his/ her fascination with
novelty.

• Individuals with higher scores tend to be creative, adventurous, and willing to explore
unconventional ideas and perspectives.

• Low scorers may prefer routine, tradition, and familiarity and they may be more
resistant to change.

❖ Conscientiousness (C)
• Reflects the degree to which individuals are organized, responsible, disciplined, and
goal-oriented.

• High scorers are reliable, persistent, hardworking, and dedicated in their approach to
tasks and responsibilities.

• Low scorers may struggle with impulsivity, procrastination, and disorganization.

❖ Extraversion (E)
• This dimension of personality describes the comfort level of an individual in terms of
their relationships with others.

• High scorers are often seen as sociable, talkative, and enthusiastic, and they enjoy being
the centre of attention.

• Low scorers may be more reserved and introverted and prefer solitary activities over
social gatherings.

❖ Agreeableness (A)
• Reflects the degree to which individuals are friendly, cooperative, compassionate, and
empathetic towards others.

• High scorers are typically kind, altruistic, and considerate of others' feelings and well-
being.

• Low scorers may be more skeptical, competitive, and less concerned about others'
welfare.
❖ Neuroticism (N)
• This dimension reflects a person’s ability to withstand stress.

• High scorers are prone to anxiety, insecurity, depression, and mood swings. Also, they
may have difficulty coping with stress.

• Low scorers tend to be emotionally stable, resilient, and able to maintain a sense of calm
and composure in challenging situations.

• Note: Neuroticism is sometimes discussed as its converse (i.e. opposite), Emotional

Stability.

▪ Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI):

• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) categorizes personality into 16 distinct types
based on four dichotomies: Extraverted (E) vs. Introverted (I); Sensing (S)
vs. Intuitive (N); Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F); and Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P).

Note: Dichotomy – A difference between two completely opposite ideas or things.

➢ Extraverted (E) Vs. Introverted (I): Extraverted people are social, friendly and self-
confident, whereas, introverted people are shy and calm.

➢ Sensing (S) Vs. Intuitive (I): Sensing personalities are practical and prefer routine and
order, and they focus on details. On the other hand, intuitive types rely on unconscious
processes and look at the big picture.

➢ Thinking (T) Vs. Feeling (F): Thinking types rely on reason and logic. Whereas,
feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions.

➢ Judging (J) Vs. Perceiving (P): Judging types want control and prefer their world to
be ordered and structured. Perceiving types are more flexible and spontaneous.

• MBTI describes personality types by identifying one trait from each of the four pairs.
For example, INTJ, INFJ, ISTJ, ENFP, ENTP, ESTP etc.

▪ Type A And Type B Personality Theory:

The Type A and Type B Personality Theory is a classification system, used to describe
two contrasting personality types, based on behaviour patterns, stress responses, and risk
for certain health issues. This theory was originally developed by cardiologists Meyer
Friedman and Ray Rosenman in the 1950s.
❖ Type A Personality:
• Characteristics: Competitive, highly organized, ambitious, impatient, and
aggressive.

• Behavior Patterns: Individuals with a Type A personality are often driven, goal-
oriented, and feel a constant sense of urgency. They may struggle with relaxing and
tend to take on multiple tasks at once.

• Stress Response: Type A individuals are more prone to stress and may
experience high levels of frustration and anxiety. Their aggressive and
competitive nature can lead to conflicts in personal and professional
relationships.

• Health Implications: Research has shown that Type A personalities are at a higher
risk for cardiovascular diseases, such as heart attacks and hypertension, due to their
high-stress levels and lifestyle.

❖ Type B Personality:
• Characteristics: Relaxed, easy-going, flexible, and patient.

• Behaviour Patterns: Individuals with a Type B personality are more laid-back,

tolerant, and less driven by the need to achieve. They generally handle stress better
and are more adaptable to change.

• Stress Response: Type B individuals are less prone to stress and typically remain
calm and composed under pressure. They enjoy a balanced approach to life, valuing
relaxation and leisure time.

• Health Implications: Type B personalities are at a lower risk for stress-related

health issues compared to Type A personalities. Their relaxed nature contributes to
better overall well-being and lower incidences of cardiovascular diseases.

▪ Holland's Occupational Themes (RIASEC):

Holland's Occupational Themes, also known as the ‘RIASEC’ model, is a theory of
vocational choice and career development developed by psychologist John L. Holland.

According to Holland's theory, individuals tend to gravitate towards work environments that
align with their dominant personality themes.
It categorizes individuals into six personality types based on their preferences for different
work environments and tasks; with each letter in RIASEC representing a different theme:
❖ Realistic (R):
• People who are practical, hands-on, and enjoy working with tools, machines, or physical
objects.

• Examples of careers are carpenter, mechanic, farmer, and engineer.

❖ Investigative (I):
• People who are analytical, curious, and enjoy problem-solving and intellectual
challenges.

• Examples of careers are scientist, researcher, mathematician, and computer programmer.

❖ Artistic (A):
• People who are creative and expressive, and enjoy using their imagination and artistic
abilities.

• Examples of careers are artists, musicians, writers, and graphic designers.

❖ Social (S):
• People who are empathetic, caring, and enjoy helping and interacting with others.
• Examples of careers are teacher, counsellor, nurse, and social worker.

❖ Enterprising (E):
• People who are ambitious, outgoing, and enjoy taking on leadership roles and
persuading others.

• Examples of careers are salespersons, entrepreneurs, managers, and

politicians.

❖ Conventional (C):
• People who are detail-oriented, organized, and enjoy working with data,
numbers, and established procedures.

• Examples of careers are accountant, administrative assistant, bank teller, and

librarian.
▪ DISC Personality Assessment:
The DISC model of personality is a behavioural assessment tool used to understand
individual differences in behaviour, communication styles, and workplace preferences.

This model is often used in organisational settings for team building, leadership
development, and improving communication and interpersonal relationships .

It categorizes people into four primary personality types, based on their tendencies in
four behavioural dimensions:

❖ Dominant (D):
• Characteristics: Direct, decisive, assertive, and results-oriented.

• Communication Style: Prefers to take charge, make decisions quickly, and focus on
achieving goals.

• Workplace Preferences: Thrives in leadership roles, enjoys challenges, and values

autonomy and control.

❖ Inspiring (I):
• Characteristics: Sociable, enthusiastic, persuasive, and optimistic.

• Communication Style: Outgoing, expressive, and enjoys engaging with others in social
settings.

• Workplace Preferences: Enjoys teamwork, networking, and influencing others.

Prefers dynamic and lively environments.

❖ Supportive (S):
• Characteristics: Patient, dependable, cooperative, and empathetic.

• Communication Style: Supportive, diplomatic, and values harmony in relationships.

• Workplace Preferences: Prefers stability, predictability, and working in a supportive and

collaborative team environment.

❖ Conscientious (C):
• Characteristics: Analytical, detail-oriented, systematic, and cautious.

• Communication Style: Precise, logical, and values accuracy and quality.

• Workplace Preferences: Enjoys tasks that require attention to detail, planning, and
following established procedures. Prefers an organized and structured work environment.

Theories Of Personality In OB:

Personality is a complex and fascinating aspect of human behavior that influences how
individuals think, feel, and act. In Organisational Behaviour (OB), various theories have
been proposed to understand and explain personality development and its impact on
employee behavior within the workplace. Some important theories are:

▪ Sigmund Freud's Theory of the Psyche:

Sigmund Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory is one of the earliest and most influential theories
of personality. According to Freud, personality is divided into three components: the id
(primitive and instinctual), the ego (rational and reality-oriented), and the superego (moral
conscience). Personality is shaped by the unconscious conflicts between these three
components. Freud’s theory emphasizes early childhood experiences and unconscious
motives in shaping adult personality.
In Freudian theory, the human mind is structured into three main parts: the conscious, the
preconscious and the unconscious mind.

• The Conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of
which we are aware of at any given moment. The contents of the conscious mind can be
easily accessed at any time.

• The Preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the
conscious mind. These things are available for access when needed.

• The Unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are
outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious mind contains things that are
unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, conflict etc. The contents
of the unconscious mind are generally inaccessible.

Freud compared the three levels of the mind to an iceberg. The top of the iceberg that we
can see above the water, represents the conscious mind. The part of the iceberg that is
submerged just below the water, but is still visible, is the preconscious. The bulk of the
iceberg that lies unseen beneath the waterline represents the unconscious mind, often also
referred to simply as the unconscious.
In addition to these three main divisions of the mind; Freudian theory also divides human
personality into three major components: the id, the ego, and the superego.

• The id: It is the most primitive part of the personality that is the source of all our most
basic urges. It resides completely at the unconscious level. The id operates on
the pleasure principle (Freud, 1920); according to which, every unconscious, wishful
impulse should be satisfied immediately, regardless of the consequences.

• The ego: It is the component of personality that deals with reality and helps to ensure that
the demands of the id are satisfied in ways that are realistic, safe, and socially acceptable.

• The superego: It is the part of the personality that holds all of the internalized morals and
standards that we acquire from our parents, family, and society at large. In short, it is the
moralistic and idealistic part of our personality.

▪ The Social Cognitive Theory:

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) started as the Social Learning Theory (SLT) in the 1960s by
Albert Bandura. Later, it developed into the SCT in 1986 and postulates that learning
occurs in a social context, with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the person,
environment, and behavior.
SCT considers the unique way in which individuals acquire and maintain behavior, while
also considering the social environment in which individuals perform the behavior.
The theory takes into account a person's past experiences, which plays an important role in
determining, if a behavioral action will occur or not. These past experiences influence
reinforcements, expectations, and expectancies, all of which shape as to whether a person
will engage in a specific behavior and the reasons why a person engages in that behavior.

Many theories of behavior used in health promotion do not consider the maintenance of
behavior, but rather focus on initiating behavior. This is unfortunate as maintenance of
behavior, and not just initiation of behavior, is the true goal in public health. The goal of
SCT is to explain how people regulate their behavior through control and reinforcement, to
achieve goal-directed behavior that can be maintained over time. The first five constructs
were developed as part of the SLT; the construct of self-efficacy was added when the
theory evolved into SCT.

1. Reciprocal Determinism – This is the central concept of SCT. This refers to the
dynamic and reciprocal interaction of person (individual with a set of learned
experiences), environment (external social context), and behavior (responses to stimuli
to achieve goals).
2. Behavioral Capability – This refers to a person's actual ability to perform a behavior
through essential knowledge and skills. In order to successfully perform a behavior, a
person must know what to do and how to do it. People learn from the consequences of
their behavior, which also affects the environment in which they live.

3. Observational Learning – This asserts that people can observe a behavior or action
conducted by others, and then reproduce that behaviour or action. If individuals see
successful demonstration of a behavior, they can also complete that behavior
successfully.
4. Reinforcements – This refers to the internal or external responses to a person's
behavior that affect the likelihood of continuing or discontinuing the behavior.
Reinforcements can be self-initiated or caused by the environment. It can be positive or
negative.
This is the construct of SCT that most closely ties to the reciprocal relationship
between behavior and environment.

5. Expectations – This refers to the anticipated consequences of a person's behavior.

People anticipate the consequences of their actions before engaging in a behavior, and
these anticipated consequences can influence the successful completion of the behavior.
Expectations derive largely from previous experience.
6. Self-efficacy – This refers to the level of a person's confidence in his or her ability to
successfully perform a behavior. Self-efficacy is influenced by a person's specific
capabilities and other individual factors, as well as by environmental factors (barriers
and facilitators).
❖ Limitation of Social Cognitive Theory: There are several limitations of
SCT, which should be considered when using this theory in public health. Limitations
of this model are:

• The theory assumes that changes in the environment will automatically lead to changes
in the person, when this may not always be true.

• The theory is loosely organized, based solely on the dynamic interplay between person,
behavior, and environment. The extent upto which each of these factors influence the
actual behavior, is unclear. Moreover, it is also unclear if one is more influential than the
others.

• The theory heavily focuses on the processes of learning and in doing so, disregards
biological and hormonal predispositions (i.e. inclination/ proneness) that may influence
behaviors, regardless of past experience and expectations.

• The theory does not focus on emotion or motivation, other than ‘through reference’ to
past experience. There is minimal attention on these factors.

• The theory can be broad-reaching, so it can be difficult to operationalize it in its entirety.

Personality Development:
Personality development includes activities that: (i) improve awareness and identity; (ii)
develop talents and potential; (iii) build human capital and facilitate employability; (iv)
enhance the quality of life; and (v) contribute to the realization of dreams and aspirations.
Personality development involves formal and informal activities that put people in the role
of leaders, guides, teachers, and managers for helping them realize their full potential.

❖ Significance or Importance of Personality Development: Some of

the key benefits of developing one’s personality include the following:

• Confidence: Personality development gives more confidence to people. When we

know that we are appropriately attired and groomed, this makes us less anxious while
meeting a person. Knowing the right things to say and how to conduct ourselves will
increase our confidence.

• Credibility: Personality development makes people more credible. Despite the saying
that you don’t judge a book by its cover, people do tend to judge others by their
clothing and how it is worn. This does not mean buying expensive clothes. We all
know people who look shabby in expensive clothes. There are also people who look
great even if their attire is inexpensive. Because of this, we must know what to wear
and we must be aware of other aspects of enhancing our physical features.
• Interaction: Personality development encourages people to interact with others.
Studies have consistently shown that people communicate more openly with people
they are comfortable with. If our hygiene and social graces are unrefined, then we can
expect to have a much harder time connecting with people.

• Leading and Motivating: Personality development enhances the capacity to lead and
motivate. A person with a winning personality will be able to motivate better.
Moreover, people who can project an aura of confidence and credibility can lead better.

• Curiosity: A single wrong word can destroy a business relationship. Knowing the right
things to say shows both respect and intellectual sophistication. This is especially the
case if we are dealing with foreigners or if we conduct business outside the country.
The right thing to do in our country could be horrible blunders in a different culture.
These are the soft skills that may break or make a deal.

• Communication skills: Personality development improves our communication skills.

People are more receptive to what we say, if they are impressed with our personality.

Locus of Control:
The term ‘Locus of control’ refers to, how much control a person feels he/ she has over the
events and situations that affect his/ her life. This concept was developed by Julian B.
Rotter in 1954.
According to Rotter, the locus of control can be distinguished into two types:
• Internal locus of control: Individuals with internal locus of control believe, that they
can influence events and their outcomes through their own efforts, decisions, and
actions. They tend to feel responsible for the success or failure of their endeavours.
Individuals with internal locus of control are simply referred to as the “internals”.

• External locus of control: Here, Individuals believe that external forces, like fate,
luck, or other people, have more influence over their lives and outcomes. They often
feel that they do not have control over what happens to them. Individuals with external
locus of control are referred to as the “externals”.