Chapter II BIOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT 2. Embryonic Stage (Third week to 8th week).

At
this point, the mass of cells is now known as an
I. BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS embryo. The embryonic stage plays an important role
A. The Stages of Development in the development of the brain.
1. Prenatal development is highly influenced by the
inheritance, expression, and regulation of genes. 3. Fetal Stage (Ninth week to birth). Once cell
The three stages of the Prenatal period differentiation is mostly complete, the embryo enters
the next stage and becomes known as a fetus.
1. Germinal Stage (Fertilization to 2nd week). This
stage begins at conception when the sperm and egg cell Brain Development. The central nervous
unite in one of the two fallopian tubes. system also become more responsive during the second
trimester of the prenatal period.

COMMON PHYSICAL HAZARDS DURING THE PRENATAL PERIOD

PERIOD Related processes/Ideas and Descriptions
Zygote Starvation. The zygote will die of starvation if it has too little yolk to keep it alive until it can dodge itself in the uterine wall
or if it remains too long in the tube
Lack of uterine preparation. Implantation cannot occur if the uterine walls are not prepared in time as a result of glandular
imbalance
Implantation in the wrong place. The zygote becomes attached to a small fibroid tissue in the uterine wall or the wall of the
fallopian tube and cannot get nourishment and will die.

Embryo Miscarriages. Falls, emotional shocks, malnutrition, glandular disturbances, vitamin deficiency, and serious diseases
(pneumonia, diabetes) can cause the embryo to become dislodged from its place in the uterine wall ; this is likely to occur
during the 10th and 11th week after conception

Developmental irregularities. Maternal malnutrition, vitamin and glandular deficiency, excessive use of drugs, alcohol,
tobacco, and diseases can interfere with normal development.

Fetus Miscarriages. Possible up to the 5th month due to illness of the mother, falls…etc…
Prematurity. Fetus that weighs less than 2 lbs. and 3ounces have less chance of surviving and greater chance of developing
malformations
Complications of delivery. Maternal stress affects uterine contractions and is likely to lead to complications during birth.

2. Fine motor control (Proximodistal) - Involves

B. Physical and motor development. Physical using and coordinating the small muscles in
development refers to biological changes that children the hand and wrists with mastery.
undergo as they age.
Motor development pertains to the movements of the TODDLERHOOD (AGE 1 TO 3 YEARS)
body, involving the coordination of the brain primarily
with the skeletal and muscular system (hence *Milk Teeth – any of the set of early, temporary
psychomotor domain). (Deciduous) teeth in children that falls out as the
permanent teeth erupt.
I. BIRTH TO TODLERHOOD. Important aspects
that determine the progress of physical development in a. Height and Weight – Girls and boys gain about 2-
infancy and toddlerhood include physical and brain 3 inches in height per year, and gains weight fairly
changes. (CliffdNotes, n.d.). about 4-6 pounds per year, with boys having slight
advantage on both.
Body size at Infancy to Toddlerhood.
b. Brain Development – In early childhood, the
Parameters in Physical Development: brain is the quickest organ to develop among any
1. Gross motor development (Cephalocaudal) - other. The increase in its size is due, in part, to the
Moving the large muscles in the body, continuing myelination of nerve fibers.
specifically the arms and legs.
 •Visual Skills – Improves the processing of •Handedness – ( Being right or left handed)
visual information, facilitating learning to read
Handedness apparently has genetic component,
and enabling children to focus on school work.
and is established during childhood.
•Neuroplasticity – The tendency of new parts of
the brain to take up the function of injured parts. Health Concerns

Motor Development a. Nutritional Needs

a. Gross Motor Skills – Employing the large muscles b. Illnesses

used in locomotion.
c. Sleep disorders
•Physical Activity – Pre-school are more
likely to engage in physically oriented plays
•Sleep Terrors – Frightening dreamlike
such as grasping, banging and mounting
experiences that occur during the deepest
objects –which leads to the nourishment of
stage of REM sleep, shortly after the child
their physique.
has gone to sleep.
•Rough-and-Tumble Play – Consist of games
•Somnambulism (Sleep Walking)
like running, chasing, fleeing, wrestling,
hitting with and open hand, laughing and
d. Elimination Disorders - Excretion problems.
making faces. The child learns to inhibit/control the reflexes
governing urination and bowel movements.
•Differences in Activity Level – Physically
active parents are likely to have children of •Enuresis - Failure to control the urinary
their likes too.
bladder once the normal age for control has
been reached.
b. Fine Motor Skills – Employing the smaller muscles
used in manipulation and coordination.
•Encopresis – Lack of control over the
•Artistic Development – Starts to draw basic bowels. More common among boys, and occur
during the day.
shapes, and coloring too.
e. Accidents
III. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD.
Middle childhood is typically defined as the ages from 6 to  availability of "high energy" drinks
10,  large portion sizes (supersizing)
Growth spurt a process when growth advances at a  lack of breast-feeding
dramatically rapid rate compared with other periods. This  couch-potato syndrome/sedentary
is why you are surprised to see a child/adolescent to have lifestyle/inactivity
grown so suddenly in months.  Overweight parents may serve as examples
of:
NUTRITION AND GROWTH. o poor exercise habits,
o encourage overeating, and
CAUSES OF BEING OVERWEIGHT o keep unhealthful foods in home
(Berge et al., 2015).
 Heredity. Some people inherit a tendency to turn
extra calories into fat.
 Other factors that contribute to child overweight MOTOR DEVELOPMENT. The school years are marked
and obesity include: by increases in the child's speed, strength, agility, and
 consumption of sugary drinks balance. These developments lead to more skillful motor
 less healthful food at schools and child- activities.
care center
 advertising of fattening foods a. Gross motor skills. Throughout middle childhood,
 lack of regular physical activity children show steady improvement in their ability
 limited access to healthful affordable to perform gross motor skills.
foods,

Age 6 Children are hopping, jumping and climbing.

Age 6-7 Children are usually capable of pedaling, balancing on a bicycle.

Age 8-10 Children are showing the balance, coordination and strength that allows engagement
in gymnastics and team sports.

During these years, muscles grow stronger, In Piaget’s terms, they are on the concrete
and neural pathways that connect the cerebellum to operational cognitive development stage hence their
the cortex become more myelinated. thoughts dominate the “here and now”. Their sense of cause-
effect relationships is further developed.
Reaction time refers to the measure of how quickly
an individual can respond to a particular stimulus. V. ADOLESCENCE

IV. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING PUBERTY Adolescents generally find that activities involving
physical movement -sports, dance, and drama, for example -
are among the most pleasurable and gratifying. They enjoy
the most physical education and engaging in extra and co-
curricular activities.

A. Body Image.

Boys Girls
 Advantages of Boys in Early Maturity Advantages of Girls in Early Maturity
 More popular than late-maturing peers.  They are more popular.
 More likely to be leaders in school.  They have2. what
The interactive
late-maturing girls influences
would like toof genes and
 Poised, relaxed, and good natured; not being rushed develop (bodilyexperience
changes) shape the developing brain.
B. Health into maturity
in Adolescence. Five out of six adolescents are in
very good or excellent health. Few are chronically ill or miss Scientists now know a major ingredient in
school due to illness. this developmental process is the “serve and
Disadvantages
return” relationship between children and their
Disadvantages
  Causes of Death- Death rates are low during
Greater risk of aggression and delinquency.  parents
Early maturing girlsandareother caregivers
at greater risk in
for the family or
 adolescence.
Abuse of alcohol and drugs. community.
psychological problems and substance abuse.
 a.Adults
Nutrition-
at home, in Physical growth
school and even occurs
community may more  Many girls who mature early obtain lower grades and
expect too much
rapidly of them
in the in school.years than at any other
adolescent initiate sexual activity.
 often dominated, bullied or tried by other the older boys
time after birth, with the exception of this past 3. The brain’s capacity for change decreases
year. with age.
 Adolescents are also likely to obtain less
vitamin A, thiamine, iron but more fats, The brain is most flexible, or “plastic,” early
sugar, and sodium than recommended. in life to accommodate a wide range of
 One reason for adolescents’ nutritional environments and interactions, but as the
deficit is irregular eating patterns. maturing brain becomes more specialized to
 Junk food is connected with being assume more complex functions, it is less
overweight that can lead to chronic illness. capable of reorganizing and adapting to new or
unexpected challenges.
b. Eating Disorders
1. Anorexia Nervosa- This psychological
disorder of fear of eating is caused by the 4. Cognitive, emotional, and social capacities
extreme disgust of being heavy, chubby are inextricably intertwined throughout the
and fat/stout. life course.
2. Bulimia Nervosa – The adolescents would
recurrently binge eat (eat too much) and The brain is a highly interrelated organ, and
purge (intentionally inserting fingers to the its multiple functions operate in a richly
mouth to induce vomiting). coordinated fashion.

Perspectives on Eating Disorders

5. Toxic stress damages the development of
• Anorexia Nervosa may help young women brain architecture, which can lead to lifelong
cope with sexual fears (fear of pregnancy). problems in learning, behavior, and physical
• Prevents adolescents from being separated and mental health.
from their families and assuming adult 6. Policy Implications
responsibilities. a. The basic principles of neuroscience
indicate that early preventive
c. Substance use disorders - is developed with intervention will be more efficient
repeated use of such substances leading to changes in and produce more favorable
“brain circuitry” that are connected with impaired outcomes than remediation later in
control over use of the substance, social problems, risky life.
behavior and biological factors suggestive of addiction. b. A balanced approach to emotional,
social, cognitive, and language
development will best prepare all
C: NEUROSCIENCE AND BRAIN children for success in school and
later in the workplace and
DEVELOPMENT
community.
c. Supportive relationships and
Human brain weighs about 3 lbs. and is enclosed in positive learning experiences begin
a hard bony shell for protection, called skull. at home but can also be provided
through a range of services with
1. Brains are built over time, from the bottom up. proven effectiveness factors.
The basic architecture of the brain is Babies’ brains require stable, caring,
interactive relationships with adults-
constructed through an ongoing process that begins before
any way or any place they can be
birth and continues into adulthood. provided will benefit healthy brain
development.
d. Science clearly demonstrates that, in specialized early interventions are
situations where toxic stress is needed to target the cause of the
likely, intervening as early as stress and protect the child from its
possible is critical to achieve the consequences.
best outcomes. For children
experiencing toxic stress,

5 Stages of Human Brain Development

Stage 1: 0 to 10 -Neurons and connections growing.

months
-Pregnant woman should stay as stress-free as possible, take folic acid, B6 & B12,
stimulate this young developing brain with sounds and sensations. Mother should
avoid toxins, cigarettes, heavy metals, alcohol, drugs.

Stage 2: birth to 6 -Development of voluntary movement, reasoning, perception, frontal lobes active in
years development of emotions, attachments, planning, working memory, and perception.
A sense of self is developing and life experiences shape the emotional well-being.

-By age six, the brain is 95% its adult weight and peak of energy consumption.

-Caregivers need to provide nurturing environment and daily individualized

communication. Negative or harsh treatment may come with emotional
consequences in the future.

Stage 3: 7 to 22 -The neural connections or ‘grey’ matter is still pruning, wiring of brain still in
years progress, the fatty tissues surrounding neurons or ‘white’ matter increase and assist
with speeding up electrical impulses and stabilize connections. The prefrontal cortex
is the last to mature and it involves the control of impulses and decision-making.

-Therefore, teenagers need to learn to control reckless, irrational and irritable

behavior. Avoiding drugs, alcohol, smoking, unprotected sex and substance abuse.

Stage 4: 23 to 65 -Finally, the brain reaches its peak power around age 22 and lasts for 5 more years.
years Afterwards, it’s a downhill pattern. Last to mature and the first to go are the brain
functionality of executive control occurring in the prefrontal and temporal cortices.
Memory for recalling episodes start to decline, processing speed slows and working
memory is storing less information.

-Best approach is to stay mentally active, learn new things, stay physically active and
eat a very healthy diet. ( Recall that in chapter 1, I told you that teachers live longer
than other professions because they keep on learning).

Avoid toxins, cigarettes, alcohol and mind-altering drugs.

Stage 5: older than -Brain cells are lost in the critical areas such as the hippocampus responsible for
65 years processing memories.

-Learn new skills, practice mediation to promote neutral emotions, exercise to

improve abstract reasoning and concentration.

-Avoid stress or incorporate stress-reducing mediation and exercises.

-Eat a healthy diet with foods to nourish one’s level of dopamine.

FTC 101 Chapter II, Part 3

D. FACTORS AFFECTING 9. Socio-Economic Status. The socio-economic status of

BIOLOGICAL/PHYSICAL a family determines the quality of the opportunity a child
DEVELOPMENT gets.

1. Heredity. Heredity is the transmission of physical 10. Learning and Reinforcement.

characteristics from parents to children through their genes.
2. Environment. The environment plays a critical role in E. BIOLOGICAL THEORIES
the development of children and it represents the sum of 1. Developmental Milestone. Early in the 20th
physical and psychological stimulation the child receives.
century, Dr. Arnold Gesell observed and
3. Sex. The sex of the child is another major factor documented
patterns in the way children develop, showing that all
affecting the physical growth and development of a child.
children go through similar and predictable sequences,
4. Exercise and Health though each child moves through these sequences at his
or her own rate or pace. This process is comprised of
5. Hormones. Hormones belong to the endocrine system both internal and external factors.
and they influence the various functions of our bodies.
Some experts in the field refer to this as going
6. Nutrition.
through periods of “equilibrium” when children are more a
7. Familial Influence. joy to be with versus “disequilibrium” when their behavior

8. Geographical Influences. can be more challenging.

EQUILIBRIUM DISEQUILIBRIUM
smooth, calm behavior unsettled, uneven behavior
practicing skills already mastered learning new skills and abilities
plateau in development quick time of growth and new development
at peace with self and the world uneasy with self and the world
more confident more anxious, more stressed, less confident
a period of stability and consolidated behavior a period of struggle and breaking down of behavior
easier to live with more difficult to manage

Knowing about these developmental ages and stages

The Cyclical Spiral. Gesell emphasized that helps you to understand and cope with those times when
development always progresses in a pattern through children may seem more short-tempered and out-of-sorts.
predictable stages or sequences. Sequential development
begins within the embryo and continues after birth. a. While it is easier to care for children during
According to Gesell, growth can be thought of as a cyclical periods of equilibrium, both phases are
spiral. Each cycle of the spiral encompassing the time it necessary for their growth and
takes to move through six stages, or half-year development. Some of their challenging
increments.Gesell’s cycles of development are divided into behaviors are a normal part of their growth
six well-defined stages which are repeated throughout life. process.
One cycle includes the following stages: Smooth, Break-Up, b. Try not to blame your children for being
Sorting Out, Inward zing, Expansion, and Neurotic “Fitting more sensitive or less flexible during
Together”. periods of disequilibrium. They are not
“acting that way on purpose” and are not
Implications of Gesell’s theory “out to get you”.
 c. Each child has his own twist on how he will immediate environment in which children live. As such,
go through each stage. the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or
d. Certain children are more low-keyed and daycare, peer group and community environment of the
children.
even their periods of disequilibrium will be
2. Mesosystem. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and
rather mild. as such, involves linkages between home and school,
e. Other children are more intense and even between peer group and family, and between family and
the equilibrium stages may be a struggle. community.
f. In general, do not introduce major changes 3. Exosystem. The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may
during a period of disequilibrium. If exist between two or more settings, one of which may not
possible, wait until the child shifts more contain the developing children but affect them indirectly
nonetheless.
toward equilibrium before making new
demands of him, such as learning to use the 4. Macrosystem. The macrosystem is the largest and most
potty. distant collection of people and places to the children that
still have significant influences on them. This ecological
2. Ecological Systems Theory by Urie system is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and
Bronfenbrenner values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well
as larger institutions like political, economic or educational
systems.
2. Urie Bronfenbrenner is an American psychologist who
formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how 5. Chronosystem. The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that
the inherent qualities of children and their environments the chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which
interact to influence their growth and development. demonstrates the influence of both changes and constancy in
Bronfenbrenner's ecological model organizes contexts of the children’s environments.
development into five levels of external influence.
F. RESEARCH AND PEDAGOGICAL
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems APPLICATIONS
Theory, children typically find themselves enmeshed in
Pedagogical Application related to Brain development:
various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological
10 Things to Know About Brain-Based Learning
system to the larger school system, and then to the most Instruction
expansive system which includes society and culture. Each
of these ecological systems inevitably interact with and Brain based learning is a bridged discipline
influence each other in all aspects of an individual’s life. between neurology and the science of education, where
educational psychology plays a key role. This concept which
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of has come about in recent years, is a program that stemmed
development into five levels of external influence. These from scientific development, and that combines knowledge
of the brain and education.
levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the
broadest.
Brain-based learning is a relatively new idea and requires
that educators and neuroscientists work together to create
meaningful programs. Specialists in the fields of
neuroscience, psychology, cognitive science, and education
converge to improve teaching methods and academic
programs. It is an educational trend whose purpose is to
apply everything we know about how the brain learns and
what stimulates brain development. “Brain-based learning is
motivated by the general belief that learning can be
accelerated and improved if educators base how and what
they teach on the science of learning, rather than on past
educational practices, established conventions, or
assumptions about the learning process,” says “The Glossary
of Education Reform” in its article “Brain-Based Learning.”

1. Microsystem. The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that

the microsystem is the smallest and most