2

Polynomials and their Zeros

2.1 Introduction
The most basic set of numbers is the integers. In a similar manner, the
most basic set of functions is the polynomials. Because polynomials have
so many applications and are relatively easy to manipulate, they appear in
many of the problems on the AMC.

D EFINITION 1 A polynomial of degree n has the form

P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

for some collection of constants a0 , a1 , . . . , an , with leading coefficient

an
= 0. We will assume these constants are all real numbers.

One of the most commonly needed features of a polynomial is the

location of those values of x such that P(x) = 0.

D EFINITION 2 A zero r of a polynomial P(x) is a number with P(r ) = 0.

A zero of a polynomial is also called a root of the equation P(x) = 0.

A number r is a zero of a polynomial P(x) if and only if P(x) has a

factor of the form (x − r ). The number of such factors gives the multiplicity
of the zero.

D EFINITION 3 A zero r of the polynomial P(x) is said to have multiplicity

m if there is a polynomial Q(x) with

P(x) = (x − r )m Q(x) and Q(r )
= 0.

9
10 First Steps for Math Olympians

A zero of multiplicity m = 1 is called a simple zero.

For example, the number 2 is a simple zero of

P(x) = x 2 − 4 = (x − 2)(x + 2),

but is a zero of multiplicity 3 of the polynomial

P(x) = x 4 − 6x 3 + 12x 2 − 8x = (x − 2)3 · x.

In section 2.4 we will consider a number of results concerning gen-

eral polynomials and their zeros, but we will first look at polynomials with
degree 1 and 2, since these are seen on nearly every AMC 10 and AMC 12.

2.2 Lines
The most elementary polynomials are those described by linear equations,
those whose graphs are straight lines. The equation of a non-vertical line is
completely determined by a point (x1 , y1 ) on the line and its slope m, as

y − y1 = m(x − x1 ) or as y = mx + b, where b = y1 − mx1 .

The form y = mx + b is called the slope-intercept form of the line because

b tells where the line intersects the y-axis. Any two distinct points (x1 , y1 )
and (x2 , y2 ) can be used to find the slope of the line as
y2 − y1
m= .
x2 − x1
Since lines are likely to be familiar to any reader of this material, we
will not review linear equations except to remark that:

• Two non-vertical lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are the
same.
• Two non-vertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of
their slopes is −1.

2.3 Quadratic Polynomials

There are some results about quadratic polynomials, those with the form
P(x) = ax 2 + bx + c, where a
= 0, that can frequently be used to solve
AMC problems. The first of these describes how the zeros of these equa-
tions relate to the values of the coefficients.
Polynomials and their Zeros 11

Result 1 Zero-Coefficient Relationship for Quadratic Polynomials: Sup-

pose that r1 and r2 are zeros of a quadratic polynomial of the form
P(x) = x 2 + bx + c. Then

x 2 + bx + c = (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) = x 2 − (r1 + r2 )x + r1r2 ,

so c = r1r2 and b = −(r1 + r2 ).

Result 2 Completing the Square: Completing the square of a quadratic

polynomial permits us to write the quadratic in a form that eliminates the
linear term. This is a valuable technique for many applications in math-
ematics, so problem posers often construct problems that incorporate this
method.
Suppose that P(x) = ax 2 + bx + c. Then we can write


b
ax + bx + c = a x + x + c.
2 2
a

If we add the term (b/(2a))2 inside the parentheses, we have a perfect

square. We must, of course, compensate by subtracting a(b/(2a))2 outside
the parentheses. This gives

2 
2
b b b
ax + bx + c = a x + x +
2 2
+c−a
a 2a 2a


b 2 4ac − b2
=a x+ + .
2a 4a

The graph of the quadratic equation is a parabola whose vertex is at the

value of x that makes the squared term zero, that is, at


b b 4ac − b2
x =− with P − = .
2a 2a 4a

• When a > 0, the parabola opens upward and the value of P at the
vertex gives the minimal value of P(x).
• When a < 0, the parabola opens downward and the value of P at the
vertex gives the maximum value of P(x).
• The larger the magnitude of a the narrower the graph of the parabola.
12 First Steps for Math Olympians

y y
a>1 a=1 0 > a > 21

0<a<1

x x
a =21 a <21

Result 3 The Quadratic Formula: For the general quadratic polynomial

of the form

P(x) = ax 2 + bx + c,

completing the square provides us with the Quadratic Formula, which

states that if P(x) = 0, then
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

The discriminant b2 − 4ac tells us the character of the zeros.

• If b2 − 4ac > 0, there are two distinct real zeros.

• If b2 − 4ac = 0, there is one (double) real zero.
• If b2 − 4ac < 0, there are two complex zeros, which are complex
conjugates of one another.

Finally, the graph of the quadratic polynomial P(x) = ax 2 + bx + c is

symmetric about the line x = −b/(2a), as shown in the figure.

y
b
x = 2 2a

x
Polynomials and their Zeros 13

2.4 General Polynomials

For general polynomials we have a number of useful results:

Result 1 The Linear Factor Theorem: If P(x) has degree n and is divided
by the linear factor (x − c), then

P(x) = (x − c)Q(x) + P(c)

for some polynomial Q(x) of degree n − 1. The linear term (x − c) is a

factor of the polynomial P(x) if and only if P(c) = 0.

Result 2 A General Factor Theorem: If P(x) has degree n and is divided

by a polynomial D(x) of degree m < n with

P(x) = D(x) · Q(x) + R(x),

then the quotient Q(x) is a polynomial of degree n − m and the remainder

R(x) is a polynomial of degree less than m.

Result 3 The Rational Zero Test: Suppose that a0 , a1 , . . . , an are inte-

gers, an
= 0, and p/q is a rational zero of

P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 .

Then p divides a0 and q divides an .

Result 4 Zeros-Coefficient Relationship for General Polynomials: General

polynomials of the form

P(x) = x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0

have a zero-coefficient relationship similar to that of quadratics. Specifi-

cally:

If the n zeros of P(x) are r1 , r2 , . . . , rn , then

x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a2 x 2 + a1 x + a0 = (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) · · · (x − rn ).

By equating the powers on both sides of the equation we have

−an−1 = r1 + r2 + · · · + rn = (the sum of all the zeros),

an−2 = r1r2 + r1r3 + · · · + rn−1rn
= (the sum of the zeros taken two at a time),
14 First Steps for Math Olympians

and

(−1)n a0 = r1r2 · · · rn = (the product of all the zeros).

These are the most frequently used formulas, but there is also a general
result that holds for each i = 0, 1, . . . , n:

(−1)i an−i = r1r2r3 · · · ri + r1r2r4 · · · ri+1 + · · · + rn−i+1 · · · rn−2rn−1rn

= (the sum of the zeros taken i at a time).

R ESULT 5 Some other useful facts about polynomials P(x) are that

• P(0) is the constant term of P(x):

P(0) = a0 + a1 · 0 + a2 · 02 + · · · + an · 0n = a0 .

• P(1) is the sum of the coefficients of P(x):

P(1) = a0 + a1 + a2 + · · · + an .

• P(−1) is the alternating sum of the coefficients of P(x):

P(−1) = a0 − a1 + a2 + · · · + (−1)n an .

Result 6 Descarte’s Rule of Signs: Let P(x) be a polynomial with real

coefficients. Then

• the number of positive zeros of P(x) is either equal to the number of

variations in sign of P(x) or less than this by an even number;
• the number of negative real zeros of P(x) is either equal to the number
of variations in sign of P(−x) or less than this by an even number.

For example, the polynomial P(x) = x 5 + 4x 4 − x 3 − 2x 2 + 3x − 1

has either 3 or 1 positive real zeros, and since P(−x) = −x 5 + 4x 4 + x 3 −
2x 2 − 3x − 1 it has either 2 or 0 negative real zeros.

The final result concerning zeros of polynomials was first proved by

Carl Fredrich Gauss, one of the greatest of all mathematicians. In this chap-
ter we will only be concerned with the zeros that are real numbers. In Chap-
ter 18 we will reconsider this result in the case that the zeros are complex
numbers.
Polynomials and their Zeros 15

Result 7 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: Suppose that

P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

is a polynomial of degree n > 0 with real or complex coefficients. Then

P(x) has at least one real or complex zero.
In fact,

• P(x) has precisely n zeros, when a zero of multiplicity m is counted

m times.
• If the coefficients of

P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0

are all real numbers and z is a complex zero of P(x) with multipli-
city m, then its complex conjugate z is also a zero of P(x) with multi-
plicity m.

Examples for Chapter 2

The first Example is number 5 from the 1988 AHSME.

E XAMPLE 1 Suppose that b and c are constants and

(x + 2)(x + b) = x 2 + cx + 6.

What is c?
(A) −5 (B) −3 (C) −1 (D) 3 (E) 5

Answer (E) The factored form of the polynomial implies that its zeros are
−2 and −b. By Result 1 of section 2.3, the product of the zeros, 2b, is the
constant term of the polynomial, which is 6. Hence b = 3. In addition, the
linear term, c, is the negative of the sum of the zeros. Thus

c = −(−2 − b) = 2 + b = 2 + 3 = 5.

The second Example is number 13 from the 1986 AHSME.

E XAMPLE 2 A parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c has vertex (4, 2), and (2, 0) is

on the graph of the parabola. What is abc?
(A) −12 (B) −6 (C) 0 (D) 6 (E) 12
16 First Steps for Math Olympians

Answer (E) We will look at two solutions to this problem.

For the first approach, we use the fact that the vertex is at (4, 2), and
complete the square of the quadratic to give

y = a(x − 4)2 + 2.

Since y = 0 when x = 2, we have

1
0 = a(2 − 4)2 + 2 = 4a + 2 so a = − .
2
Hence
1 1
y = − (x − 4)2 + 2 = − x 2 + 4x − 6,
2 2
so a = −1/2, b = 4, c = −6, and abc = 12.

OR

The second approach uses the symmetry of quadratics about the verti-
cal line through the vertex. Since (2, 0) is on the graph and x = 4 passes
through the vertex, the point (6, 0) is also on the graph.

2 4 6 x

The zeros are 2 and 6 so the quadratic has the form

y = a(x − 2)(x − 6).

Since y = 2 when x = 4 we have

1
2 = a(4 − 2)(4 − 6) and a = − .
2
Hence
1 1
y = − (x − 2)(x − 6) = − x 2 + 4x − 6,
2 2
and abc = − 12 (4)(−6) = 12.
Polynomials and their Zeros 17

The final Example is number 15 from the 1988 AHSME.

E XAMPLE 3 Suppose that a and b are integers such that x 2 − x − 1 is a

factor of ax 3 + bx 2 + 1. What is b?
(A) −2 (B) −1 (C) 0 (D) 1 (E) 2

Answer (A) Dividing ax 3 + bx 2 + 1 by x 2 − x − 1 gives

ax 3 + bx 2 + 1 = (ax + (a + b))(x 2 − x − 1) + (2a + b)x + (a + b + 1),

so the remainder is

(2a + b)x + (a + b + 1).

Since x 2 − x − 1 is a factor of ax 3 + bx 2 + 1, this remainder is zero, so the

linear and constant terms of the remainder must both be zero, that is,

2a + b = 0 and a + b + 1 = 0.

So b = −2a and 0 = a − 2a + 1 = 1 − a, which implies that

a=1 and b = −2(1) = −2.

Exercises for Chapter 2

Exercise 1 Let P(x) be a linear polynomial with P(6) − P(2) = 12. What
is P(12) − P(2)?
(A) 12 (B) 18 (C) 24 (D) 30 (E) 36

Exercise 2 Let x1
= x2 be such that 3x12 − hx1 = b and 3x22 − hx2 = b.

What is x1 + x2 ?
h h b b
(A) − (B) (C) (D) 2b (E) −
3 3 3 3

Exercise 3 What is the remainder when x 51 + 51 is divided by x + 1?

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 49 (D) 50 (E) 51

Exercise 4 What is the maximum number of points of intersection of the

graphs of two different fourth-degree polynomial functions y = P(x) and
y = Q(x), each with leading coefficient 1?
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4 (E) 8
18 First Steps for Math Olympians

Exercise 5 The parabola with equation y(x) = ax 2 + bx + c and vertex

(h, k) is reflected about the line y = k. This results in the parabola with
equation yr (x) = d x 2 + ex + f . Which of the following equals a + b + c +
d +e+ f?
(A) 2b (B) 2c (C) 2a + 2b (D) 2h (E) 2k

Exercise 6 Let P(x) be a polynomial which when divided by x − 19 has

the remainder 99, and when divided by x − 99 has the remainder 19. What
is the remainder when P(x) is divided by (x − 19)(x − 99)?
(A) −x + 80 (B) x + 80 (C) −x + 118 (D) x + 118 (E) 0

Exercise 7 The polynomial P(x) = x 3 + ax 2 + bx + c has the property

that the average of its zeros, the product of its zeros, and the sum of its
coefficients are all equal. The y-intercept of the graph of y = P(x) is 2.
What is b?
(A) −11 (B) −10 (C) −9 (D) 1 (E) 5

Exercise 8 Suppose that P (x/3) = x 2 + x + 1. What is the sum of all

values of x for which P(3x) = 7?
1 1 5 5
(A) − (B) − (C) 0 (D) (E)
3 9 9 3

Exercise 9 For how many values of the coefficient a do the equations

0 = x 2 + ax + 1 and 0 = x 2 − x − a

have a common real solution?

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3 (E) infinitely many

Exercise 10 The solutions of the equation x 2 + px + q = 0 are the cubes

of the solutions of the equation x 2 + mx + n = 0. Which of the following
must be true?
(A) p = m 3 + 3mn (B) p = m 3 − 3mn (C) p = 3mn − m 3
 m 3 p
(D) p + q = m 3 (E) =
n q