Introduction to Propositions 1 Mathematical logic, which is also called as symbolic logic, deals mainly with arguments which are made up of propositions. To determine if an argument is correct or incorrect, one needs to master first the components. In this module, we will study the different types of propositions.
What’s In
In logic, it is important to distinguish a mere sentence from a
proposition or statement. Some grammarians and English teachers consider declarative sentences and propositions to be the same. It is important to distinguish the differences between the two. Proposition and sentence are two separate entities indicating their specific definitions and purposes. A sentence is a grammatical entity which is always part of a language that expresses a complete thought while a proposition is a logical entity. Another difference is that a sentence may be uttered in different contexts to assert different propositions. For example, “he weighs 50 kilograms” may be uttered by different persons to make different assertions. Therefore, propositions can only be true or false but cannot be both true and false at the same time. Remember that all propositions are sentences but not all sentences are propositions.
2 What’s New
Which of the sentences are either true or false (but not both)
1. Two is the only prime number that is even.
2. Square is a rectangle. 3. 1 + 1 = 3. 4. My seatmate will get a perfect score in the Logic exam.
Answer: 1. True, there is no other even number that is prime. 2. True. All angles of a square measure 90˙ and its opposite sides are equal (definition of a rectangle) 3. False, 1+ 1 = 2. 4. It can be true or false but not both since the truth will only be known after the Logic exam.
What is It
A proposition is a declarative sentence which is either true or false, but
not both. The sentences above are all propositions. Notice that each sentence is either true or false. Statements 1 and 2 are true propositions, statement 3 is a false proposition, while statement 4 is either true or false.
A true proposition has a truth value of “true”, otherwise, its truth value is “false”.
Oftentimes, a small letter is used to denote a proposition. That is, the
proposition a: It is getting clearer. may be read as “a is the proposition, it is getting clearer.”
Moreover, a sequence of propositions may be denoted by p, q or r.
3 Here are examples of propositions. p: 2 is an even number. q: 9 is a perfect square number. r: Integers are subset of rational numbers.
Example 1: Determine if each statement is a proposition or not. a: 𝑥𝑥 + 2 = 2𝑥𝑥 when x = 2. b: Jose Rizal is our National hero. c: Happy Birthday! d: Circle is a polygon. e: Go to your room. f: What time is it? j: This article is false.
Solution:
a: It is proposition, since it is a declarative sentence.
b: It is a proposition, since it is a declarative sentence. c: It is not a proposition since it is an exclamatory sentence. d: It is proposition, since it is a declarative sentence. e: It is a not proposition, since it is an imperative sentence. f: It is not a proposition, since it is an interrogative sentence. j: It is not a proposition. If we assume that the statement is true, then it is false. However, if we assume that it is false, then it is true. Therefore, the sentence cannot be classified as either true or false, so it is not a proposition. A statement like this is called a paradox.
Many propositions are composite that is composed of sub-propositions
and various logical operators. These composite propositions are called compound propositions. A proposition is said to be primitive or simple if it cannot be broken down into simpler propositions.
Compound propositions are constructed using logical connectors,
conjunctions and transitional words. These are “and”, “or”, and “not”. Given the propositions p and/or q, some logical connectors may be expressed in terms of the following: not p p and q p or q If p, then q Example 2: Identify the simple components of the following compound
4 propositions and the logical connectors used. p1: If an individual is great, then there is a teacher behind. p2: 3 is odd number and 4 is a perfect square number. p3: It is a shame to greet the utility worker the same way as with the school principal. p4: Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
Solution: Symbols Using Proposition Simple Component/s Logical Connector/s
p: An individual is great. p1 If p, then q. q: There is a teacher behind it.
p: 3 is odd number. p2 p and q q: 4 is a perfect square number.
p: It is a shame to greet the utility
p3 worker the same way as with the not p school principal.
p: It is boring. p4 p or q q: Logic is fun and interesting.
The following are the different logical operators.
1. Negation. It is a statement p which can be formed by using the word not, changing = to ≠, or some similar revisions. The negation of p in symbol is ~p (read as not p).
Example 3: State the negation of each of the following propositions.
p: Price determines quality. q: Square is a rectangle. r: f(x) = 4x + 3 is a quadratic function.
Solution: ~ p: It is not true that price determines quality or ~ p: Price does not determine quality. ~q: Square is not a rectangle or ~q: It is not true that square is a rectangle. ~r: f(x) = f(x) = 4x + 3 is not a quadratic function or ~r: f(x) = 4x + 3
5 is a linear function.
2. Disjunction. If p and q are propositions, the disjunction of p and q, denoted
by p v q which is read as “p or q” is the proposition whose truth value depends on p or q.
Example 4: Let p, q and r be the following propositions.
p: Kite is a rhombus. q: Square is a rectangle. r: Trapezoid is a parallelogram.
Express the following logical operators in English sentence.
1. p v q 2. p v (~q) 3. q v r
Solution: 1. Kite is a rhombus or square is a rectangle. 2. Kite is a rhombus or square is not a rectangle. 3. Square is a rectangle or trapezoid is a parallelogram.
3. Conjunction. If p and q are propositions, the conjunction of p and q, denoted
by p Ʌ q which is read as “p and q” is the proposition whose truth value depends on p or q. Sometimes, the word “but” may be used instead of “and” in a given sentence.
Example 5: Let p, q and r be the following propositions.
p: Kite is a rhombus. q: Square is a rectangle. r: Trapezoid is a parallelogram.
Express the following logical operators in English sentence.
1. p Ʌ q 2. p Ʌ (~q) 3. (~q) Ʌ (~r) Solution: 1. Kite is a rhombus and square is a rectangle. 2. Kite is a rhombus but square is not a rectangle. 3. Square is not a rectangle and trapezoid is not a parallelogram.
4. Implications. These are statements which are sometimes called as if-then
statements or implications. The “if” part is called hypothesis or premise and the “then” part is called the conclusion. It is symbolized by p → q.
Example 6: Let p, q and r be the following propositions.
6 p: Rhombus is a parallelogram. q: Square is a rhombus. r: Kite is a rhombus.
Express the following logical operators in English sentence.
1. p → r 2. q → p 3. (~r) → (~q)
Solution: 1. If rhombus is a parallelogram, then kite is a rhombus. 2. If a square is a rhombus, then rhombus is a parallelogram. 3. If kite is a not a rhombus, then square is not a rhombus.
5. Biconditional. This is an if and only if (iff) statement which symbolizes
p ↔ q.
Example 7: Suppose a four-sided polygon is a quadrilateral. Let us now
consider the following biconditionals.
p1: A parallelogram is a quadrilateral if and only if it is a four-sided
polygon.
p2: A rectangle is a quadrilateral if and only if it is a four-sided polygon.
p3: A rhombus is a quadrilateral if and only if it is a four-sided polygon.
For reference, these are the similar statement for each logical operator.
Logical Operators and their Meanings
Symbol Translation ~p not p; it is not the case that p; it is false that p; it is not true that p pɅq p and q; p moreover q; although q; p still q; p furthermore q; p also q; p nevertheless q; p however q; p yet q; p but q pvq p or q; p unless q p→q if p then q; p implies q; p is sufficient condition for q; q follows from p; q provided p; q whenever p; q is a logical consequence of p p↔q p if and only if q; p iff q; p is equivalent to q
It is also important to determine the proper use of parenthesis, brace
or bracket as grouping marks. Here are the guidelines.
1. The parenthesis is used whenever the word “both” goes with “and” and
7 “either” goes with “or”. • both p or q and r (p v q) Ʌ r • p or both q and r p v (q Ʌ r) • either p and q or r (p Ʌ q) v r • p and either q or r p Ʌ (q v r)
2. Since “neither p nor q” is the same as “not either p or q” and “both p or
q are not”, then it is denoted by ~(p v q).
3. The order of words “both” and “not” should also be taken into consideration. • p and q are not both ~(p Ʌ q) • p and q are both not ~p Ʌ ~q
4. The parentheses, brackets, and braces are used in symbolic logic in the same manner as in mathematical expressions.
Translating English Statements to Propositional Forms
Example 8: Let p: “Ateneo wins its first game.”
q: “De La Salle wins its first game.” s: “Adamson wins its first game.”
1. Symbolize the proposition: Ateneo wins its first game or De La Salle
loses it.
Solution: Steps Symbols 1. Ateneo wins its first game. p 2. Ateneo wins its first game or pv 3. Ateneo wins its first game or p v ~q De La Salle loses it.
2. Symbolize the proposition: If Ateneo wins its first game, then Adamson and De La Salle both did not win their first games.
Solution: Steps Symbols 1. Ateneo wins its first game p 2. If Ateneo wins its first game, p→~( then both did not
8 3. If Ateneo wins its first game, p → ~ (s Ʌ q) then not both Adamson and De LaSalle win their first games.
Example 9:
Write an equivalent logical operator of the statement below.
“It is impossible that if Joana has an illness and her sister is there, then she will instantly get well or she will at least feel secure.” Solution: ~[(p Ʌ q) → r v s ] where p: “Joana has an illness.” q: “Her sister is there.” r: “She will instantly get well.” s: “She will at least feel secure.”
Translating Propositional Forms to English Statements
Example 10: Let p: “The rice cooker is working.”
q: “The food supply is adequate.” r: “The visitors are hungry.”
1. Write the proposition q Ʌ r Ʌ ~p in plain English.
Steps Symbols 1. q The food supply is adequate 2. q Ʌ The food supply is adequate and 3. q Ʌ r The food supply is adequate and the visitors are hungry 4. q Ʌ r Ʌ The food supply is adequate and the visitors are hungry but 5. q Ʌ r Ʌ ~p The food supply is adequate and the visitors are hungry but the rice cooker is not working.
2. Write the proposition ~r v (p Ʌ q) in plain English.
Steps Symbols 1. ~r The visitors are not hungry 2. ~r v The visitors are not hungry or 3. ~r v (p Either the visitors are not hungry or the rice cooker is working
9 4. ~r v (p Ʌ q) Either the visitors are not hungry or the rice cooker is working and the food supply is adequate.
What’s More
Activity 1
Directions: Determine whether each of the following is a proposition or a
mere sentence. 1. Luzon is an island in the Philippines. (𝑥𝑥+ 1) 2. What is the domain of the function ? 2 3. √2 is an irrational number. 4. If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a Filipino. 5. My seatmate will get a perfect score in Mathematics exam.
Activity 2
Directions: Tell whether each of the following is a primitive or a compound
proposition. 1. Roses are red and violets are blue. 2. If I study harder, then I will pass the examination. 3. Manila is the capital of the Philippines. 4. Either a square is a rectangle, or a rhombus is a parallelogram. 5. √2 is an irrational number and √4 is a rational number.
Activity 3
Directions: Let p and q be propositions, p: Math is about problem solving and
q: Math is challenging. Give a simple verbal sentence which describes each of the following statements.
