Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-1

Chapter 8: Coating Types and Curing

Mechanisms
Objectives 8.2 Curing Mechanisms
When this module is complete, the training Curing is used to describe the way a coating
candidate will have knowledge and under- transforms from a liquid to a solid state. For
standing of: the majority of coatings used in industrial
and marine work, a cure involves chemical
• Curing mechanisms
reactions; however, some types of coatings
• Coating types may cure simply by solvent evaporation.
• Coating systems
Understanding the curing mechanism is very
Key Trade Terms important for the coating professional.
Numerous factors: the time frames involved,
• Curing
the environmental elements during cure, the
• Nonconvertible coatings applied film thickness, and the mixing of the
• Convertible coatings coating components have an effect on the
• Thermosetting cure and the ultimate service life of the coat-
• Thermoplastic ing. Testing and recording these events con-
sumes a significant amount of an inspector’s
• Acrylic resin
time.
• Alkyd
There are two broad classifications of curing
• Chlorinated rubber
mechanisms:
• Epoxy
• Nonconvertible
• Furan
• Convertible
• Latex emulsions
• Phenol

8.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, common functions
of industrial and marine coatings were cov-
ered. In this chapter, individual coatings will
be covered in greater detail.
Topics presented are:
• Curing mechanisms
• Coating types
• Coating systems

©NACE International 2011 Coating Inspector Program Level 1

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8-2 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

8.2.1 Nonconvertible Coatings used, are typically exempted from VOC reg-
Nonconvertible coatings (Figure 8.1) cure ulations.
by evaporation of the solvent. There is no Areas of concern for the coating inspector
chemical change to the resins in nonconvert- are:
ible coatings as they transform from the liq- • Film thickness (typically very thin)
uid to the solid state. Once applied,
• Drying times (typically short)
nonconvertible coatings can be redissolved
in the original solvent. Because they can be • Ventilation in the area being painted
redissolved, these types of coatings are Overcoating these materials can be problem-
sometimes referred to as thermoplastic atic since the solvents in the overcoating
materials. Since it requires a large amount of material may soften or dissolve it.
solvent to dissolve the resin, in many parts
of the world use of nonconvertible coatings
has been limited by VOC regulations.

8.2.1.1.1 Coalescence
Figure 8.1 Nonconvertible (Vinyl) Coatings. Coalescence cure is a specialized case of
Chosen for Ease of Maintenance evaporation cure. In these coatings, tiny par-
ticles of resin are dispersed in water with the
8.2.1.1 Evaporation Cure
aid of specialized additives called surfac-
Dissolving the resin with a suitable solvent tants. When the water evaporates, the resin
makes coatings that cure solely by solvent particles fuse (coalesce) together to form the
evaporation. No chemical change occurs film. Particle fusion is assisted by small
upon evaporation. In fact, this type of coat- quantities of organic solvents (coalescing
ing may redissolve when exposed to the solvents). These types of coatings are also
original solvent or one with similar solvency known as latexes or acrylic latexes, and are
power. Examples include vinyl and chlori- being used more and more.
nated rubber.
Areas of concern for the coating inspector
Many of the antifouling coatings used on are:
ships are nonconvertible and, due to the
• High surface temperature during applica-
nature of the coating and small quantities
tion

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-3

• High wind flow over freshly coated sur-

face
• Excessive film build
• Freezing temperatures

8.2.2.1 Oxidation
Once the solvent evaporates from the film,
these coatings cure by reaction with atmo-
spheric oxygen. The main ingredient of the
8.2.2 Convertible Coatings resin is a drying oil modified with synthetic
molecules. The source of the drying oil is
Convertible coatings cure by one of several
typically a vegetable oil (e.g., soy). Oxygen
polymerization mechanisms, even when sol-
reacts with the oil portion of the resin,
vent evaporation is also involved. The resins
prompting a polymerization reaction known
used in convertible coatings undergo a
as oxidative cross-linking. This reaction can
chemical change as the cure progresses, so
be accelerated by the addition (during manu-
the resulting film is not readily redissolved
facturing) of driers.
in the solvent(s) used in application. These
types of coatings are also known as thermo- Oxidation cure coatings are unsuitable for
set materials. immersion service and cannot withstand an
alkaline environment due to the reaction of
There are a number of types of chemical
alkaline materials with the oil portion of the
reactions that take place. We present the pri-
resin (saponification). It should be noted that
mary chemical reactions in this chapter:
inorganic zinc coatings and galvanizing are
• Oxidation not good primers for most oxidative curing
• Co-reaction (polymerization) materials. A common oxidative cure mate-
• Hydration rial is an alkyd.
• Fusion The major area of concern for the coating
inspector when using an oxidation-cure
material is excessive film build. Even a
slight amount of extra coating can retard the
transmission of the oxygen molecule
through the top portion of the film and stop
the curing of the lower portion of the coating

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8-4 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

film. Wrinkling of the top portion of the These two components are mixed together
coating is a visible sign of excessive film just prior to application. Mix ratios range
thickness. from 1:1 to 100:1 or more, depending on the
material’s chemistry. After mixing, the cure
8.2.2.2 Co-Reaction molecule attaches to the base molecule, and
Co-reaction coatings cure by polymerization then another base molecule attaches to
reactions between at least two chemical enti- another spot on the cure molecule, and so
ties. Polymerization basically means that a on, until nearly all of the molecules are
small molecule is transformed to a larger linked together as a single molecular chain
molecule by a variety of mechanisms. (Figure 8.2).
Polymerization is also referred to as cross For most solvent-borne coatings (those
linking. requiring solvents for application) the first
Co-reaction curing coatings cover a vast step in the curing process is solvent evapora-
range of chemistries. Examples include: tion. For co-reaction coatings the second
• Epoxies step is polymerization, which may take sev-
eral days or even several weeks before the
• Polyurethanes
film develops all of its properties.
• Polyureas
Once mixed together the reaction starts and
• Polyaspartics
the applicator has a limited amount of time
• Polysiloxanes to apply the coating before the reaction
• Others reaches its gel state. The time period when
These coatings generally come from the the mixed material is usable is called pot
manufacturer in two separate containers; one life. The exact amount of time in the pot life
contains the base, and the other contains the varies depending on the chemistry, tempera-
hardener or catalyst (cure). ture, and mass of the mixed material. Some
co-reaction cured coatings also require a

Figure 8.2 Illustration of Cross-Linking

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-5

period of time after mixing but before appli- in the product but also require carbon diox-
cation for the chemical reaction to start; this ide from the surrounding atmosphere to
is referred to as the induction time. complete the cure process.
The coating inspector must confirm that the: The areas of concern for the coating inspec-
• Coating components are the correct ones tor are to ensure that the:
• Mixing ratio is correct • Applied film thickness does not exceed
the specified thickness
• Materials are fully mixed
• Material is not top coated before it is
• Induction time (if required) is observed cured
• Pot life is not exceeded
These materials appear to dry very rapidly
Another concern with many co-reaction — sometimes in a matter of minutes, and at
coatings is the top coating; they must be top a minimum, appear dry and cured in less
coated in a prescribed time frame known as than an hour. It may take as many as 24
the “overcoat window.” It may be only a few hours before it is cured for top coating.
hours or it may be a few days. Missing the
8.2.2.4 Fusion
overcoat window reduces the adhesion of
the topcoat and may cause a premature fail- Fusion is forced-heat curing. It is polymer-
ure of the coating system. Some products ization, but requires a particular temperature
cannot be top coated at all and must be used to complete the cure. Fusion-cured coatings
as a stand-alone single coat system. may be single- or two-component materials.
An example is fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE)
8.2.2.3 Hydration commonly used to coat pipelines in the pet-
Like concrete, hydration coatings require rochemical industry.
some amount of water to complete their
The area of concern for the inspector is to
cure.
ensure the applicator follows the prescribed
Moisture-cured polyurethane is a hydration- heat cycle for the coating in question.
cured coating material. It must have some
level of humidity in the surrounding air for it 8.3 Coating Types
to cure. Industrial and marine coatings are com-
Another example is a solvent-based inor- monly referred to by their generic resin type,
ganic zinc coating based on an ethyl silicate such as alkyd, epoxy, and polyurethane. In
resin. Upon application and solvent evapora- addition, they may be referred to by the type
tion, water from the atmosphere reacts with of resin and the curing agent used, such as
the silicate to form silicic acid. The silicic epoxy amine, where an amine is used as the
acid reacts with the zinc pigment and polym- cure. Still other products contain more then
erization proceeds until full cure. one resin, such as an epoxy acrylic or a sili-
cone alkyd.
A slightly different cure reaction takes place
when using water-based inorganic zincs. The same generic materials from two differ-
These materials use some of the water that is ent manufacturers may have very different
features, depending on the exact formula

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8-6 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

and the manufacturing process used by each. resistance to splash and spill of certain acids.
Each manufacturer has its own blend of These resins are commonly co-reacted with
resin, pigment, additives and solvent, result- other resins to add UV and general weather-
ing in major differences in the serviceability ing resistance to the combined material.
of each one’s particular coating. Acrylics can also be applied as coalescence-
cure emulsions and water dispersions.
8.3.1 Selection
Historically, these were applied as decora-
The selection of a coating is based on many tive coatings rather than for corrosion resis-
factors that include: tance. However, recent improvements in the
• Service environment of the coating: manufacture of water-borne acrylics have
— Interior or exterior created “industrial grade” acrylic coatings
— Immersion or atmospheric with very good corrosion resistant properties
— Chemical along with enhanced color and gloss reten-
— In-service temperature (plus typ- tion.
ical range and upset conditions)
• Substrate being coated Inspector’s area of concern for water-borne
acrylics:
• Size and configuration of item to be
coated • Must be aware of shipping and storage
temperatures; anything below freezing
• Surface preparation available and possible
32°F (0°C) harms the material
at job site
• Application temperature and humidity 8.3.2.2 Alkyds
• Life expectancy of both item being coated, Oxidative curing alkyd coatings sometimes
and coating referred to as “oil-based coatings” or oleo-
• Ability of applicators resins have been in use in one form or
• Availability of application equipment another for thousands of years. Modern day
• Availability of both item to be coated and alkyds are typically a combination of natural
coating material drying oils and synthetic resins. A beneficial
feature of alkyds is that they are single pack-
• Critical safety requirements, e.g., a
nuclear power plant, buried pipeline, or age and are easy to apply with low cost
commercial ship equipment. A negative feature is that they
• Owner’s comfort level with products or can be very slow to cure.
manufacturers Urethane alkyds are alkyd drying oils
• Budget reacted with an isocyanate to produce a hard
and durable film. These materials have been
8.3.2 Generic Types used in the food processing industry and
have proven to stand up well to the neces-
8.3.2.1 Acrylic
sary and constant cleaning required in those
Acrylic resins are primarily polymeric facilities. Urethane alkyds do not normally
derivatives of acrylic and methacrylic acid. have better UV resistance than a standard
Acrylic coatings have excellent UV and alkyd but do have better chemical resistance
weathering resistance and in some cases and a harder more abrasion-resistant finish.

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-7

A small amount of an epoxy resin can be • Ensuring the coating is applied only in a
added to an alkyd coating to make an epoxy very thin film thickness per coat
ester. This single package coating has better • Understanding that sometimes as many as
moisture and chemical resistance than a six (6) coats are needed to achieve full
plain alkyd, but it should not be confused corrosion resistance
with a two-component epoxy which has far • Understanding that chlorinated rubber
higher levels of water and chemical resis- coatings should not be over coated with
tance. two-component coatings

Another common combination of alkyd is 8.3.2.4 Epoxy

with a silicone when the material is used as Epoxy-based coatings were first developed
an exterior coating. The US Navy uses sili- in the mid-to-late 1950s and are now the
cone alkyds as their exterior topcoat on all most widely used industrial and marine pro-
surface ships. tective coating. They are two-component
Inspectors’ areas of concern: coatings packaged in separate containers.
One container holds the epoxy resin (base),
• Need to know the specific type of alkyd
being used and follow the manufacturer’s the other a curing agent (converter). Epoxies
recommended curing times and over-coat get their name from the reactive portion of
information the base, an epoxide (oxirane ring).
• Very important to watch for excessive film Most of the epoxy resins are formed by the
build reaction of bis-phenol A or bis-phenol F
• When an alkyd is used as a shop primer with epichlorohydrin. Numerous modifica-
for industrial equipment it may be neces- tions can be made to optimize coating per-
sary to remove it prior to applying a two
formance. Curing agents include amines,
component coating over it
amides, ketamines, and isocyanates.
• Alkyd-based coatings are not normally
compatible with concrete or zinc-based There are literally hundreds of epoxy resins
materials and curing agents commercially available.
These materials are also used in other appli-
8.3.2.3 Chlorinated Rubber cations, such as adhesives and structural
Evaporation-cure chlorinated rubber coat- repair materials. There are also numerous
ings were one of the earliest corrosion resis- combinations of bases and curing agents.
tant coatings. They were developed in the Epoxies can be solvent-based, water-based,
1930s and widely used in many industries. or essentially solvent-free. Epoxies can also
Chlorinated rubber coatings contain a large be used in powder coating. Epoxies have
quantity of VOCs (regulated materials) and excellent adhesion, chemical resistance,
subsequently its use has been almost elimi- water resistance, and wet adhesion. They are
nated in most parts of the world. They were susceptible to chalking and are normally top
single package materials that exhibited coated with a UV-resistant coating when in
excellent resistance to water, sunlight and atmospheric service.
many petroleum-based chemicals.
Inspector’s concerns include:

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8-8 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

Epoxy resins can be blended with other res- coating. This carbamate is an oily-feeling
ins or special pigments to modify the resis- sticky liquid that cannot be coated over. It
tance characteristics of the basic epoxy: must be removed prior to overcoating.
• Blending with an acrylic resin increases Blush is relatively easy to see with the
UV resistance unaided eye. View the surface under a good
• Blending with a phenolic resin increases light, rub a swab or gloved finger across it to
chemical resistance disturb the oily layer enough to refract the
• Adding glass flakes increases impact and light and the blush becomes visible. Some-
wear resistance times a greasy feel is evidence enough.
• Adding aluminum oxide or other irregular There are a number of commercial methods
shaped material creates a non-skid mate-
to determine if blush is on the surface.
rial
Some epoxies, called epoxy mastics, are 8.3.2.5 Furan
frequently sold and used as “surface tolerant Furan resins, made from organic materials
coatings.” This simply means that the manu- such as corn cobs, oat hulls and others, are
facturer of the material has said their mate- used as cements for acid-resistant brick
rial adheres well to a surface that is not floors and tanks. They have a broad range of
white-metal abrasive cleaned. These materi- chemical resistance including high concen-
als are formulated with excellent flow-out trations of acids, alkalies and salt. This range
and penetration. They also may have an alu- of materials is not a true liquid applied coat-
minum pigment in flake form to aid in ing but is blended with cement to form a
reducing moisture penetration. trowel applied mortar.
Inspector’s concerns for epoxies: These materials are applied by bricklayers,
• Ensure that the correct components are not coating applicators and are not inspected
used in the correct ratio like liquid applied coatings. The coating
• Ensure that the correct film builds are inspector needs to discuss the inspection
achieved during application methods with the manufacturer of the furan
• Ensure that the necessary time frames for materials.
overcoating or in-service exposure are
adhered to 8.3.2.6 Latex Emulsion
• Amine-cured epoxies are especially sensi- Latex emulsions are coatings that can con-
tive to amine blush tain a number of different resin particles that
Blushing is caused by absorption of mois- are covered with an emulsifier to keep them
ture and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere apart in the liquid stage. The resins are nor-
during curing. This can happen when the mally thermoplastic resins such as:
coating is subjected to a drop in temperature • Styrene-butadiene
shortly after application. Carbon dioxide in
• Vinyl acetate
the air along with any moisture that is pres-
ent combines with the amine-curing agent • Vinyl-acrylic
and forms a carbamate on the surface of the • Acrylic esters

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-9

As the water and the emulsifier solvents • Because there is a wide variety of these
leave the film, the particles coalesce into a coatings, be prepared for the inspection by
solid film. carefully reading each specific product
data sheet.
Inspectors’ concern: • Baked-on phenolic coatings require a slow
• Humidity in the area of the coating appli- rise in temperature and strict adherence to
cation must be low enough for the water to the cure schedule.
evaporate efficiently.
8.3.2.8 Polyaspartic
8.3.2.7 Phenolic Initially introduced in the 1990s as reactive
Phenol, also known as carbolic acid, is an diluents in conventional high-solids polyure-
organic chemical used in a very wide variety thane coatings, polyaspartic coatings are
of manufactured items, including: now being used to achieve low- or near-zero
• Food VOC systems.
• Medicine Technically, polyaspartics are aliphatic poly-
• Embalming procedures ureas because these two-component materi-
als involve the reaction between an aliphatic
• Bowling balls
polyisocyanate and a polyaspartic ester (ali-
In its pure form it is a very dangerous chem- phatic diamine). However, they are distin-
ical and burns skin on contact. In fact, it was guished from polyureas because of different
used for executions in World War II. application and performance properties.
As a coating, it has a wide range of applica- Polyaspartics are now being used as finish
tions from thin-film coatings for plywood to coats for exterior applications to replace
thick-film baked-on coatings for lining rail high VOC polyurethane finish coats. Polyas-
cars carrying acid. Phenol resins can be partics can be formulated with a range of
blended with epoxy resins to form an epoxy reaction rates, allowing for pot lives from
phenolic, a product commonly used in con- five minutes to several hours. Thus, these
tainment areas of nuclear power plants. systems can be applied by conventional
Phenolic coatings offer consistent high qual- spray, as well as plural-component spray
ity protection for many applications includ- equipment. Polyaspartics also allow film
ing immersion service for most acids, builds up to 15 mils (380 μm) DFT in a sin-
solvents, and salts. It is typically used in low gle pass.
pH environments and when high tempera- Coating inspectors perform normal inspec-
ture is a factor. Phenolic coatings have tion processes with these coatings, including
excellent resistance to 92–98% sulfuric acid environmental, cleanliness, holiday, and
at temperatures up to 120°F (49°C). They DFT.
are also resistant to hydrochloric acid, phe-
nol, anhydrous chloro-benzene, carbon tetra- 8.3.2.9 Polyester
chloride, and many other chemicals. Industrial and marine grade polyester coat-
Inspectors’ concerns: ings are usually two-component coatings
applied at normal temperature. Polyester

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8-10 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

coatings have a rather short pot life and Advances in polysiloxane chemistry have
should therefore be applied by a two-compo- resulted in the development of three major
nent airless spray equipment (regular airless categories of this type of coating:
spray use is possible with some materials on • Inorganic Polysiloxanes: Typical in-
the market). At 68°F (20°C) the pot life is organic polysiloxanes cure by hydrolytic
approximately 40-45 minutes. Styrene-free polycondensation. Formulated with the
polyester, in which the styrene is replaced proper selection of additives and pig-
with vinyl toluene, can be applied in temper- ments, coatings can resist temperatures of
approximately 1,400°F (760°C). Varia-
atures as low as 41°F (5°C) when applied
tion of pigment creates coatings with
with two-component airless spray equip- excellent solvent resistance.
ment.
• Epoxy-Polysiloxane Hybrids: Formula-
Polyester coatings are quick curing, glass tion with aliphatic epoxy resins, silicone
flake reinforced, high-build coatings. They intermediates, oxysilanes, and aminosi-
have excellent resistance to water and mois- lanes creates weather and corrosion-resis-
tant hybrids. These coatings cure by both
ture, and are widely used in salt- and fresh-
hydrolytic polycondensation and more
water exposures. Polyester coatings have conventional epoxy-amine mechanisms,
been used in petroleum storage tank linings resulting in what are known as interpene-
for 50+ years. trating polymer networks (IPN). The
resulting formulations provide improved
These coatings also have exceptionally high
resistance to weathering over conven-
abrasion resistance making them ideally tional epoxy coatings.
suited for use on decks and walkways, hulls
• Acrylic-Polysiloxane Hybrids: By com-
of icebreakers, tidal and splash zones of bining acrylic and siloxane resins, a low-
steel structures and concrete. VOC, highly weatherable topcoat is pro-
Inspectors’ concerns: duced. These systems can be produced as
one- or two-component systems.
• When used as tank bottom linings and
when impregnated into glass cloth, ensure Each manufacturer of polysiloxane coatings
that all the glass is wetted out completely. makes a compatible primer and intermediate
coating (called a tie coat in this case).
• Hardness tests may be required to ensure
the lining is cured. The coating inspector needs to ensure that
the proper coatings are being used and are
8.3.2.10 Polysiloxanes applied in the proper time frame.
Polysiloxane coatings are used in services
characterized by abrasion, chemicals, 8.3.2.11 Polyurethane
extreme UV and high temperatures. The Polyurethanes are two-component materials
term polysiloxane refers to a polymer with a involving the reaction between a polyisocya-
silicon-oxygen backbone. The silicon-oxy- nate and a poly-functional alcohol. Proper-
gen backbone is much more resistant to the ties of polyurethanes vary from very soft
effects of UV radiation than the carbon-car- polymers to very hard cast materials.
bon backbone of organic polymers.
There are two major types of polyurethanes:
aromatic and aliphatic.

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-11

Aliphatic polyurethanes are more resistant • Most polyurethanes, except moisture

to UV attack and are typically used in exte- cured, are moisture sensitive during and
rior coating formulations. Aliphatic isocya- just after application.
nates, when used in the formulation of 8.3.2.12 Polyureas
polyurethanes, provide coatings with excel-
lent gloss and color retention. With many uses, from truck bed liners, to
coatings for foam statues in amusement
Aromatic polyurethanes are extremely parks, to waste water treatment plant clarifi-
tough and have better chemical resistance in ers, polyureas come in a wide range of for-
immersion than aliphatic types, but chalks mulations. Polyurea users have their own
rapidly in sunlight. They are commonly used trade association, Polyurea Development
in a thin film 1.5–2 mils (75– 100 microns) Association: http://www.pda-online.org/
as the finish coat for exterior exposure in
many industrial, marine, and commercial These two-component, very flexible materi-
applications. als have a very short cure time and may
require special application equipment, such
The main hazard associated with the use of as plural component spray with a mixing
polyurethane chemistries is the toxicity of head in the gun. Reaction time can be as lit-
the isocyanate component. Prolonged expo- tle as 9 seconds. Because of the rapid cure,
sure to isocyanates can cause irreversible they do not adhere well to themselves after a
sensitization problems. Users must follow very short period of time and are commonly
safety precautions identified in the MSDS applied in a single coat.
and by their local safety officer.
Many polyureas require an epoxy primer, as
Polyurethane coatings are available with a their adhesion to steel may not be sufficient
variety of curing times, from less than one for heavy-duty service. They are, however,
minute to several hours. Apply slow curing commonly applied directly to concrete with-
coatings with conventional or airless spray out a primer. They can also be applied to a
equipment or by brush or roller. Use brush backing cloth and used to form lining for an
or roller application for small area touch earthen pond.
ups. Use conventional airless spray systems
to coat large surface areas. It is typical to use A polyurea hybrid currently in use in the
plural-component spray systems to apply field is essentially a very high-build flexible
very rapid cure coating systems, particularly polyurethane. When made in this formula-
for coatings with pot lives of fewer than five tion the material has excellent adhesion to
minutes. The advantage of plural-compo- steel.
nent spray equipment is that the coating Inspectors’ concerns:
components are kept apart until they mix at • When inspecting application of a polyurea
the spray gun. or polyurea hybrid, pay close attention to
Inspectors’ concerns for polyurethanes the mix ratio and heating of the material.
include: • Check the applied DFT at the beginning of
the job to avoid problems later.
• Ensuring the proper materials, compo-
nents, thinners and colors are used.

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8-12 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

• When used on concrete tanks, the patch- • Must watch application and ensure the
ing, filling, and overall design of the sys- film is applied correctly in the usual very
tem is very important and must be thin film 1–2 mils (25–50 microns).
completed prior to application of the lin- • Many silicones require a slow rise in heat
ing. during first use; if temperatures rise too
quickly, the silicone tends to delaminate
8.3.2.13 Silicones on first use of the structure.
Silicones are formed by chemical modifica- • Ensure workers carefully follow the man-
tion of quartz, sand, or silicon and may be ufacturer’s instructions on heat cure.
thought of as hybrids of glass and organic
resins. They have the same inertness as glass 8.3.2.14 Vinyl Esters
but can be incorporated into coatings the Vinyl ester coatings are often referred to as
same way as organic resins. Their major fea- linings. A “lining” in the coating industry is
tures are excellent resistance to high temper- commonly defined as:
atures and UV radiation. However, their
“ ... a material used to protect the inside sur-
resistance to acids is not very good and they
face of a tank, vessel, or similar structures
have a fairly high permeability rate. They
from highly corrosive or potentially highly
are normally used over an anti-corrosive
corrosive environments.”
primer. They cure by a combination of sol-
vent evaporation and heat. Common uses include stack linings in power
plants or linings of tanks and sumps in
Silicones are also used as foul-release coat-
chemical plants.
ings in the marine industry. Foul-release
coating’s surface makes it difficult for Vinyl ester linings are normally two-compo-
marine organisms to attach or stay attached. nent coatings applied at normal temperature.
When ships reach a certain speed, the They are usually applied in thick coats 2 x
marine growth detaches since the “slick” 30 mils (2 x 750 microns). Vinyl ester coat-
coating compromises adhesion to the ship’s ings have a rather short pot life and should
hull. be applied with two-component airless spray
equipment.
An example of a blended silicone is the sili-
cone alkyd discussed in the earlier section They are effective against a wide range of
on alkyds. The major use of silicone coat- chemicals including acids and solvents.
ings is for high temperature service. When Their temperature resistance is also higher
pigmented with aluminum, silicone coat- than most traditional organic coatings, and
ings can withstand temperatures up to they have excellent abrasion resistance when
1,180°F (640°C), and when pigmented with glass flakes are added.
ceramic, they can withstand temperatures up The inspector must ensure the surface is
to 1,400°F (760°C). Silicone coatings are very clean, per NACE 2 (SA 2).
commonly used as topcoats for inorganic
zinc applied to high temperature smoke and 8.3.2.15 Vinyls
exhaust stack exteriors. Vinyl coatings were one of the earliest
Coating inspectors’ concerns: industrial coatings and are still in use as lin-

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-13

ings for water pipes, penstocks and in waste Inorganic zinc is very resistant to a variety
and water plants. Thirty plus years is not an of chemicals and solvents. Zinc ethyl silicate
unusual life span for a well-applied system. (solvent-based) and alkali silicate (water-
Vinyl coatings were also the favorite topcoat based) are often used inside storage tank sol-
for inorganic zinc used on highway bridges vents because of its extremely good solvent
and were also used extensively in the marine resistance. Inorganic zinc coatings generally
industry. However, like the chlorinated rub- are not used in continuous water immersion
ber coatings they were commonly paired service.
with, they contain a large amount of VOCs Typical practice in the use of inorganic zinc
and have been banned from use in most coating systems varies with the exposure
countries. environment and type of structure. One coat
When inspecting these materials, watch the of inorganic zinc, typically 75–125 microns
applied WFT since these materials can be as DFT, is often used for tank linings. The
low as 23% solids and are applied at high water-borne zinc silicate has to be applied
WFT to achieve very low DFTs. For tank with conventional spray. The solvent-borne
and pipeline liners a system of six or seven zinc-ethyl silicate, however, applies
coats in not unusual. extremely well with airless spray. Multiple
topcoats over inorganic zinc coatings are
8.3.2.16 Inorganic Zinc used for offshore structures, ships, industrial
Inorganic zinc (IOZ) is probably the most- plants, refineries, tanks, bridges etc.
used primer for steel structures in the world Inorganic zinc has very high heat resistance
at this time. It was developed in the late with a max of 400°C (750°F).
1950s and has been used worldwide since
then with very few changes in its basic Coating inspector’s concerns:
chemical structure. Perhaps the latest devel- • Solvent-borne ethyl silicate zinc requires
opment is a water-borne version marketed moisture, normally in form of humidity, to
since the early 1990s. It is always used as a cure fully. It appears dry in a very short
period of time but may take up to 24 hours
primer and can only be applied to a blast-
at 50% RH to fully cure before it can be
cleaned steel surface. A common standard top coated.
for cleaning is NACE 2 (SA 2 1/2) for atmo-
• Solvent borne IOZ can be applied at very
sphere service and NACE 1 (SA 3) for
low temperatures, below the freezing
immersion service. point of water.
The primary reason to use a zinc coating is • Water-borne IOZ is limited to tempera-
to have a primer with the ability to provide tures higher than freezing, and requires
cathodic protection. For the cathodic protec- carbon dioxide to cure; it normally takes
tion process to work properly, it is extremely 24 hours to reach a point at which it can be
topcoated.
important that the coating contains a suffi-
cient quantity of zinc, usually above 75% Top coating IOZ requires a special applica-
weight of the dry film for water-borne coat- tion technique: apply a mist coat to barely
ings and 82% for solvent-borne coatings. wet out the surface, then as soon as the sol-
vent flashes off, apply the full top coat. The

©NACE International 2011 Coating Inspector Program Level 1

July 2011
8-14 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

mist coat helps seal the porosity of the inor- • Materials used for one or more layers of
ganic zinc primer so pinholes are not created coating
during the wet-coat application.
Apply inorganic zinc at a normal DFT of
50–75 microns (2–3 mils) and generally no
more than 125 microns (5 mils) to avoid
mud cracking. Inorganic zinc does not
adhere to itself so a second coat should not
be applied. If it is necessary to repair IOZ
the inspector may suggest using organic zinc
or surface-tolerant epoxy mastic.

8.3.2.17 Organic Zinc 8.4.1 Single Coat

Do not confuse organic zinc with inorganic For many years, the main premise was that a
zinc; they are very different coatings. single coat coating system was not sufficient
Organic zinc is an epoxy coating with zinc to protect an industrial structure. However,
filler. Since epoxy resins are very efficient with new technologies, advances in applica-
insulators. They stop the cathodic protection tion equipment, and craft worker training, it
reaction from taking place unless the coating is now possible to have a single coat coating
film is cut, allowing the zinc to come in con- system for certain applications.
tact with the steel. Solvent-free polyurethanes and epoxies are
These materials do serve a function as they now being used in the mainstream business
are commonly used as touch up primers for of corrosion protection. Tank linings, both in
IOZ and for water and salt water immersion the marine industry and in the water and
service, something for which IOZ is not rec- wastewater business, are using these single
ommended. coat systems. Some manufacturers are push-
ing for use in other areas.
Organic zincs are not as application sensi-
tive as IOZ but still require the same inspec- A single coat system requires that the appli-
tion considerations of standard epoxy. cator applies the coating very carefully, and
the inspector carefully inspects the surface
8.4 Coating Systems for holidays or other defects. Specialized
Coating materials are components of coating equipment is necessary and planning the
systems. A coating system is comprised of coating application for ease of access is also
the: very necessary.
• Surface preparation method used 8.4.2 Multiple Coat
• Application equipment and processes
In most cases, a multiple-coat system is used
in industrial and marine coating work. There

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-15

are numerous reasons to use a multiple coat- • Take training about unfamiliar materials
ing system. In many cases certain materials from coating manufacturers and/or unfa-
do an excellent job in one aspect of corro- miliar testing equipment from its manu-
facturers
sion protection but not so well in other areas.
The most common system uses IOZ as the • Review the specification and communi-
cate with the owner if you find inconsis-
primer, mainly because of its excellent adhe-
tencies, or conflicting and/or incorrect
sion to steel and its ability to provide statements
cathodic protection at cuts, thus reducing the
• Confirm and document that the submitted
likelihood of undercutting corrosion. The
coatings match the specification
second coat is normally a high-build epoxy,
• Confirm and document that the colors
used as a barrier coat to reduce moisture
submitted match the specification
penetration to the substrate. The final coat in
an exterior system is typically polyurethane, • Confirm and document that the coating
contractor has all certifications specified
used for its excellent resistance to UV.
by the owner or required by international,
national or local regulations
8.4.3 Compatibility
• Confirm and document that the craft
Not all coatings work well together! A clas- workers have the certifications that are
sic example is applying an alkyd coating specified
over inorganic zinc or galvanizing; the high • Review coating contractors’ plans for
PH of the zinc forms a soap like material. storage of coating materials and confirm
The fatty oil in the alkyd reacts (saponifica- they meet national, local and owners’ fire
tion) between the two coatings. Some alkyds and environmental regulations
modified with phenol prevent saponifica- • Review the contractors’ equipment plan
tion. and confirm that he intends to use the cor-
rect application equipment and procedures
Another common mistake is applying a as required by the specification and the
chemical-cure coating over a solvent-evapo- coating manufacturers’ requirements
ration cure coating. The strong solvents in • Confirm that sufficient quantities of coat-
the topcoat soften the undercoat; the stress ing materials have been ordered
of curing the topcoat pulls the softened
• Confirm that all the required testing
material from the surface. equipment for the project are at hand

8.4.4 Inspection Steps for Coatings • Test all of equipment (including PPE) to
ensure it is in working order and all spare
8.4.4.1 Prior to Job Start Up parts and batteries are on hand

• Acquire and read the project specification • Set up any computer-related documenta-
tion system needed
• Acquire and read all coating work related
documents that are in the reference section • Arrange for any laboratory testing of sup-
of the project specification plied coatings required by the specifica-
tion
• Acquire and read all product data sheets
for specified coatings • Be aware of all environmental and dis-
posal regulations

©NACE International 2011 Coating Inspector Program Level 1

July 2011
8-16 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

8.4.4.2 Upon Arrival of Coating • Inspect and document that any required
Materials environmental controls are in place and
working properly, report any problems to
Confirm that the materials received are the
the coating supervisor prior to application
approved materials:
• Confirm that materials brought to job
• Document the overall condition of the as- location from storage are the correct mate-
received materials rials and colors for each phase of project
• Document the batch numbers as printed • Observe and document the amount of
on each unit of material material and batch numbers of material to
• Document the date of manufacture and be applied
reject any material past its shelf life • Observe and document that the correct
• Confirm that the thinners and cleaners components are being used for multicom-
received match the technical specifica- ponent materials
tions from the coating manufacturer and • Confirm and document that the equipment
any special requirements of the owner to be used is the correct equipment for the
• Draw samples to send to laboratory for application
testing if required by specification • Confirm and document that equipment set
• Confirm that sufficient quantities of all up meets owners’ requirements
materials have been received • Observe and document any approved por-
• Confirm and document the storage condi- tioning of the materials
tions and temperatures • Observe and document the mixing of the
• Confirm and document that the storage materials
conditions meet the coating manufactur- • Observe and document the addition of any
ers’ and owners’ requirements and any thinner
government regulations
• Observe and document the visual appear-
• Confirm and document that the necessary ance of the mixed material and report any
components in the correct quantity are irregularities to the project supervisor
available before the material is used
• Confirm and document that the correct • Observe and document any required
colors have been received induction time
8.4.4.3 At Application Start Up • Observe and document the beginning of
pot life if necessary for the material in use
• Confirm and document that all surface
preparation has been accomplished and • Review your test equipment instructions
that the surface meets the required clean- • Check and document the calibration of
ing standard at the time of application your inspection equipment
• Confirm and document that environmental
conditions are within the range for the 8.4.4.4 During Application
material being used • Observe pot life during application and
• Inspect and document that all required report to the project supervisor if the
masking is in position and in working material has reached the end of its pot life
order, report any problems to the coating • Document the use of any material that was
supervisor prior to application applied after the end of its pot life

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-17

• Observe and document application of 8.4.4.6 At the End of the Project

material, report any observed problems as
• Observe and document the cleanup of the
soon as possible to the project supervisor
project site
• Check and document wet film thickness if
• Document all materials left over and how
required
they are to be disposed of with regard to
• Observe and document that the applicator regulatory requirements
checked WFT at regular intervals during
• Complete and deliver all reports
application
• Visually check application for equipment
problems and workmanship during appli-
cation
• Report any observed problems as soon as
possible to project supervisor
• Document all observed application irregu-
larities and how they were repaired
• Check for holidays, pinholes and other
irregularities of the applied material as
soon as reasonable during and at the end
of the application
• Observe and document time frame and
environmental conditions between each
coat
• Inspect the cleanliness of each coat prior
to application of additional material

8.4.4.5 After Material Has Cured

• Visually observe and document any holi-
days
• Perform holiday test if required and in
accordance with the specification
• Test and document the DFT of the applied
material after it has cured and in accor-
dance with the specified procedure
• Test (adjust if necessary and allowed),
confirm, and document the accuracy of
any gauges you use at the beginning and
the end of each shift
• Perform any other tests such as hardness,
color, or gloss that may be specified
• Observe and document any repairs to the
coating system made necessary by your
inspection

©NACE International 2011 Coating Inspector Program Level 1

July 2011
8-18 Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms

Key Terms Definitions

Acrylic: A type of resin polymerized from acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, esters of these acids,
or acrylonitrile.
Alkyd: A type of resin formed by the reaction of polyhydric alcohols and polybasic acids, part
of which is derived from saturated or unsaturated oils or fats.
Convertible Coatings: Coatings that cure by one of several polymerization mechanisms,
even when solvent evaporation is also involved.
Chlorinated Rubber: One of the earliest corrosion resistant coatings; developed in the 1930s,
they were widely used in many industries. Chlorinated rubber contains a large amount of
VOC and its use has been almost eliminated in most parts of the world.
Curing: Chemical process of developing the intended properties of a coating or other material
(e.g., resin) over a period of time.
Epoxy: A type of resin formed by the reaction of aliphatic or aromatic polyols (such as
bisphenol) with epichlorohydrin and characterized by the presence of reactive oxirane end
groups.
Furan: A type of resin formed by the polymerization or polycondensation of furfuryl, furfuryl
alcohol, or other compounds containing a furan ring.
Latex Emulsions: Coatings that can contain a number of different resin particles that are cov-
ered with an emulsifier to keep them apart in the liquid stage.
Nonconvertible Coatings: Coatings that cure by evaporation of the solvent. There is no
chemical change to the resins as they transform from the liquid to solid state.
Phenol: An organic chemical used in a very wide variety of manufactured items. Also known
as carbolic acid.
Thermosetting: A coating that is formed as a result of a chemical cross-linking reaction (oxi-
dation, polymerization, chemical additive reaction, heat, or a combination of these).
Thermoplastic: A material capable of being repeatedly softened by heat and hardened by
cooling.

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Coating Types and Curing Mechanisms 8-19

Study Guide ________________________________

________________________________
1. The two (2) broad classification for cur- ________________________________
ing mechanisms are: ________________________________
________________________________ ________________________
________________________________
________________________________
6. Induction time is:
________________________________
________________________________
________________
________________________________
________________________________
2. List two (2) non-convertible coating ________________________________
types. ________________
________________________________
________________________________
7. What is a main requirement for a hydra-
________________________________
tion coating to cure?
________________________________
________________________________
________________
________________________________
________________________________
3. List three (3) convertible coating curing ________________________________
mechanisms. ________________________________
________________________________ ________________________________
________________________________ ________________________
________________________________
________________________________
8. Industrial and marine coatings are com-
________________________________
monly referred to by:
________________________________
________________________________
________________________
________________________________
________________________________
4. List two (2) characteristics of oxidation ________________________________
cure coatings. ________________
________________________________
________________________________
9. Oil based coatings applied over alkaline
________________________________
surfaces may result in:
________________________________
________________________________
________________
________________________________
________________________________
5. List three (3) coatings types that cure by ________________________________
polymerization. ________________
________________________________
________________________________

©NACE International 2011 Coating Inspector Program Level 1

July 2011