REPORTER: FAMILA ESTRADA

Structuralism: A Framework for Understanding

Structuralism, as an intellectual movement, offers a powerful lens through which to analyze human culture
and behavior. It emphasizes the importance of understanding phenomena in relation to broader systems and
underlying structures, rather than focusing solely on individual elements.

Key Concepts and Principles:

 The Importance of Relationships: Structuralism posits that elements within a system derive their
meaning and significance from their relationships with other elements. This is analogous to how
words in a language acquire meaning through their connections and contrasts with other words.
 Underlying Structures: Structuralists believe that beneath the surface variations of cultural
phenomena, there exist constant and universal laws of abstract structure. These structures are not
directly observable but can be inferred through analysis of the relationships between elements.
 Binary Oppositions: Structuralist analysis often relies on the identification of binary oppositions,
such as male/female, nature/culture, or good/evil. These pairs of opposing concepts are seen as
fundamental to human thought and categorization.
 The "Third Order": Structuralists argue that a specific domain of culture, like a kinship system or
a literary text, can be understood through a structure that is distinct from both the actual reality and
the realm of ideas. This "third order" represents a level of abstraction that reveals the underlying
logic of the system.

Origins and Influences:

 Ferdinand de Saussure: Saussure's structural linguistics, particularly his distinction

between langue (the abstract system of language) and parole (the actual use of language), provided
the foundation for structuralism. He argued that signs gain meaning from their relationships and
contrasts with other signs, not from their inherent connection to the objects they represent.

Structuralist literary criticism focuses on analyzing the underlying structures of texts, such as narrative
patterns, character archetypes, and themes. It seeks to uncover the ways in which these structures contribute
to the overall meaning of the work.

Poststructuralism: Deconstructing the Structures of Meaning

Poststructuralism, a philosophical movement that emerged in the 1960s, represents a critical response to the
limitations of structuralism. While structuralism sought to uncover the underlying structures of language
and culture, poststructuralism challenges the very notion of fixed structures and universal truths.

Key Tenets and Concepts:

 Deconstruction: A central concept in poststructuralism, deconstruction challenges the idea that

language and meaning are stable and objective. It argues that language is inherently unstable and
open to multiple interpretations, with no single "true" meaning.
 Rejection of Binary Oppositions: Poststructuralists reject the idea that binary oppositions (like
male/female, nature/culture, or good/evil) are fixed and hierarchical. They argue that these categories
are fluid and subject to change, with no inherent superiority of one term over the other.
 Emphasis on Language and Discourse: Poststructuralists believe that language is not a neutral tool
but a powerful force that shapes our understanding of the world. They emphasize the role of
 discourse, or the way we talk about things, in constructing meaning and shaping our perceptions of
reality.
 Rejection of Universal Truths: Poststructuralists reject the idea of universal truths and emphasize
the importance of context and perspective in understanding human experience. They argue that
knowledge is always situated and contingent, shaped by power relations and social structures.

Key Figures and Works:

 Jacques Derrida: Derrida's work on deconstruction is considered foundational to poststructuralism.

His concept of "différance" highlights the inherent instability of language and the impossibility of
arriving at a fixed meaning.
 Michel Foucault: Foucault explored the relationship between power, knowledge, and discourse. He
argued that power operates through the creation and control of knowledge, and that discourse is not
simply a reflection of reality but a way of shaping it.
 Roland Barthes: Barthes' work focused on the semiotic analysis of culture, questioning the
authority of the author and emphasizing the role of the reader in constructing meaning. His famous
essay "The Death of the Author" argues that the author's intention is irrelevant to the meaning of a
text.

Literary Criticism: Poststructuralist literary criticism challenges traditional approaches to interpreting

texts, emphasizing the reader's role in constructing meaning and the instability of authorial intent.

New Historicism and Cultural Materialism: Contextualizing Literature and Culture

New historicism and cultural materialism are two influential approaches to literary and cultural studies that
emerged in the late 20th century. While they share a focus on understanding texts within their historical and
social contexts, they differ in their emphasis and methodologies.

New Historicism: Intertwining Text and Context

New historicism, primarily associated with Stephen Greenblatt, emphasizes the reciprocal relationship
between literature and history. It argues that literary texts are not simply reflections of their time but also
actively shape and contribute to the cultural and intellectual landscape.

Key Principles:

 History as a "Text": New historicists see history as a complex tapestry of interconnected

discourses, power structures, and social practices, all of which can be analyzed as "texts." This
approach encourages the study of a wide range of historical documents, including diaries, letters,
legal records, and even material artifacts, alongside literary texts.
 Power Dynamics: New historicism emphasizes the role of power in shaping both literature and
history. It draws heavily on Michel Foucault's theories of power, knowledge, and discourse,
exploring how power relations are embedded in social institutions, cultural practices, and literary
texts.
 The Critic's Positionality: New historicists acknowledge that their own interpretations are shaped
by their historical context and perspective. They strive to be aware of their own biases and to engage
in a dialogue with the past, recognizing that history is not a fixed or objective entity but a contested
and fluid field of knowledge.

Cultural Materialism: Material Conditions and Cultural Production

Cultural materialism, associated with Raymond Williams, focuses on the material conditions and social
practices that shape cultural production. It emphasizes the role of class, gender, race, and other social
categories in shaping cultural meanings and power relations.

Key Principles:

 Culture as a "Productive Process": Cultural materialists view culture as a dynamic and contested
process that is shaped by economic, political, and social forces. They analyze how cultural products,
including literature, reflect and reinforce, or challenge, existing power structures.
 Hegemony and Resistance: Cultural materialists draw on Antonio Gramsci's concept of hegemony,
which refers to the dominant ideology or worldview that shapes a society. They explore how cultural
products are used to maintain or challenge hegemonic power. They also analyze how marginalized
groups resist dominant ideologies and create alternative cultural forms.
 "High" and "Low" Culture: Cultural materialists reject the traditional distinction between "high"
and "low" culture, arguing that all forms of cultural production are worthy of study. They often focus
on popular culture, recognizing its significance in shaping social values and beliefs.

Comparing and Contrasting:

 Focus: New historicism emphasizes the interplay between literature and history, while cultural
materialism focuses on the material conditions and social practices that shape cultural production.
 Methodology: New historicism often involves a close reading of texts alongside historical
documents, while cultural materialism utilizes a more Marxist-inspired approach, analyzing power
dynamics and social inequalities.
 Political Engagement: Cultural materialists tend to be more explicitly political in their analyses,
seeking to expose and challenge power structures, while new historicists often adopt a more nuanced
and complex approach to power.

Conclusion:
Both new historicism and cultural materialism offer valuable frameworks for understanding literature and
culture in their historical and social contexts. They challenge traditional approaches that view literary texts
as isolated works of art, instead emphasizing the interconnectedness of texts, history, and social forces. By
engaging with these approaches, we can gain a deeper understanding of the ways in which literature reflects
and shapes the world around us.

Ethnic Studies and Postcolonial Criticism: Intertwined Perspectives on Power and Identity
Ethnic studies and postcolonial criticism, though distinct fields, share a crucial common ground: the
examination of power dynamics, cultural representation, and the experiences of marginalized groups. Both
disciplines offer critical lenses for understanding the enduring legacies of colonialism and its impact on
identity, representation, and social justice.

Ethnic Studies: Centering the Voices of the Marginalized

Ethnic studies emerged in the 1960s as a response to the lack of representation and understanding of the
experiences of people of color in academia. It focuses on the critical and interdisciplinary study of race,
ethnicity, and indigeneity, emphasizing the perspectives and voices of historically marginalized
communities.

Key Features of Ethnic Studies:

  Decentering Whiteness: Ethnic studies aims to decenter dominant white narratives and
perspectives, focusing on the experiences of people of color from their own perspectives. It
challenges Eurocentric biases and seeks to reclaim agency for marginalized communities.
 Intersectionality: Ethnic studies recognizes that race and ethnicity are not isolated categories but
intersect with other axes of power, such as gender, class, sexuality, and ability. This intersectional
lens allows for a more nuanced understanding of the complexities of identity and oppression.
 Social Justice and Activism: Ethnic studies is deeply rooted in social justice movements and aims
to challenge systemic inequalities and promote social change. It provides a framework for
understanding and addressing issues of racism, discrimination, and cultural appropriation.

Postcolonial Criticism: Examining the Legacies of Colonialism

Postcolonial criticism emerged in the late 20th century, analyzing the impact of colonialism on cultures,
societies, and literature. It focuses on the power dynamics between colonizers and the colonized,
examining how colonial ideologies and narratives have shaped identities, representation, and the struggle for
liberation.

Key Concepts in Postcolonial Criticism:

 Hybridity: Postcolonial criticism recognizes that colonial encounters have led to the creation of
hybrid identities, where cultures and traditions have blended and transformed. It explores how these
hybrid identities challenge fixed categories and offer new perspectives on belonging. [3]
 Decolonization: Postcolonial criticism examines the process of decolonization, both politically and
culturally. It analyzes how formerly colonized nations and communities reclaim their narratives,
languages, and cultural practices, challenging the legacies of colonial domination. [3]
 Representation and "The Other": Postcolonial criticism explores how colonial discourse
constructs "the other," often portraying colonized peoples as inferior, exotic, or irrational. It critiques
these representations and seeks to give voice to marginalized perspectives. [3]

Convergence and Intersections:

Ethnic studies and postcolonial criticism share a common goal of challenging dominant narratives and
promoting social justice. They both recognize the enduring impact of colonialism and its role in shaping
racial and ethnic identities.

 Shared Focus on Power Dynamics: Both fields examine the ways in which power structures,
including colonialism, racism, and imperialism, have shaped cultural production, representation, and
social inequalities.
 Emphasis on Marginalized Voices: Both disciplines prioritize the voices and experiences of
historically marginalized groups, seeking to give them agency and visibility.
 Critical Analysis of Representation: Both fields critically analyze how cultural products, including
literature, film, and art, represent and reinforce, or challenge, dominant ideologies and power
structures.

Conclusion:
Ethnic studies and postcolonial criticism offer powerful frameworks for understanding the complexities of
race, ethnicity, and colonialism. By engaging with these disciplines, we can gain a deeper understanding of
the historical and contemporary challenges faced by marginalized communities and work towards a more
just and equitable society.
REPORTER: JESSEL PAGULONG

Overview of LiteraryTheories, Modern Literary Criticism and Schools of Thought

Literary Theories

Sets of ideas and principles that guide the analysis and interpretation of literary texts. They offer
frameworks for understanding the nature of literature, its relationship to society, and the ways in which
meaning is created and communicated.

Modern Literary Criticism: Applying Theories to Texts

Modern literary criticism is the practice of applying literary theories to specific texts. It involves analyzing
literary works, identifying their key themes, and interpreting their deeper meanings through the lens of a
particular theoretical framework.

Focus: More diverse, including reader response, social and cultural contexts, language and its
ambiguities, and power dynamics.
Methods: Reader-response theory, feminist criticism, Marxist criticism, postcolonial criticism,
deconstruction, new historicism.

Schools of Thought: Diverse Perspectives on Literature

Broader theoretical frameworks that include multiple literary theories and critical approaches. They
represent distinct perspectives on literature and its relationship to the world.

Traditional Literary Criticism

 Includes a range of approaches to analyzing and interpreting literary works, focusing primarily on
the text itself and its inherent qualities. This approach often prioritizes the author's intent, the
historical context of the work, and its formal elements, such as plot, character, and theme.
1. Characteristics of Traditional Literary Criticism
 Focus on the Text: Traditional critics prioritize a close reading of the text, examining its
language, structure, and literary devices. They aim to understand the work's internal coherence
and how its elements work together to create meaning.
 Authorial Intent: Traditional critics often seek to understand the author's purpose in writing the
work, considering their biographical background, historical context, and cultural influences. They
believe that understanding the author's intentions can shed light on the meaning and significance
of the text.
 Historical Context: Traditional critics recognize the importance of understanding the historical
and cultural context in which a work was written. They consider the social, political, and
economic conditions that shaped the author's worldview and the work's reception.
 Formal Elements: Traditional critics pay close attention to the formal elements of literature,
such as plot, character, setting, theme, and style. They analyze how these elements contribute to
the overall meaning and effect of the work.
 Objectivity: Traditional critics strive for objectivity in their analysis, aiming to avoid personal
biases or subjective interpretations. They rely on evidence from the text and its historical context
to support their claims.

Historical Development of Traditional Literary Criticism

  Traditional literary criticism has its roots in ancient Greece, with the works of Plato and Aristotle
laying the foundation for Western literary theory. Plato, in his Republic, viewed poetry as a form of
imitation that could potentially mislead audiences, while Aristotle, in his Poetics, argued that poetry
could have a positive influence on the human mind through its ability to evoke emotions and provide
moral instruction.
 During the Renaissance, Sir Philip Sidney championed the idea of "poetic justice," arguing that
literature should uphold moral values and reward virtue while punishing vice.
 The Neoclassical period saw critics like John Dryden and Samuel Johnson emphasize the
importance of reason, restraint, and good taste in literature.
 The 19th century witnessed the rise of Romanticism, which emphasized the power of imagination
and emotion in literature. Critics like Samuel Taylor Coleridge explored the concept of
"imagination" as a creative force, while Matthew Arnold advocated for a "disinterested" approach to
literary criticism, emphasizing the importance of understanding and appreciating the best works of
literature.

In conclusion, literary theories, modern literary criticism, and schools of thought are essential for
understanding literature. Literary theories offer frameworks for interpreting texts, while modern criticism
applies these theories to analyze specific works. Traditional literary criticism focuses on the text itself,
considering the author’s intent and historical context. Throughout history, these approaches have evolved,
from ancient Greek ideas to modern perspectives, enriching our appreciation of literature and its meaning.
Understanding these concepts ultimately enhances our reading and interpretation of literary works.

REPORTER: GLADIE JANE D. AGCOPRA

1) Formalism

Formalism is a school of literary criticism and theory that focuses on the structural aspects of a text. It
originated in Russia in the early 20th century with scholars like Viktor Shklovsky and Roman Jacobson,
who emphasized how the form of a text shapes its meaning.

Key Features:

Focus on Form: Formalists analyze how the text’s structure, patterns, and techniques convey meaning.

Literariness: The distinctiveness of literary language, often achieved through devices like meter, rhyme,
and other stylistic features hat differentiate it from ordinary language.

Defamiliarization: A concept coined by Russian Formalists (like Viktor Shklovsky), which argues that
literary works make the familiar seem strange to encourage fresh perception of common objects or ideas.

Autonomy of the Text: Formalism treats literature as a self-contained object, whose meaning derives from
its internal qualities, not from external contexts such as the author’s life or the political climate.

2) New Criticism
New Criticism, developed primarily in the United States and Britain in the mid-20 th century, shares some
similarities with Formalism in its emphasis on the text itself. However, it is particularly known for its
method of close reading, where deep attention is given to the language and internal mechanics of the text.

Key Features:

Close Reading: A detailed, line-by-line analysis of the text, focusing on word choice, imagery, symbolism,
and sound devices (such as rhyme or alliteration).

The Text as an Autonomous Entity: Like Formalism, New Criticism treats the text as independent from
external factors like author intent (intentional fallacy) or the reader’s emotions (affective fallacy).

Unity and Organic Whole: A text is viewed as having an internal unity where all elements (e.g., structure,
diction, symbols, irony) contribute to a central, cohesive meaning.

Paradox, Irony, and Ambiguity: These devices are often seen as tools to deepen the text’s complexity,
creating tension and meaning that unfold through close analysis.

Similarities between Formalism and New Criticism:

Both share a text-centered approach, value close analysis, and emphasize the importance of structure in
producing meaning.

Differences:

Origins - Formalism originated in Russia; New Criticism emerged in the U.S. and Britain.

Formalism focuses on individual parts of a text, like language, structure, and literary devices and looks at
how these elements work on their own without considering the author or context. On the other hand, new
criticism looks at the entire text as a whole and sees how all the parts come together to create a single,
cohesive meaning or theme.

3) Marxism

Marxist literary criticism is based on the theories of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, focusing on the
relationship between literature and the socio-economic structures that shape it. Marxism views literature as a
reflection of the material conditions and power dynamics of society, particularly those related to class
struggles, exploitation, and the conflicts between the bourgeoisie (ruling class) and the proletariat (working
class).

Key Features:

Class Struggle: Marxist critics analyze how literature portrays class relations and the struggle between
different social classes, often highlighting the oppression of the working class by the ruling class.

Base and Superstructure: In Marxist theory, the economic base (means of production) influences the
superstructure (culture, politics, art, etc.). Literature, as part of the superstructure, reflects the ideology of the
ruling class.

Ideology: Marxist critics explore how literature either reinforces or critiques dominant ideologies (belief
systems that justify the status quo). They are especially interested in how works of literature promote,
challenge, or obscure the realities of exploitation and inequality.
Historical Context: Unlike formalist approaches, Marxist criticism places a strong emphasis on the
historical and material conditions under which a work is produced, considering the social and political
circumstances surrounding its creation.

4) Critical Theory

Critical Theory originated in the Frankfurt School, a group of theorists who sought to critique both capitalist
society and traditional Marxism. The primary focus of Critical Theory is to understand and critique the
power structures, ideologies, and systems of oppression in modern society. It goes beyond Marxism,
incorporating elements of philosophy, sociology, and psychology to analyze cultural and political practices.

Key Features:

Critique of Capitalism and Ideology: Critical theorists critique not only capitalist economics but also the
cultural systems (media, education, arts) that perpetuate oppressive ideologies and power structures.

Interdisciplinary Approach: Critical Theory draws on various fields (e.g., philosophy, sociology,
psychoanalysis) to examine culture, economics, and politics in a more holistic way than traditional Marxist
theory.

Emphasis on Ideology: Like Marxism, Critical Theory is concerned with ideology but goes further to
explore how cultural products (like literature and art) create and reinforce social norms, values, and beliefs
that maintain systems of domination.

Emancipation: A central goal of Critical Theory is human emancipation from oppressive systems, aiming
to raise awareness of exploitation and encourage social change.

Similarities Between Marxism and Critical Theory:

Both critique capitalism, explore ideology, and promote social change, particularly for oppressed groups.

Differences:

Broader Scope of Critical Theory: While Marxism is primarily concerned with class struggle and
economic structures, Critical Theory examines broader issues like race, gender, media, and culture, offering
a more interdisciplinary approach.

Critique of Traditional Marxism: Critical Theory critiques certain aspects of traditional Marxism,
particularly its economic determinism, arguing that culture, ideology, and psychology also play a significant
role in shaping society.

REPORTER: PRINCESS AIZY BALUTIC

Gender Studies, Feminism, and Queer Theory in Literary Criticism:

Gender Studies: Gender Studies provides a framework for examining how gender roles, identities, and
power dynamics are portrayed in literary works. It challenges the binary view of gender, recognizing the
fluidity and diversity of human experience.
Sex vs. Gender: Gender Studies distinguishes between sex, referring to biological differences, and gender,
encompassing the social and cultural constructs of masculinity and femininity. This distinction allows for a
more nuanced understanding of how gender is performed and negotiated within literary narratives.

Gender refers to the social and cultural roles, behaviors, and expectations society has for people. For
example, ideas of what is "masculine" or "feminine" come from culture, not biology.

Gender Performativity: Theorists like Judith Butler argue that gender is not a fixed identity but rather a
performance, constantly constructed through actions, behaviors, and expressions. This concept invites a
critical analysis of how characters embody and subvert gender norms in literature.

Intersectionality: Gender Studies acknowledges the interconnectedness of gender with other social
categories like race, class, and sexuality. This lens allows for a deeper understanding of how multiple forms
of oppression and privilege intersect in literary representations.

Feminism

Feminist literary criticism focuses on analyzing how literature reflects and reinforces, or challenges,
patriarchal structures and gender inequality. It explores the ways in which women's voices and experiences
are represented, or silenced, in literary works.

Feminist theory critiques the system of patriarchy, a social structure that privileges men and subordinates
women. This concept helps to analyze how power dynamics and gender roles are embedded in literary
narratives.

Feminist literary criticism seeks to amplify the voices of women writers and characters, highlighting their
unique perspectives and experiences. It challenges the traditional canon, which has often excluded or
marginalized women's contributions to literature.

Feminist criticism examines how female characters are depicted in literature, exploring their agency,
autonomy, and the challenges they face within patriarchal structures.

Feminist literary criticism analyzes themes related to gender inequality, such as domesticity, motherhood,
sexuality, and social expectations.

Feminist criticism seeks to reclaim women's narratives, challenging the dominant male perspective and
offering alternative interpretations of literary works.

Queer Theory

Queer Theory challenges traditional understandings of sexuality and gender by questioning fixed categories
and embracing fluidity. It critiques heteronormativity, the assumption that heterosexuality is the default and
only acceptable sexual orientation.

Queer Theory looks at how the belief that being straight is normal influences how gender and sexuality are
represented in stories. It examines how characters who are different from this idea are often pushed to the
side, labeled with stereotypes, or not given a voice.

Queer Theory highlights that gender is not just about being male or female. It shows that gender identities
and expressions can change and vary. This theory looks at how characters who are transgender, non-binary,
or genderqueer are represented in stories.

Queer Theory encourages readers to closely examine texts to find hidden themes related to LGBTQ+ issues,
even in stories that don’t directly mention these identities.
Queer Theory seeks to promote greater visibility and representation of LGBTQ+ experiences in literature,
challenging the dominant heteronormative narrative.

Conclusion

Gender Studies, Feminism, and Queer Theory offer a powerful combination of critical lenses for analyzing
literature. By challenging traditional interpretations and uncovering hidden narratives, these fields illuminate
the complex ways in which gender and sexuality shape our understanding of the world and the stories we
tell.

This interdisciplinary approach allows for a more inclusive and nuanced understanding of literary works,
promoting greater awareness of the diverse experiences and perspectives that have often been marginalized
or silenced. Further exploration of these fields can delve into specific literary works, analyzing how authors
have engaged with these concepts and the impact of their representations on readers.

Cultural Studies in Literary Criticism

Imagine a book as a window into a different world. That's what Cultural Studies helps us do when we read
literature. It's like putting on special glasses that let us see beyond the words on the page and understand the
bigger picture.

Books are written in a specific time and place, and Cultural Studies helps us understand the culture and
society that shaped them. We can look at things like:

How did people act and think in that time? What were the rules and expectations?

What big events were happening that might have influenced the story?

Who had power, and how did that affect the characters and their choices?

Cultural Studies encourages us to look beyond the surface of the story and see the hidden meanings and
messages. We can ask:

What are the author's values and beliefs?

How does the story reflect the author's culture?

Is the story challenging or reinforcing the norms of its time?

Cultural Studies shows us how literature is connected to real-life issues. We can see how books reflect real
issues like racism, sexism, and inequality. They offer new perspectives on important topics and help us
compare our culture to others.

We can use Cultural Studies to see how books are not just stories, but also mirrors of the world around us.
They can teach us about history, society, and the human experience.

Here are some examples of how Cultural Studies can be used in literary criticism:

"Pride and Prejudice"

We can see how it reflects the social norms and expectations of 19th-century England.
"Civil Rights Movement"
We can see how it reflects the struggles for equality and the impact of those struggles on
society.
 Reading a modern novel about a marginalized group: We can see how it challenges stereotypes and helps
us understand the experiences of that group.

Cultural Studies helps us see books in a whole new light! It's a powerful tool for understanding literature
and the world around us.