BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT ON HUMAN ALLERGY

Presented by- JEYADHARSHANA B

Class :- XII

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 Topic

S No.

1. Acknowledgement

2. Certification

3. Introduction

4.
Pictures of some medicines

5. Medical reports of patients

Questionnaire
6.

7. Conclusion

Bibliography
8.

Acknowledgement :

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Certificate

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 This is to certify that JEYADHARSHANA of class XII has successfully completed the project
work on Biology for class XII Practical Examination of the central board of secondary
education in year2024-2025.It is to further certify that this project is the individual work of
the candidate.

INTRODUCTION

ALLERGY
House dust mite and pet allergies occur because of a reaction to tiny airborne particles within
the home. Symptoms can include a runny or blocked nose, itchy, red or watering eyes and
wheezing. If you have asthma. Regular use of medication can improve symptoms but
avoidance of the cause can also be important, especially with pet allergies. Allergies, also
known as allergic diseases, are various conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune
system to typically harmless substances in the environment.[11] These diseases include hay
fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis.[1] Symptoms may
include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, coughing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or
swelling.[12] Note that food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.[3][4]

Common allergens include pollen and certain foods. Metals and other substances may also
cause such problems. Food, insect stings, and medications are common causes of severe
reactions. Their development is due to both genetic and environmental factors. The
underlying mechanism involves immunoglobulin E antibodies (IgE), part of the body's
immune system, binding to an allergen and then to a receptor on mast
cells or basophils where it triggers the release of inflammatory chemicals such as histamine.
Diagnosis is typically based on a person's medical history. Further testing of the skin or
blood may be useful in certain cases. Positive tests, however, may not necessarily mean there
is a significant allergy to the substance in question.

Early exposure of children to potential allergens may be protective. Treatments for allergies
include avoidance of known allergens and the use of medications such
as steroids and antihistamines. In severe reactions, injectable adrenaline (epinephrine) is

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recommended. Allergen immunotherapy, which gradually exposes people to larger and larger
amounts of allergen, is useful for some types of allergies such as hay fever and reactions to
insect bites. Its use in food allergies is unclear.

Allergies are common. In the developed world, about 20% of people are affected by allergic
rhinitis, about 6% of people have at least one food allergy, and about 20% have or have had
atopic dermatitis at some point in time. Depending on the country, about 1–18% of people
have asthma. Anaphylaxis occurs in between 0.05–2% of people. Rates of many allergic
diseases appear to be increasing. The word "allergy" was first used by Clemens von
Pirquet in 1906

What is the exact cause of house dust mite and pet allergies?

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Tiny particles found in the air inside the home that cause allergic symptoms are called aero-
allergens. These particles can include the faeces of house dust mites, and animal saliva, skin
and urine.(Mould spores are another type of aero-allergen present in some homes, especially
those with damp problems).

Allergens are substances that cause an allergic response in certain sensitive people. They
commonly cause problems with nasal ,eye and respiratory symptoms. These include rhinitis,
conjunctivitis and wheezing. They can aggravate conditions such as asthma. Aeroallergens
rarely cause severe allergic reactions such as anaphylaxis. They are, however, some of the
most common causes of allergies in general.

How common are allergies to house dust mite and pets?

Allergies to house dust mite and pets are common. Also, in some countries, particularly in the
developed world, atopic diseases affect up to 1 in 3 of the population (atopic diseases include
asthma, eczema and hay fever). About 1 in 2 adults with asthma, and about 8 in 10 children
in asthma, have allergic components to their disease.

What are the symptoms of house dust mite and pet allergy?

Symptoms of house dust mite and pet allergies include-

Rhinitis- This is an inflammation of the lining of the nose. Typically, you may have a runny
nose, nasal stuffiness, sneezing, itching or a combination of these.

Conjunctivitis- Generally, this would mean watery, itchy eyessometimes with redness.

Wheezing- Such allergies can irritate the lungs. This may cause narrowing of the airways,
leading to noisy breathing called wheezing. People with asthma frequently wheeze and
allergies can cause this same symptom. People with asthma may wheeze more if they have
allergies too.

Other symptoms include- cough which is often dry and irritating. Sore throat. Loss of sense
of smell and headache can happen, but less commonly.

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House dust mite allergy

House dust mites are present in all homes in the UK. They are microscopic insects that live
off human skin scales and form part of the dust in our homes. The climate and conditions
inside our houses are ideal for their survival. They prefer bedrooms- in particular beds and
bedding. This is where we shed skin cells for them to feed on, where we sweat, providing
them with water, and where the warmth sustains them and allows breeding.

The allergen that triggers the immune system and cause allergic problems is found mainly in
the faeces of the house dust mites. These droppings are very dry, they fragment easily and
the fine particles disperse into air. The particles settle quickly into our pillows, mattresses,
duvets, carpets and are difficult to eradicate. This means it is difficult to remove the source
of the problems and prevent allergic symptoms.

Avoidance of house dust mite

It is impossible to keep your home permanently clear of the mites, however it can be
minimised to a large extent.

By keeping the houses clean, be clear of rugs and carpets specially from bedroom, avoid soft
furnishing in bedroom, hard floors such as wood are preferable.

Use dust tight covers for mattresses, duvets and pillows. use feathers rather than synthetic
pillows. Wet dust or clean room floors regularly. Use a vacuum cleaner with a good filter. Try
to keep humidity low. Let bedding air after use. Regularly ventilate the bedroom. Keep soft
toys to a minimum.

Chemical treatments can be used to kill the mites however this is only recommended only for
carpets, as there are certain drawbacks that include the time taken to apply the products
properly, effectiveness, It is possible that carpets can be stained and that inhaling these
products may be harmful...

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Allergy to pets
Animal allergens are the second most common cause of allergic reactions. The allergens that
trigger the allergic response are found in animal saliva, skin and urine. When animals groom
themselves, they lick and the saliva coats the skin, fur or feathers. The skin cells covered in
saliva are shed (this is called animal dander) along with loose hairs and fur.

Even so called hairless breeds of cats and dogs can cause problems. Additionally, pets can
have flaky skin complaints, like eczema and so can spread large amounts of dander.

These allergen particles are microscopic and so easily airborne and thus easily inhaled. This
leads to typical respiratory symptoms like rhinitis and allergic conjunctivitis.

Avoidance of pet allergy

Vacuum regularly, if possible with a vacuum cleaner which has a good filter, wash pet
bedding frequently.

Do not allow pets to lick your hands or face.

What are the treatment options?

Some general points-

 Cigarette smoke makes all allergic conditions worse. It aggravates already inflamed skin
and membranes in the respiratory tract. Nobody should smoke near an allergy sufferer.
 Babies exposed early on to allergens and smoke are more likely to develop allergic
diseases.
 Treatment with medication- use of nasal spray, eye drops or antihistamine tablets will
often ease or clear symptoms.

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 Avoiding the cause of allergy.
 IMMUNOTHERAPY (DESENSITISATION)- This
treatment is used mainly when other methods are failed and the case is severe.
It is done using a series of injections to desensitise the immune system. The allergen the
patient is allergic to is administered in tiny quantities, via an injection. The amount used
is too small to provoke the allergic reaction itself , but enough to teach the immune
system not to react. Increasing doses of allergen are given at regular intervals.
This process is very time consuming and expensive and carries a degree of risk. For this
reason its needs to be carefully supervised by a specialist and performed in a hospital
outpatient setting

Other environmental factors

Allergic diseases are more common in industrialized countries than in countries that are
more traditional or agricultural, and there is a higher rate of allergic disease in urban
populations versus rural populations, although these differences are becoming less
defined. Historically, the trees planted in urban areas were predominantly male to prevent
litter from seeds and fruits, but the high ratio of male trees causes high pollen counts, a
phenomenon that horticulturist Tom Ogren has called "botanical sexism".

Alterations in exposure to microorganisms is another plausible explanation, at present, for

the increase in atopic allergy. Endotoxin exposure reduces release of
inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IFNγ, interleukin-10, and interleukin-12 from
white blood cells (leukocytes) that circulate in the blood. Certain microbe-

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sensing proteins, known as Toll-like receptors, found on the surface of cells in the body
are also thought to be involved in these processes.

Parasitic worms and similar parasites are present in untreated drinking water in
developing countries, and were present in the water of developed countries until the
routine chlorination and purification of drinking water supplies. Recent research has
shown that some common parasites, such as intestinal worms (e.g., hookworms), secrete
chemicals into the gut wall (and, hence, the bloodstream) that suppress the immune
system and prevent the body from attacking the parasite. This gives rise to a new slant on
the hygiene hypothesis theory—that co-evolution of humans and parasites has led to an
immune system that functions correctly only in the presence of the parasites. Without
them, the immune system becomes unbalanced and oversensitive.

In particular, research suggests that allergies may coincide with the delayed establishment
of gut flora in infants. However, the research to support this theory is conflicting, with
some studies performed in China and Ethiopia showing an increase in allergy in people
infected with intestinal worms. Clinical trials have been initiated to test the effectiveness
of certain worms in treating some allergies. It may be that the term 'parasite' could turn
out to be inappropriate, and in fact a hitherto unsuspected symbiosis is at work. For more
information on this topic, see Helminthic therapy.

Some medicines and nasal sprays for allergies

Allergic diseases are caused by inappropriate immunological responses to

harmless antigens driven by a TH2-mediated immune response. Many bacteria and
viruses elicit a TH1-mediated immune response, which down-regulates TH2 responses.
The first proposed mechanism of action of the hygiene hypothesis was that insufficient
stimulation of the TH1 arm of the immune system leads to an overactive TH2 arm, which
in turn leads to allergic disease. In other words, individuals living in too sterile an
environment are not exposed to enough pathogens to keep the immune system busy. Since
our bodies evolved to deal with a certain level of such pathogens, when they are not

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 exposed to this level, the immune system will attack harmless antigens, and thus normally
benign microbial objects—like pollen—will trigger an immune response. The hygiene
hypothesis was developed to explain the observation that hay fever and eczema, both
allergic diseases, were less common in children from larger families, which were, it is
presumed, exposed to more infectious agents through their siblings, than in children from
families with only one child. It is used to explain the increase in allergic diseases that
have been seen since industrialization, and the higher incidence of allergic diseases in
more developed countries. The hygiene hypothesis has now expanded to include exposure
to symbiotic bacteria and parasites as important modulators of immune system
development, along with infectious agents. Epidemiological data support the hygiene
hypothesis. Studies have shown that various immunological and autoimmune diseases are
much less common in the developing world than the industrialized world, and that
immigrants to the industrialized world from the developing world increasingly develop
immunological disorders in relation to the length of time since arrival in the industrialized
world. Longitudinal studies in the third world demonstrate an increase in immunological
disorders as a country grows more affluent and, it is presumed, cleaner. The use of
antibiotics in the first year of life has been linked to asthma and other allergic
diseases. The use of antibacterial cleaning products has also been associated with higher
incidence of asthma, as has birth by caesarean section rather than vaginal birt

Acute response

Degranulation process in allergy. Second exposure to allergen. 1 – antigen; 2 – IgE antibody; 3 –

FcεRI receptor; 4 – preformed mediators (histamine, protease,heparin); 5 – granules; 6 – mast
cell; 7 – newly formed mediators (prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes, PAF).
In the initial stages of allergy, a type I hypersensitivity reaction against an allergen encountered for
the first time and presented by a professional antigen-presenting cell causes a response in a type of
immune cell called a TH2 lymphocyte, a subset of T cells that produce cytokine called interleukin-
4 (IL-4). These TH2 cells interact with other lymphocytes called B cells, whose role is production of
antibodies. Coupled with signals provided by IL-4, this interaction stimulates the B cell to begin
production of a large amount of a particular type of antibody known as IgE. Secreted IgE circulates

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in the blood and binds to an IgE-specific receptor (a kind of Fc receptor called FcεRI) on the
surface of other kinds of immune cells called mast cells and basophils, which are both involved in
the acute inflammatory response. The IgE-coated cells, at this stage, are sensitized to the allergen.
If later exposure to the same allergen occurs, the allergen can bind to the IgE molecules held on the
surface of the mast cells or basophils. Cross-linking of the IgE and Fc receptors occurs when more
than one IgE-receptor complex interacts with the same allergenic molecule and activates the
sensitized cell. Activated mast cells and basophils undergo a process called degranulation, during
which they release histamine and other inflammatory chemical mediators
(cytokines, interleukins, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins) from their granules into the surrounding
tissue causing several systemic effects, such as vasodilation, mucous secretion, nerve stimulation,
and smooth muscle contraction.
This results in rhinorrhea, itchiness, dyspnea, and anaphylaxis. Depending on the individual,
allergen, and mode of introduction, the symptoms can be system-wide (classical anaphylaxis) or
localized to specific body systems. Asthma is localized to the respiratory system and eczema is
localized to the dermis.

Late-phase response
After the chemical mediators of the acute response subside, late-phase responses can often occur.
This is due to the migration of other leukocytes such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils,
and macrophages to the initial site. The reaction is usually seen 2–24 hours after the original
reaction. Cytokines from mast cells may play a role in the persistence of long-term effects. Late-
phase responses seen in asthma are slightly different from those seen in other allergic responses,
although they are still caused by release of mediators from eosinophils and are still dependent on
activity of TH2 cells.
Blood testing
An allergy blood test is quick and simple and can be ordered by a licensed health care provider
(e.g., an allergy specialist) or general practitioner. Unlike skin-prick testing, a blood test can be
performed irrespective of age, skin condition, medication, symptom, disease activity, and

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pregnancy. Adults and children of any age can get an allergy blood test. For babies and very young
children, a single needle stick for allergy blood testing is often gentler than several skin pricks.
An allergy blood test is available through most laboratories. A sample of the patient's blood is sent
to a laboratory for analysis, and the results are sent back a few days later. Multiple allergens can be
detected with a single blood sample. Allergy blood tests are very safe since the person is not
exposed to any allergens during the testing procedure.
The test measures the concentration of specific IgE antibodies in the blood. Quantitative IgE test
results increase the possibility of ranking how different substances may affect symptoms. A rule of
thumb is that the higher the IgE antibody value, the greater the likelihood of symptoms. Allergens
found at low levels that today do not result in symptoms cannot help predict future symptom
development. The quantitative allergy blood result can help determine what a patient is allergic to,
help predict and follow the disease development, estimate the risk of a severe reaction, and
explain cross-reactivity.
A low total IgE level is not adequate to rule out sensitization to commonly inhaled
allergens.Statistical methods, such as ROC curves, predictive value calculations, and likelihood
ratios have been used to examine the relationship of various testing methods to each other. These
methods have shown that patients with a high total IgE have a high probability of allergic
sensitization, but further investigation with allergy tests for specific IgE antibodies for a carefully
chosen of allergens is often warranted. Although genetic factors govern susceptibility to atopic
disease, increases in atopy have occurred within too short a period to be explained by a genetic
change in the population, thus pointing to environmental or lifestyle changes. Several hypotheses
have been identified to explain this increased rate. Increased exposure to perennial allergens may
be due to housing changes and increased time spent indoors, and a decreased activation of a
common immune control mechanism may be caused by changes in cleanliness or hygiene, and
exacerbated by dietary changes, obesity, and decline in physical exercise. The hygiene
hypothesis maintains that high living standards and hygienic conditions exposes children to
Allergic contact dermatitis
Although allergic contact dermatitis is termed an "allergic" reaction (which usually refers to type I
hypersensitivity), its pathophysiology involves a reaction that more correctly corresponds to a type
IV hypersensitivity reaction. In type IV hypersensitivity, there is activation of certain types

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of T cells (CD8+) that destroy target cells on contact, as well as activated macrophages that
produce hydrolytic enzymes.
Medication
Several medications may be used to block the action of allergic mediators, or to prevent activation
of cells and degranulation processes. These
include antihistamines, glucocorticoids, epinephrine (adrenaline), mast cell stabilizers,
and antileukotriene agents are common treatments of allergic diseases.
[108]
Anticholinergics, decongestants, and other compounds thought to
impair eosinophil chemotaxis are also commonly used. Although rare, the severity of anaphylaxis
often requires epinephrine injection, and where medical care is unavailable, a device known as
an epinephrine autoinjector may be used.

Conclusion
it is hereby concluded from the project that allergies are common amongst
youngsters nowadays due to changing atmosphere and increased pollution
day by day. this mainly occurs in small children and teenagers because of
their incapability to adapt themselves in adverse conditions. the only
precaution is to stay away from the cause of allergy and also by taking regular
supplements.

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Bibliography
 http://en.wikipedia.com//
 http://www.education.com/sciencefair/article/.com//
 NCERT Textbook class XII
 http://google.com//

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