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Chapter 6 attitude notes NCERT

Introduction to psychology (Amity University)

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Chapter 6
Attitude and Social Cognition

Social Psychology
 It is a branch of Psychology which investigates how the behaviour of individuals is affected by
others and the social environment.
 It deals with all behaviour that takes place in the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.
 Example- Imagining that people are listening to your recitation may change your performance.
 Social environment influences our thoughts, emotions and behaviour in complex ways.

Social cognition- It refers to the mental activities related to the gathering and interpretation of
information about the social world. Examples of theses mental processes are-
 Attitude- Because of social influences, people form views, or attitudes about people, and about
different issues in life, that exist in the form of behavioural tendencies.
 Impression formation- When we meet people, we make inferences about their personal qualities.
This is called impression formation.
 Attribution- Assigning causes to the behaviour shown in specific social situations.

 Social cognition is activated by cognitive units called schemas.

 Cognitive processes cannot be directly seen; they have to be inferred on the basis of externally
shown behaviour.

Other terms
 Social facilitation- The improvement in performance in the presence of others.
 Social inhibition- The decline in performance in the presence of others.
 Helping, or pro-social behaviour- responding to others who are in need or distress.

To explain social behavior-

 One must go beyond common sense.
 Systematic and objective observations, and scientific methods should be opted to establish logical
cause-and-effect relationships to explain social behaviour.

Nature and components of Attitude

 Definition- Attitude is a state of the mind, a set of views, or thoughts, regarding some topic (called
the „attitude object‟), which have an evaluative feature (positive, negative or neutral quality)
accompanied by an emotional component, and a tendency to act in a particular way with regard to
the attitude object.
 Attitude has A-B-C components-
Affective- the emotional component
Behavioural- the tendency to act (or conative)
Cognitive- the thought component

Purpose of an attitude
 Attitudes provide a background that makes it easier for a person to decide how to act in new
situations.
 It indirectly provides a mental „layout‟ or „blueprint‟ for the way in which we should behave.

Example- To show relationship between the three components

A „Green Environment‟: The A-B-C Components of an Attitude

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 Group of people in neighbourhood start a tree plantation campaign as part of a „green

environment‟ movement. Based on sufficient information about the environment-
 your view towards a „green environment‟ is positive (cognitive or ‘C’ component).
 You feel very happy when you see greenery. You feel sad and angry when you see trees
being cut down. These aspects reflect the affective (emotional), or ‘A’ component of the
same attitude.
 you also actively participate in the tree plantation campaign. This shows the behavioural or
‘B’ component of your attitudes towards a „green environment‟.
 In general, all three components are consistent with each other, that is, in the same direction.
However, such consistency may not necessarily be found in all situations. For example-
 Cognitive aspect of your „green environment‟ attitude is very strong, but the affective
and behavioural components may be relatively weaker.
 Or, the cognitive and affective components may be strong and positive, but the
behavioural component may be neutral.
 Therefore, predicting one component on the basis of the other two may not always give us the
correct picture about an attitude.

Difference between Attitude and Beliefs

Beliefs refer to the cognitive component of attitudes, and form the ground on which attitudes stand, such
as belief in God.

Difference between Attitude and Values

 Values are attitudes or beliefs that contain a „should‟ or „ought‟ aspect, such as moral or ethical
values.
 Example of a value- idea that one should work hard
 Values are formed when a particular belief or attitude becomes an inseparable part of the person‟s
outlook on life. Consequently, values are difficult to change.

Other properties of Attitude

1. Valence (positivity or negativity) of an attitude
 It tells whether an attitude is positive or negative towards the attitude object.
 Example- Suppose an attitude towards nuclear research has to be expressed on a 5-point scale-
1 (Very bad)
2 (Bad)
3 (Neutral — neither good nor bad)
4 (Good)
5 (Very good).
 Rating of 4 or 5 indicates a positive attitude. This means that the person likes the idea of nuclear
research.
 Rating of 1 or 2 indicates a negative attitude. This means that the person dislikes the idea of
nuclear research.
 Rating of 3 indicates a neutral attitudes towards nuclear research- neither positive nor negative
valence.
2. Extremeness of an attitude
 It indicates how positive or negative an attitude is.
 Taking the nuclear research example given above-
 Rating of 1 is as extreme as a rating of 5: they are only in the opposite directions (valence).

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 Ratings of 2 and 4 are less extreme.

 A neutral attitude is lowest on extremeness.

3. Simplicity or Complexity (multiplexity)

 This feature refers to how many attitudes there are within a broader attitude.
 In case of various topics, such as health and world peace, people hold many attitudes instead of
single attitude.
 An attitude system is said to be ‘simple’ if it contains only one or a few attitudes. Example-
attitude towards a particular person is likely to consist of mainly one attitude.
 An attitude system is said to be ‘complex’ if it is made up of many attitudes. Example- attitude
towards health and well-being consists of several „member‟ attitudes like concept of physical
and mental health, views about happiness and well-being.

4. Centrality
 This refers to the role of a particular attitude in the attitude system.
 An attitude with greater centrality would influence the other attitudes in the system much more
than non-central (or peripheral) attitudes would.
 Example, in the attitude towards world peace, a negative attitude towards high military
expenditure may be a central attitude that influences all other attitudes in the multiple attitude
system.

Attitude Formation- How are attitudes formed?

 Attitudes towards different topics, things and people are formed as we interact with others.
 In general, attitudes are learned through one‟s own experiences, and through interaction with
others.
 Few researches show some inborn aspect of attitudes, but such genetic factors influence attitudes
only indirectly, along with learning.

Process of Attitude Formation

The processes and conditions of learning may be different-
1. Learning attitudes by association
 Example- students often develop a liking for a particular subject because of the teacher.
 Because they see many positive qualities in that teacher; these positive qualities get linked to
the subject and get expressed in the form of liking for the subject.
 A positive attitude towards the subject is learned through the positive association between a
teacher and a student.
2. Learning attitudes by being rewarded or punished
 If an individual is praised for showing a particular attitude, chances are high that s/he will
develop that attitude further.
 Example, if a teenager does yogasanas regularly, and gets the honour of being „Miss Good
Health‟ in her school, she may develop a positive attitude towards yoga and health.
 Similarly, if a child constantly falls ill because s/he eats junk food instead of proper meals,
then the child is likely to develop a negative attitude towards junk food.
3. Learning attitudes through modelling (observing others)
 We often learn by observing others being rewarded or punished for expressing thoughts, or
showing behaviour towards the attitude object.

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 Example, children may form a respectful attitude towards elders, by observing that their
parents show respect for elders, and are appreciated for it.

4. Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms

 We also learn attitudes through the norms of our group or culture.
 Norms are unwritten rules about behaviour that everyone is supposed to show under specific
circumstances.
 Learning attitudes through group or cultural norms may actually be an example of all three
forms of learning described above — learning through association, reward or punishment, and
modelling.
 Example, offering money, sweets, fruit and flowers in a place of worship is a normative
behaviour in some religions. When individuals see that such behaviour socially approved, they
may ultimately develop a positive attitude towards such behaviour.

5. Learning through exposure to information

 With huge amount of information being provided through various media, both positive and
negative attitudes are being formed.
 Example- By reading the biographies of self-actualised persons, an individual may develop a
positive attitude towards hard work.

Factors that Influence Attitude Formation

The following factors provide the context for the learning of attitudes.
1. Family and School Environment
 In the early years of life, parents and other family members play a significant role in shaping
attitude formation.
 Later school environment becomes an important background for attitude formation.
 Learning of attitudes within the family and school usually takes place by association, through
rewards and punishments, and through modelling.

2. Reference Groups
 Reference groups indicate to an individual the norms regarding acceptable behaviour and ways
of thinking.
 They reflect learning of attitudes through group or cultural norms.
 Attitudes towards various topics, such as political, religious and other issues are often
developed through reference groups.
 Influence is noticeable especially during the beginning of adolescence, at which time it is
important for the individual to feel that s/he belongs to a group.

3. Personal Experiences
 Many attitudes are formed through direct personal experiences which bring about a drastic
change in our attitude towards people and our own life.
 Real life example- A driver in the army went through a personal experience that transformed
his life. On one mission, he narrowly escaped death although all his companions got killed.
Wondering about the purpose of his own life, he gave up his job in the army, returned to his
native village in Maharashtra, and worked actively as a community leader. He developed a
strong positive attitude towards community upliftment due to his personal experience.

4. Media-related Influences

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 Technological advances in recent times have made audio-visual media and the Internet very
powerful sources of information that lead to attitude formation and change.
 Also, school level textbooks also influence attitude formation. These sources first strengthen
the cognitive and affective components of attitudes, and subsequently may also affect the
behavioural component.
 Media can exert both good and bad influences on attitudes.
 On one hand, the media and Internet make people better informed than other modes of
communication. Eg, create positive attitudes to facilitate social harmony.
 On the other hand, there may be no check on the nature of information being gathered,
and therefore attitudes being formed. Eg, create consumerist attitudes where none existed.

Attitude Change
 Formed attitudes may be changed and modified through various influences.
 Attitudes that are still in the formative stage are much more likely to change compared to attitudes
that have become firmly established.

Process of Attitude Change

 Three major concepts that draw attention to some important processes in attitude change are-
1. Concept of Balance
 It was proposed by Fritz Heider.
 It is described in the form of the „ P-O-X‟ triangle, which represents the relationships between
three aspects or components of the attitude.
 P is the person whose attitude is being studied
 O is another person
 X is the topic towards which the attitude is being studied (attitude object/person).

Imbalance is found when

(i) All three sides of the P-O-X triangle are negative, or
(ii) two sides are positive, and one side is negative.
Balance is found when
(i) All three sides are positive, or
(ii) Two sides are negative, and one side is positive.

The basic idea is that an attitude changes if there is a state of imbalance because imbalance is logically
uncomfortable. Therefore, the attitude changes in the direction of balance.

Example of dowry as an attitude topic (X)

 Person (P) has a positive attitude towards dowry (P-X positive).
 P is planning to get his son married to the daughter of some person (O) who has a negative attitude
towards dowry (O-X negative).

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 State of imbalance
If O has a positive attitude towards P

o Situation would be unbalanced.

o P-X is positive, O-P is positive, but
O-X is negative. That is, there are two
positives and one negative in the
triangle. This is a situation of
imbalance.

 State of balance
One of the three attitudes will therefore have to change. This change could take place in the-
(i) P-X relationship (P starts disliking dowry as a custom), or
(ii) O-X relationship (O starts liking dowry as a custom), or
(iii) O-P relationship (O starts disliking P).

Attitude change will have to take place so that there will be three positive relationships, or two
negative and one positive relationship, in the triangle.

2. Cognitive dissonance
 It was proposed by Leon Festinger.
 It emphasises the cognitive component.
 Basic idea is that the cognitive components of an attitude must be „consonant‟ (opposite of
„dissonant‟), i.e., they should be logically in line with each other. If an individual finds that
two cognitions in an attitude are dissonant, then one of them will be changed in the
direction of consonance.
 Example-
Cognition I: Pan masala causes mouth cancer which is fatal.
Cognition II: I eat pan masala.
Holding these two ideas will make any individual feel that something is „out of tune‟, or
dissonant, in the attitude towards pan masala. One of these ideas will have to be changed, so
that consonance can be attained.
I will stop eating pan masala (change Cognition II).
This would be the healthy, logical and sensible way of reducing dissonance.

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 Festinger and Carlsmith, two social psychologists, conducted an experiment that showed
how cognitive dissonance works.

Telling a Lie for Twenty Dollars

Experiment: After participating in a very boring experiment, a group of students were asked to tell
another group of students waiting outside that the experiment was very interesting. For telling this
lie to the waiting students, half of the first group of students was paid $ 1, and the other half were
paid $ 20. After some weeks, the participants of the boring experiment were asked to recall the
experiment, and to say how interesting they had found that experiment to be.
Result: The responses showed that the $ 1 group described the experiment as more interesting than
the $ 20 group.
Explanation: the $ 1 students changed their attitude towards the experiment because they
experienced cognitive dissonance.
 In $ 1 group:
Initial cognition (Dissonant cognitions) Changed cognitions: (Dissonance reduced)
“The experiment was very boring” ; “The experiment was actually interesting” ;
“I told a lie for only $ 1.” “I would not have told a lie for only $ 1.”

 In $ 20 group:
They did not experience cognitive dissonance. So, they did not change their attitude towards the
experiment, and rated it as very boring.
Cognitions (No dissonance)
“The experiment was very boring”;
“I told a lie because I was paid $ 20.

Cognitive consistency
 Both balance and cognitive dissonance are examples of cognitive consistency.
 It means that two components, aspects or elements of the attitude, or attitude system, must be
in the same direction. Each element should logically fall in line with other elements.
 If not- then the person experiences a kind of mental discomfort, i.e. the sense that „something
is not quite right‟ in the attitude system.
 Some aspect in the attitude system changes in the direction of consistency, because our
cognitive system requires logical consistency.

(c) Two-step concept

 It was proposed by S.M. Mohsin, an Indian psychologist.
 According to him, attitude change takes place in the form of two steps.
 Step 1
 Identification
o The target of change identifies with the source.
o „Target‟ is the person whose attitude is to be changed.
o „Source‟ is the person through whose influence the change is to take place.
o Identification means that the target has liking and regard for the source. S/he puts
herself/himself in the place of the target, and tries to feel like her/him. Source must also
have a positive attitude towards the target.
o Regard and attraction becomes mutual.

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 Step 2
 Source herself/himself shows an attitude change, by actually changing her/him behaviour
towards the attitude object.
 Observing the source‟s changed attitude and behaviour, the target also shows an attitude
change through behaviour.
 This is a kind of imitation or observational learning.

Example-
 Preeti reads in the newspapers a soft drink she enjoys is extremely harmful but she sees her
favourite sportsperson advertising the same soft drink. She has identified herself with the
sportsperson, and would like to imitate her/him. Now, suppose the sportsperson wishes to change
people‟s attitude towards this soft drink from positive to negative. The steps are-
 Step I: The sportsperson will first show positive feelings for her/ his fans.
 Step II- Sportsperson changes her/his own habit of consuming that soft drink by substituting it
with a health drink. It is very likely that now Preeti will also change her attitude and behaviour,
and stop consuming the harmful soft drink (Step II).

Factors that Influence Attitude Change

Major factors that influence attitude change-
1. Characteristics of the existing attitude
 Valence (positivity or negativity), extremeness, simplicity or complexity (multiplexity), and
centrality or significance of the attitude, determine attitude change.
 Positive attitudes are easier to change than negative attitudes are.
 Extreme attitudes, and central attitudes are more difficult to change than the less extreme,
and peripheral (less significant) attitudes are.
 Simple attitudes are easier to change than multiple attitudes are.
 Direction and extent of attitude change
 Congurent
o An attitude change may be congruent when attitude changes in the same direction as
the existing attitude.
o Positive attitude may become more positive.
o Negative attitude may become more negative.
o Example- Person has a somewhat positive attitude towards empowerment of women.
Reading about a successful woman may make this attitude more positive.
 Incongruent
o It may change in a direction opposite to the existing attitude.
o Positive attitude becomes less positive, or negative.
o Negative attitude becomes less negative, or positive.
o Example- after reading about successful women, a person may think that women
might soon become too powerful, and neglect their family responsibilities. This may
make the person‟s existing positive attitude towards empowerment of women, less
positive, or even negative.
 In general, congruent changes are easier to bring about than are the incongruent changes
in attitudes.
Attitude may change in the direction of the information that is presented, or in a direction opposite
to that of the information presented.

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 Posters describing importance of brushing teeth would strengthen a positive attitude towards
dental care.
 But if people are shown frightening pictures of dental cavities, they may not believe the
pictures, and may become less positive about dental care.
 Fear sometimes works well in convincing people but if a message generates too much fear, it
turns off the receiver and has little persuasive effect.

2. Source characteristics
 Source credibility and attractiveness are two features that affect attitude change.
 Credibility
 Attitudes are more likely to change when the message comes from a highly credible source
rather than from a low-credible source.
 For example, adults who are planning to buy a laptop are more convinced by a computer
engineer who points out the special features of a particular brand of laptop, than by a
schoolchild who might give the same information. If buyers are schoolchildren, they may
be convinced more by another schoolchild.
 Attractiveness
 In the case of some products such as cars, sales may increase if they are publicised, not
necessarily by experts, but by popular public figures.

3. Message characteristics
 The message is the information that is presented in order to bring about an attitude change.
 Amount of information about the topic must be just enough, neither too much nor too little.
 Whether the message contains a rational or an emotional appeal, also makes a difference.
Example-
Rational Appeal Emotional Appeal
An advertisement for cooking food in a An advertisement for cooking food in a
pressure cooker pointing out that this saves pressure cooker pointing out that it preserves
fuel such as cooking gas (LPG) and is nutrition, and that if one cares for the family,
economical. nutrition would be a major concern.
 Motive - The motives activated by the message also determine attitude change.
Example- drinking milk may be said to make a person healthy and good-looking, or more
successful at one‟s job.
 Mode of spreading the message plays a significant role.
 Face-to-face transmission of the message is usually more effective than indirect
transmission (letters, pamphlets, or mass media).
 Example, a positive attitude towards Oral Rehydration Salts (ORS) for young children is
more effectively created if doctors spread the message by talking to people directly, than
by only describing the benefits of ORS on the radio.
 Visual media such as television and the Internet are similar to face-to-face interaction,
but not a substitute for the latter.

4. Target characteristics
 Qualities of the target, such as persuasibility, strong prejudices, self-esteem, and
intelligence influence the likelihood and extent of attitude change.
 Persuasibility- People, who have a more open and flexible personality, change more easily.

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 Prejudices- People with strong prejudices are less prone to any attitude change than those
who do not hold strong prejudices.
 Self-esteem- Persons who have a low self-esteem, and do not have sufficient confidence in
themselves, change their attitudes more easily than those who are high on self-esteem.
 Intelligent- More intelligent people may change their attitudes less easily than those with
lower intelligence. However, sometimes more intelligent persons change their attitudes
more willingly than less intelligent ones, because they base their attitude on more
information and thinking.

Attitude-Behaviour Relationship
 Logically behaviour follows attitudes. However, an individual‟s attitudes may not always be
exhibited through behaviour.
 Likewise, one‟s actual behaviour may be contrary to one‟s attitude towards a particular topic.
 There would be consistency between attitudes and behaviour when :
 Attitude is strong, and occupies a central place in the attitude system,
 Person is aware of her/his attitude.
 There is very little or no external pressure for the person to behave in a particular way. For
example, when there is no group pressure to follow a particular norm.
 Person‟s behaviour is not being watched or evaluated by others.
 Person thinks that the behaviour would have a positive consequence, and therefore, intends
to engage in that behaviour.
Study
 In days when Americans were said to be prejudiced against the Chinese, Richard LaPiere, an
American social psychologist, conducted a study.
 He asked a Chinese couple to travel across the United States, and stay in different hotels. Only
once they were refused service by one of the hotels. Sometime later, LaPiere sent out
questionnaires to managers of hotels in the same areas where the Chinese couple had travelled,
asking them if they would give accommodation to Chinese guests. A very large percentage
said that they would not do so.
 Response showed a negative attitude towards the Chinese, which was inconsistent with the
positive behaviour that was actually shown towards the travelling Chinese couple.
 Thus, attitudes may not always predict actual pattern of one‟s behaviour.

Sometimes behaviour decides the attitude

In the experiment by Festinger and Carlsmith, students in one dollar group-
On the basis of their behaviour
(telling others that the experiment was interesting, for only a small amount of money)

Concluded that their attitude towards the experiment was positive

(“I would not have told a lie for this small amount of money, which means that the
experiment was actually interesting”).

Prejudice and Discrimination

(Also difference between prejudice and stereotypes)
 Prejudices are examples of attitudes towards a particular group which are usually negative.
 Cognitive component- Stereotypes about the specific group.
o Stereotype is a cluster of ideas regarding the characteristics of a specific group.

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o All members belonging to this group are assumed to possess these characteristics. Often,
stereotypes consist of undesirable characteristics about the target group.
o They lead to negative attitudes or prejudices towards members of specific groups.
 Affective component- Prejudice is frequently accompanied by dislike or hatred.
 Behavioural component- Prejudice may also get translated into discrimination whereby
people behave in a less positive way towards a particular target group compared to another
group which they favour.
Cognitive component Affective component Behavioral component
Stereotypes Dislike or hatred Discrimination

Example- Discrimination based on race and social class or caste. The genocide committed by the
Nazis in Germany against Jewish people shows how prejudice can lead to hatred, discrimination
and mass killing of innocent people.

Prejudices can exist without discrimination and vice-versa

 Prejudices can exist without being shown in the form of discrimination.
 Similarly, discrimination can be shown without prejudice.
 Yet, the two go together very often.
 Wherever prejudice and discrimination exist, conflicts are very likely to arise between groups
within the same society.
 Instances of discrimination, with and without prejudice- based on gender, religion,
community, caste, physical handicap, and illnesses such as AIDS.
 In many cases discriminatory behaviour can be curbed by law. But, the cognitive and
emotional components of prejudice are more difficult to change.

Sources of Prejudice
Prejudice has one or more of the following sources :
1. Learning
 Prejudices can be learned through association, reward and punishment, observing others,
group or cultural norms and exposure to information that encourages prejudice.
 Family, reference groups, personal experiences and the media may play a role in the
learning of prejudices.
 People who learn prejudiced attitudes may develop a „prejudiced personality‟, and show
low adjusting capacity, anxiety, and feelings of hostility against the outgroup.

2. A strong social identity and ingroup bias

 Individuals who have a strong sense of social identity and have a very positive attitude
towards their own group boost this attitude by holding negative attitudes towards other
groups.
3. Scapegoating
 This is a phenomenon by which the majority group places the blame on a minority
outgroup for its own social, economic or political problems.
 Minority is too weak or too small in number to defend itself against such accusations.
 It is a group based way of expressing frustration, and it often results in negative attitudes or
prejudice against the weaker group.

4. Kernel of truth concept

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 Sometimes people may continue to hold stereotypes because they think that, after all,
there must be some truth, or „kernel of truth‟ in what everyone says about the other group.

5. Self-fulfilling prophecy
 Sometimes, the group that is the target of prejudice is itself responsible for continuing the
prejudice.
 The target group may behave in ways that justify the prejudice or confirm the negative
expectations.
 For example, if the target group is described as „dependent‟ and not making progress, the
members of this target group may actually behave in a way that proves this description to
be true.

Strategies for Handling Prejudice

 Knowing about the causes or sources would be the first step in handling prejudice.
 Some strategies for handling prejudice are-
(a) minimising opportunities for learning prejudices,
(b) changing such attitudes,
(c) de-emphasising a narrow social identity based on the ingroup
(d) discouraging the tendency towards self-fulfilling prophecy among the victims of
prejudice.
Goals can be accomplished through:
(i) Education and information dissemination
 To correct stereotypes related to specific target groups, and tackling the problem of a strong
ingroup bias.
(ii) Increasing intergroup contact
 It allows for direct communication, removal of mistrust between the groups, and even
discovery of positive qualities in the outgroup.
 These strategies are successful only if
(a) Two groups meet in a cooperative rather than competitive context
(b) Close interactions between the groups helps them to know each other better
(c) Two groups are not different in power or status.
(iii) Highlighting individual identity rather than group identity, thus weakening the importance
of group (both ingroup and outgroup) as a basis of evaluating the other person.

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