Framework For A Pavement-Maintenance Database System

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Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance

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George White, Steven Velozo, David Peshkin, and Prashant Ram; National
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Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System
N AT I O N A L C O O P E R AT I V E H I G H W AY R E S E A R C H P R O G R A M
NCHRP REPORT 820

Framework for a
Pavement-Maintenance
Database System
George White
Steven Velozo
Pavia Systems, Inc.
Seattle, WA
David Peshkin
Prashant Ram
Applied Pavement Technology, Inc.
Urbana, IL
Subscriber Categories
Maintenance and Preservation • Pavements
Research sponsored by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
in cooperation with the Federal Highway Administration
2016
Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY NCHRP REPORT 820

RESEARCH PROGRAM
Systematic, well-designed research is the most effective way to solve Project 14-31
many problems facing highway administrators and engineers. Often, ISSN 0077-5614
highway problems are of local interest and can best be studied by ISBN 978-0-309-44598-6
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universities and others. However, the accelerating growth of highway
© 2016 National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS
CRP STAFF FOR NCHRP REPORT 820

Christopher J. Hedges, Director, Cooperative Research Programs
Amir N. Hanna, Senior Program Officer
Natasha R. Donawa, Senior Program Assistant
Eileen P. Delaney, Director of Publications
Sreyashi Roy, Editor
NCHRP PROJECT 14-31 PANEL

Field of Maintenance—Area of Maintenance of Way and Structures
Anita K. Bush, Nevada DOT, Carson City, NV (Chair)
Roger C. Olson, Bloomington, MN (formerly with Minnesota DOT)
Edgardo D. Block, Connecticut DOT, Newington, CT
DingXin Cheng, California State University, Chico, CA
James C. “Jay” Norris, Tennessee DOT, Nashville, TN
LaDonna R. Rowden, Illinois DOT, Springfield, IL
Morgan Kessler, FHWA Liaison
James W. Bryant, Jr., TRB Liaison
AUTHOR ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Contributions were made by several departments of transportation including Kansas, Michigan, and
Washington. These departments of transportation provided data on their pavement-maintenance activi-
ties, pavement condition, and pavement inventory.

FOREWORD
By Amir N. Hanna
Staff Officer
Transportation Research Board
This report presents a framework for a pavement-maintenance database (PMDb). The

framework provides a uniform format for collecting, reporting, and storing information
on pavement-maintenance actions. Use of this framework will promote compatibility of
the maintenance data reported by different agencies and will provide an effective means for
using these data in cost-benefit analysis, evaluating the effects of maintenance on pavement
performance, selecting the maintenance actions needed, and making other related decisions.
The material contained in the report should be of immediate interest to state maintenance
engineers and others concerned with the maintenance and management of pavements.
A variety of maintenance actions are performed by highway agencies to preserve highway

pavements. Although similar maintenance actions are applied, practices for reporting main-
tenance methods, rates, and basis of measurements, costs, performance, and other related
factors differ among these agencies. There is no widely accepted system for uniformly record-
ing data pertaining to maintenance actions. Without such a system, the reported data cannot
be easily interpreted and used outside of individual agencies. This research was needed to
develop a framework for a database system for the collection, storage, and retrieval of related
data. This database framework, together with clear definitions of maintenance terms, will
ensure proper interpretation and use of data by highway agencies.
Under NCHRP Project 14-31, “Developing a Pavement-Maintenance Database System,”
Pavis Systems, Inc., worked with the objective of developing a framework for a database
system of pavement-maintenance actions, materials, and methods, and their effectiveness.
The database system would accommodate asphalt, concrete, and composite pavements, and
provide a means for establishing a record of actions that includes uniform descriptions of
maintenance activities, basis of measurements, costs, pavement conditions, and other rel-
evant data for use in cost-benefit analysis, evaluating the effects of maintenance on pavement
performance, selecting the maintenance actions needed, and making other related decisions.
The research reviewed current practices relevant to pavement-maintenance actions, main-
tenance management systems, and pavement management systems; identified and defined
relevant terms and data elements; and developed a pavement-maintenance database (PMDb)
framework for the collection, storage, and reporting of information on the contexts, actions,
and outcomes of pavement maintenance. The data system was developed as a set of tables
presenting pavement inventory data and pavement-condition data. Within the dataset,
the outcomes of maintenance actions, reflected by changes in pavement conditions, can
be evaluated and studied to assess the effectiveness or costs of alternative maintenance
applications or evaluate and develop cost and performance models. Also, to illustrate use
of the framework, data were collected from several state departments of transportation and

supplemented with data from a random data generator and other sources. These data were
entered into the PMDb framework; relevant data were extracted and used in the analy-
sis of scenarios involving the application of different maintenance treatments of asphalt
and concrete pavements. In addition, to promote consistency in the terminology related to
pavement-maintenance actions, a glossary of related terms is presented.
The report is accompanied by CRP-CD-179: Pavement-Maintenance Database (PMDb)
for NCHRP Report 820, Volume 1: Framework and Volume 2: Sample Data. Volume 1 con-
tains the database framework and Volume 2 contains sample data collected from highway
agencies to illustrate the use of PMDb.

CONTENTS
1 Summary
3 Chapter 1 Introduction
3 Problem Statement
3 Research Objective
4 Organization of the Report
5 Chapter 2 Background on Pavement-Maintenance Practices
5 Scope of Pavement Maintenance
6 Pavement-Maintenance Terms
10 Pavement-Maintenance Data
14 Pavement-Condition Terms
15 Pavement-Condition Data
16 Summary of Pavement Maintenance
17 Chapter 3 Pavement-Maintenance Database System
17 Pavement-Maintenance Data Elements and Terms
19 Pavement-Maintenance Data Definitions
33 Pavement-Condition Data Elements
43 Chapter 4 P
avement-Maintenance Database
Software Application
43 Functional Elements
44 System Components
52 Security and Access Control
53 Browser Application
60 Chapter 5 Pavement-Maintenance Database Workflow
and Applications
60 Workflow Description
70 Applications and Case Studies
77 Chapter 6 Recommendations for Research
79 References
81 Glossary
87 Appendix A Participant Responses to Electronic Survey
96 Appendix B Interview Summaries by State

98 Appendix C Pavement-Maintenance Database

System Requirements
103 Appendix D Pavement-Maintenance Database Virtual
Machine Installation Procedure
107 Appendix E Loading Sample Data into the
Pavement-Maintenance Database
Note: Photographs, figures, and tables in this report may have been converted from color to grayscale for printing.
The electronic version of the report (posted on the web at www.trb.org) retains the color versions.

SUMMARY
Framework for a Pavement-

Maintenance Database System
Highway agencies perform a variety of maintenance activities to maintain and preserve

highway pavements. Generally, highway agencies document information pertaining to these
maintenance actions, including methods, rates, basis of measurements, costs, performance,
and other related factors as part of a maintenance management system. Similarly, agencies
document information on pavement condition as part of a pavement management system.
There was a need to identify the key data elements required for evaluating the effectiveness
of pavement-maintenance treatments and the effect of these treatments on the performance
and service life of pavements. These elements will constitute the framework for a database
which can be used to establish how maintenance actions influence pavement performance and
to identify and select the most effective treatment for specific conditions.
NCHRP Project 14-31 was conducted to develop a database system for the storage and
retrieval of pavement-maintenance data. The resulting database, known as the pavement-
maintenance database (PMDb), along with clear definitions of maintenance items, intends
to provide a uniform format for inputting, reporting, and storing information on pavement
maintenance. In addition to archiving the data needed for evaluating the effectiveness of
pavement-maintenance treatments, this database will promote compatibility of maintenance
data reported by different agencies, will provide a mechanism for consistent interpretation of
the data, and will facilitate sharing of data among highway agencies.
At present, there are a variety of systems and practices for recording pavement-maintenance
work and pavement-performance data at state departments of transportation (DOTs). PMDb
will offer a uniform means for archiving pavement-maintenance data and other related data
over time.
NCHRP Report 820 summarizes the current practices for archiving pavement-maintenance
data and other related data, presents recommended data terms and elements for a national
framework, provides a description of the PMDb software application, and describes its poten-
tial use through an examination of sample inventory, maintenance, and condition data. A glos-
sary of terms related to pavement-maintenance activities was developed to establish consistency
in communicating pavement-maintenance activities.
PMDb is a modular database framework that provides agencies the ability to have uniformity
in maintaining a self-contained historical record of pavement sections, pavement-maintenance
treatments, and their subsequent performance. The PMDb provides a framework for estab-
lishing a record of actions that includes uniform descriptions of maintenance activities,
bases of measurement, costs, pavement condition, and other relevant data for use in cost-
benefit analyses, evaluating the effects of maintenance on pavement performance, selection
of maintenance actions, or other related decisions.
1

2 Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System
PMDb is a database framework for archiving maintenance events and condition observa-
tion events for a defined section of a roadway. Each event record in PMDb contains infor-
mation on the specific pavement section where the maintenance and condition events may
occur. Given that maintenance and performance measures are attributed to different pave-
ment section boundaries, PMDb performs dynamic segmentation to allow the creation of
homogeneous pavement sections for further study.
Pavement-maintenance data terms and elements are defined for PMDb to provide for a
common attribution of all activities. PMDb provides tools for index and value translations
to allow DOTs to transform their input data to the appropriate PMDb definition. Where
appropriate, new attributes and definitions can be created, providing PMDb the capacity to
adapt to evolving maintenance and condition measures.
PMDb is presented as a single page web application that interfaces with a database com-
prising a dynamic table array to support the data terms and elements defined for a specified
segment of roadway. PMDb was envisioned to function as a framework to aggregate and
organize agency data stored in other databases, not as an alternative to the various types of
databases already in use within an agency such as the pavement management system and the
maintenance management system. However, to the extent that PMDb highlights data needed
for maintenance analyses that are not captured in existing agency databases, this may suggest
the need for internal refinements to those databases.
The PMDb software application uses a two-part record processing system and a single page
web application acting as the user interface to upload, filter, search, and download records. In
the first phase of ingestion, properly formatted source files that are outputs from DOT sys-
tems are archived to the server, and records are then extracted from the files to be put into the
source record database. During the second phase, archival records are used to generate logi-
cal normalized pavement data segments from which analysis and query activities can take
place. This flow maintains data integrity of the original source data from the user agency
while allowing for long-term flexibility and scalability in how the PMDb system filters, sum-
marizes, and combines datasets for the end user. The PMDb applications run as a virtual
machine for individuals or can be scaled to run as a central web server for organizations.
The PMDb has four major workflows available for users: adding or editing route inventory
data, adding source data, extracting data from the database system, and managing glossary
terms. This enables administrators to input, format, translate, map, and upload data into
PMDb. It also allows them to export data that enables users to download data or data subsets
for analysis, manipulation, and review. PMDb administrators can also review, add, and edit
terms to the PMDb glossary to maintain standard definitions of terms within PMDb.
To demonstrate use of the PMDb, sample data and analysis scenarios were generated to
illustrate several possible maintenance applications for asphalt and concrete pavements.
Sample data was generated in part from existing data provided by state agencies as well as
from a random data generator. The applications for PMDb will become more useful as the
data store of pavement-maintenance activities and pavement-condition data grows over time.
The report is accompanied by CRP-CD-179: Pavement-Maintenance Database (PMDb) for
NCHRP Report 820, Volume 1: Framework and Volume 2: Sample Data. Volume 1 contains
the PMDb database framework and Volume 2 contains sample data collected from highway
agencies to illustrate the use of the database.

CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Problem Statement
A variety of maintenance actions are performed by highway agencies to preserve highway pave-
ments. Generally, highway agencies document information pertaining to these maintenance actions
such as methods, rates, basis of measurements, costs, performance, and other related information
as part of a maintenance management system (MMS). Similarly, highway agencies document infor-
mation on pavement conditions as part of a pavement management system (PMS). However, these
data collection efforts do not always focus on the collection and analysis of data needed to improve
pavement-maintenance decisions. There is no widely accepted system that identifies the data needed
to capture the factors that influence the performance of maintenance treatments on pavements,
including climate conditions, traffic levels, existing pavement conditions, material properties, and
workmanship.
There was a need to identify the data elements required for evaluating the effectiveness of
pavement-maintenance treatments and the effect of these treatments on pavement performance
and service life. These elements will constitute the framework for a database that can be used to
establish the influence of maintenance actions on pavement performance and help identify and
select the most effective treatments for specific conditions. Research was needed to develop the
framework for a database system which could be used for the collection, storage, and retrieval
of pavement-maintenance data. This framework, together with clear definitions of maintenance
items, will provide a uniform format for collecting, reporting, and storing information on pave-
ment maintenance. In addition to providing the data needed for evaluating the effectiveness of
maintenance treatments and helping with maintenance investment decisions, use of this database
will promote the compatibility of maintenance data reported by different agencies, ensure proper
interpretation of the data, and facilitate sharing of data among highway agencies. This database
will also provide the data needed for evaluating the cost and performance of alternative mainte-
nance applications, establishing the contributions of maintenance on pavement service life, and
incorporating maintenance into pavement design and analysis procedures.
Research Objective
The objective of this research was to develop a framework for a database system of pavement-
maintenance actions, the materials and methods used, and their effectiveness. The database sys-
tem will provide a means for establishing a record of actions that includes uniform descriptions
of maintenance activities, basis of measurements, costs, pavement conditions, and other relevant
data for use in a cost-benefit analysis, evaluating the effects of maintenance on pavement per-
formance, selecting the maintenance actions needed, and making other related decisions. The
database system considers asphalt, concrete, and composite pavements.
3

Organization of the Report

The report consists of six chapters. Chapter 1 provides the project objective and outlines
the scope of the study. Chapter 2 describes the findings from a literature search and interviews
conducted on pavement maintenance and defines the terms used to describe pavement perfor-
mance. Chapter 3 describes the approach for the pavement-maintenance database (PMDb) and
the data terms and elements used in the framework to meet the objectives. Chapter 4 describes
the PMDb software application and common workflows. Chapter 5 shows how PMDb can be
used through several illustrative scenarios that are applicable to the research objective. Chapter 6
presents a summary of the research and makes recommendations for future research. The report
also includes a glossary of terms that were defined to accompany the database system.
Several appendices describe various aspects of the research in detail. Appendix A provides
the results of surveys conducted in the state departments of transportation (DOTs). Appendix B
provides a summary of the interviews conducted at four state DOTs, Appendix C provides a
description of the potential system requirements for implementing PMDb, Appendix D provides
a guide on how to install PMDb as a standalone application on a desktop or laptop computer, and
Appendix E explains how to load data into PMDb.
The report is accompanied by CRP-CD-179: Pavement-Maintenance Database (PMDb) for
NCHRP Report 820, Volume 1: Framework and Volume 2: Sample Data. Volume 1 contains the
database, which can be installed by following the instructions in Appendix D. Volume 2 contains
sample data collected from highway agencies, which can be loaded onto the database by following
the instructions in Appendix E.

CHAPTER 2
Background on Pavement-
Maintenance Practices
The framework for the PMDb system developed under this project was designed to capture
the factors that influence the performance of maintenance treatments, including climate condi-
tions, traffic levels, existing pavement conditions, material properties, and workmanship, or the
factors pertaining to pavement performance, and establish a common framework that is com-
patible with the many existing maintenance data collection practices at state DOTs. A review of
the existing practices examined the type and scope of activities in pavement maintenance and
identified areas where data collection practices exist to populate a national framework.
Scope of Pavement Maintenance

Pavement maintenance can be defined in terms of DOT policy, budget allocations, and a vari-
ety of maintenance activities performed by highway agencies to preserve highway pavements.
Major rehabilitation and new construction of pavements tend to be fairly well documented in
terms of design, location, construction, and performance. In contrast, maintenance activities,
such as routine, reactive, and preventive, are not as well documented. Although highway agen-
cies document information pertaining to maintenance actions, such as methods, rates, bases of
measurement, costs, performance, and other related factors, as part of their MMS.
Pavement-Maintenance Practices
State highway agencies are placing increasing importance on pavement maintenance. There is
a significant change in practice from the “worst-first” approach in which pavements were allowed
to deteriorate to highly distressed conditions before any major (and more intrusive) rehabilitation
was performed to an approach that considers the performance and cost-effectiveness of preventive
maintenance.
In order for agencies to make the best use of maintenance and preservation treatments, it is
important to collect, store, and analyze performance data that captures the effect of the treat-
ment on performance. The particular issue of cost-effectiveness has been studied by many agen-
cies, including Michigan (Bausano, Chatti, and Williams, 2004; Galehouse, 2002; and Ram
and Peshkin, 2013); Texas (Chang, Chen, and Hung, 2005; Chen, Lin, and Luo, 2003); Indiana
(Labi et al., 2005; Labi et al., 2006; and Labi et al., 2007); Arizona (Peshkin, 2006; Smith et al.,
2005); Ontario (Wei and Tighe, 2004); and Utah (Romero and Anderson, 2005). Several studies
have analyzed different aspects of maintenance treatment cost-effectiveness, including case studies
(Baladi et al., 2002; Hicks, Seeds, and Peshkin, 2000), a synthesis of preventive maintenance
treatment practice (Cuelho, Mokwa, and Akin, 2006), cost-effective preventive maintenance
(Geoffroy, 1996), optimization of pavement preservation (Mamlouk and Zaniewski, 2001), SPS-3
5

Figure 1. Potential effect of pavement

preservation on pavement condition.
and SPS-4 studies (Morian, Epps, and Gibson, 1997), and optimal timing (Peshkin, Hoerner, and
Zimmerman, 2004).
However, the importance of being able to determine treatment impacts is not restricted to
preventive maintenance; both routine and reactive maintenance are important practices of every
highway agency and, as such, there should be an inherent interest in identifying the treatments
or pavement-maintenance activities that provide the greatest return at any time in the life of a
pavement. The ability to carry out the analysis that would support the determination of cost-
effectiveness hinges on the availability of data on the treatments, the conditions under which
the treatments were used, and their subsequent performances. Especially where maintenance is
concerned, these data are rarely available.
While there is an extensive body of literature on the performance and benefits of pavement-
maintenance treatments, published information on issues associated with data collection, man-
agement, and analysis, particularly related to maintenance treatments, is limited.
Pavement Maintenance and Pavement Preservation

A recent trend at state DOTs is the emergence and growth of pavement-preservation programs,
whose philosophy is succinctly captured in the term “keeping good roads in good condition” in
order to prolong pavement service life. Many state highway agencies have been using PMSs to
analyze system performance and demonstrate to legislators the benefits of pavement preservation
as opposed to the “address the worst-first” strategy to sustain and/or improve the overall condi-
tion of the pavement network (Zimmerman and Peshkin, 2003). Figure 1 is a schematic of how
pavement preservation may help extend the life of the pavement, delaying the need for major
rehabilitation activities.
Pavement-Maintenance Terms
This section presents a set of commonly used pavement-maintenance data terms and defini-
tions that were identified for evaluating the performance and effectiveness of the different types
of maintenance treatments. Pavement sections are defined as a specific section of an established,
defined route, which may require maintenance. An operation describes the type of maintenance
work being performed (routine, reactive, or preventive) on the pavement section, and a main-
tenance activity is a specific treatment (e.g., crack sealing, asphalt patching, dowel bar retrofit,

Background on Pavement-Maintenance Practices 7
Table 1. Pavement-maintenance terms.
Term Description
Specific portion of a road that encompasses the pavement-maintenance treatment
Pavement section
operation and activity.
Type of maintenance work being performed: routine, reactive, or preventive
Operation
maintenance.
Specific maintenance action being performed and supporting information
Activity
describing the action.
Time and location of a particular maintenance activity. This is described further in
Event
Chapter 2.
Method of contracting to perform the activity: whether in-house or by a contractor,
Contracting mechanism
including warranty specifications, if any.
diamond grinding) applied during the operation. An event describes the accomplishment of an
operation using a specific maintenance activity. The dates, quantity of work, and resources used
are described as a part of an event. Table 1 describes these terms in further detail.
Pavement-Maintenance Operations
Pavement-maintenance operations are categorized by highway agencies in several different
ways to quantify the purpose and desired outcome. Table 2 describes the types of operations
most commonly identified as a part of an agency’s maintenance program (FHWA, 2002).
Pavement-Maintenance Activities
Pavement-maintenance activities are those specific pavement treatments that are conducted
to fulfill the maintenance operations goal. Treatment types vary across the United States depend-
ing on traffic, climate, local practices, and desired outcome. Sometimes maintenance operations
may include two or more combined activities (e.g., an asphalt pavement that receives an asphalt
patching activity, prior to a thin asphalt overlay activity). This section describes and defines the
various pavement-maintenance activities most commonly performed by highway agencies for
different pavement types.
Asphalt-Surfaced Pavements
Asphalt-surfaced pavements are pavements surfaced with an asphalt material, whether hot-mix
asphalt (HMA), warm-mix asphalt (WMA), or an asphalt-based surface treatment. Although
these are different pavement types, the applicable maintenance and preservation activities are
very similar. Table 3 provides a summary of various maintenance and preservation treatments
used for asphalt-surfaced pavements.
Table 2. Pavement-maintenance operations.
Operation Type Description
Planned work that is performed on a regular basis to maintain and preserve the
Routine maintenance condition of the highway system or respond to specific conditions and events that
restore the highway system to an adequate level of service.
Actions that are performed in response to sudden, acute problems that must be
Reactive maintenance
corrected to address safety issues and restore normal traffic operations.
Planned strategy of cost-effective treatments applied to an existing roadway system
and its appurtenances that preserves the system, retards future deterioration,
Preventive maintenance
maintains or improves the functional condition of the system, and extends the life of
the existing pavement (without increasing the structural capacity).

Table 3. Maintenance treatments for asphalt-surfaced pavements.
Treatment Definition
It is used to treat localized distresses. These repairs address surface distresses
Asphalt patching
and full-depth patches address structural distresses (Peshkin et al., 2011).
Sprayed application of asphalt (usually emulsion, although heated asphalt
cement and cutbacks are also used) followed by aggregate chips rolled to
achieve 50% to 70% embedment. Different types of chip seals are obtained
Chip seal
by varying the binder, the aggregate, or by placing multiple courses
(Gransberg and James, 2005). Chip seals enhance surface characteristics and
seal the underlying pavement structure.
Milling and sizing reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and mixing in-place
with recycling additive and new aggregate. This is then re-laid and
Cold-in-place recycling compacted as a new base course. Cold-in-place recycling requires that a new
surface be placed over it, usually an asphalt overlay or other surface
treatments (ARRA, 2001).
Placement of adhesive material into and over non-working cracks; minimal
Crack filling
crack preparation, lower-quality materials used (Decker, 2014).
Placement of adhesive material into and over working cracks; good crack
Crack sealing
preparation, high-quality materials used (Decker, 2014).
Very light application of asphalt emulsion on pavement surface. Fog seals
apply additional asphalt to seal the existing asphalt surface, while the
Fog seal/rejuvenator
composition of rejuvenators allows them to penetrate slightly into the surface
and reduce the stiffness of the pavement at its surface (Peshkin et al., 2011).
The removal and replacement of a portion of the surface of an existing
asphalt pavement to correct surface distresses within the top 2 in. (51 mm).
Hot-in-place recycling The pavement surface is softened by heat, mechanically loosened, picked up,
and mixed with recycling agent, aggregate, rejuvenators, and/or virgin
asphalt, and then relayed (ARRA, 2001).
Mix of crushed, well-graded aggregate, mineral filler, and latex-modified
emulsified asphalt. Microsurfacing can seal non-working cracks, restore
Microsurfacing desirables surface characteristics, fill ruts, and seal off the pavement
structure. This is usually delivered with specialized mixing and placement
equipment (ISSA, 2010).
Process of removing pavement material from the surface of the pavement to
either prepare the surface to receive overlays (by removing rutting and
Milling
surface irregularities), restore pavement cross slopes and profile, or re-
establish the pavement’s surface friction characteristics (micromilling).
Devices added to a pavement after it is in service to facilitate the removal of
subsurface water. These devices usually consist of a drainage feature that is
placed between the edge of the pavement and the shoulder. This technique is
Retrofitted edge drains
used to collect water that has infiltrated into the pavement structure and to
discharge it to the ditches through regularly spaced outlet drains (Smith,
Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008).
Mixture of quick- or slow-setting emulsified asphalt, well-graded fine
Slurry seal aggregate, mineral filler, and water. It is used to fill cracks and seal areas or
the entire surface of asphalt pavements (ISSA, 2010).
Asphalt binder (may be polymerized or rubber-modified) and dense-graded,
gap-graded, or open-graded aggregate combined in central mixing placement
and placed with paver in thickness ranging from 0.625 in. to 0.75 in. (16 mm
Thin and ultra-thin overlays
to 19 mm) for ultra-thin and 0.75 in. to 1.5 in. (19 mm to 38 mm) for thin
overlays. Costs and performance depend on the binder type and whether
milling has been performed prior to treatment placement (Newcomb, 2009).
Bituminous layer placed on top of an existing pavement and bonded with a
thick, polymer-modified asphalt emulsion tack to improve the functional or
Ultra-thin bonded wearing surface characteristics of pavements, including enhancing friction and
course reducing noise. Consists of open-graded or gap-graded aggregates and rubber
or polymer-modified asphalt layers 0.4 in. to 0.8 in. (10 mm to 20 mm) thick,
well bonded to the pavement surface (Newcomb, 2009).
Thin, 2 in. to 5 in. (50 mm to 125 mm), Portland cement concrete overlay of
an existing HMA pavement. The overlay provides a stable surface that is
Bonded concrete resurfacing
resistant to deformation from static, slow moving, and turning loads (Smith,

Concrete-Surface Pavements
Concrete-surface pavements are pavements surfaced with concrete, and include jointed plain
concrete pavements (JPCP), jointed reinforced concrete pavements (JRCP), and continuously
reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP). In general, these pavements consist of a concrete sur-
face on one or more granular or bound layers and also include various concrete overlays that
can be placed on existing concrete pavements (unbonded and bonded concrete overlays) or
on existing asphalt pavements (conventional whitetopping, thin, and ultra-thin whitetopping).
However, the maintenance and preservation activities for these different pavement types are
largely identical (although there are some variations in how the treatment is executed depend-
ing on whether the pavement is jointed or a CRCP). Table 4 provides a summary of the various
maintenance and preservation treatments applied to concrete-surfaced pavements.
Table 4. Maintenance treatments for concrete-surfaced pavements.
Treatment Definition
Placement of an adhesive material into and over working cracks. Often
Crack sealing characterized by good crack preparation and use of high-quality sealant
materials (Smith, Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008).
Technique used to maintain load transfer across non-working longitudinal
Cross stitching cracks in concrete pavements that are in relatively good condition
(Smith, Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008)
Removal of a thin concrete layer, 0.12 in. to 0.25 in. (3 mm to 6 mm), from the
Diamond grinding pavement surface using special equipment outfitted with diamond-tipped saw
blades (Smith, Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008).
Cutting narrow, discrete grooves (typically longitudinal) into the pavement
Diamond grooving surface to increase tire-pavement contact when the surface is wet and to reduce
noise (Smith, Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008).
Removal and replacement of deteriorated concrete through the full depth of the
Full-depth repair
slab; may be cast-in-place or precast (Smith, Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008).
Removal of existing longitudinal/transverse joint sealants and preparation and
Joint resealing
installation of new sealant material (Smith, Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008).
Installation of dowel bars or other mechanical devices at transverse joints or
Load transfer retrofit cracks in order to effectively transfer wheel loads across slabs and reduce
deflections (Peshkin et al., 2011).
Localized removal and replacement of deteriorated concrete (most often in the
Partial-depth repair
vicinity of joints) in the upper third of the slab (Peshkin et al., 2011).
Devices added to a pavement after it has been in service to facilitate the
removal of subsurface water. These devices usually consist of a drainage
feature that is placed between the edge of the pavement and the shoulder. This
Retrofitted edge drains
technique is used to collect water that has infiltrated into the pavement
structure and to discharge it to the ditches through regularly spaced outlet
drains (Smith, Hoerner, and Peshkin, 2008).
Restoration of support beneath concrete slabs by filling voids and thereby
reducing deflections. Slab stabilization involves raising slabs to their desired
Slab stabilization
elevation by pressure and inserting material beneath settled slabs (Smith,
Asphalt binder (may be polymerized) and dense-graded, gap-graded, or open-
graded aggregate combined in central mixing placement and placed with paver
in thickness ranging from 0.625 in. to 0.75 in. (16 mm to 19 mm) for ultra-thin
Thin and ultra-thin overlay
and 0.75 in. to 1.5 in. (19 mm to 38 mm) for thin overlays. Costs and
performance depend in part on binder type and whether milling has been
performed prior to treatment placement (Newcomb, 2009).
Bituminous layer placed on top of an existing concrete pavement to improve
the functional or surface characteristics of the pavement, including enhancing
Ultra-thin bonded wearing course friction and reducing noise. Consists of open-graded or gap-graded aggregates
and rubberized or polymer-modified asphalt layers 0.4 in. to 0.8 in. (10 mm to
20 mm) thick well bonded to the concrete surface (Newcomb, 2009).

Table 5. Pavement-maintenance costs.
Term Description
Labor hours and unit rates to perform maintenance work (in-house and by
Labor
contractors); sum product of hours and unit rates
Equipment Cost of equipment (rental or purchase); sum product of usage hours and unit costs
Materials and quantities used in the maintenance activity; sum product of material
Materials
quantities and unit costs
Pay item List of pay items and unit costs; sum product of pay items used and unit costs
Traffic mobilization Cost to provide traffic control to perform maintenance work
Cost elements that may be included within cost such as administrative or non-
Overhead/other
activity related costs that were assigned to the maintenance project
Quantity of maintenance work performed, in units of length or area, related to the
Accomplishment sum of labor, equipment, material, traffic mobilization, and overhead costs to
develop the unit cost of treatment
Composite Pavements
Composite pavements are pavement structures consisting of a combination of asphalt and
concrete layers. Most commonly these are asphalt overlays of concrete pavements (concrete
overlays of asphalt pavements are discussed in the section on concrete pavements). For mainte-
nance purposes, the same treatments applied to asphalt-surfaced pavements apply to composite
pavements. However, two forms of deterioration—delamination and reflection cracking—may
trigger the need for maintenance that is not typically covered for the two primary pavement
types. Sawing and sealing joints in the HMA overlay and the use of membranes or interlayers
are techniques used to mitigate reflection cracking in composite pavements. Otherwise mainte-
nance activities for composite pavements are the same as to those described for asphalt-surfaced
or concrete-surfaced pavements.
Pavement-Maintenance Costs
A review of pavement-maintenance activity practices by state DOTs showed a variety of terms
and boundaries to describe pavement-maintenance costs. Maintenance costs are computed from
the use of resources that include labor, equipment, and materials. Cost calculations also require
pay items, quantities, and bid prices. Maintenance accomplishments include quantity of main-
tenance work performed, which may be expressed in units specific to maintenance operations
or as quantities of a specific maintenance activity. Eventually, these items are used to develop the
unit costs associated with a particular operation or activity. Often there is a difference in these
costs that is based on whether the work is performed in-house by state forces or contracted out.
When the work is performed by a contractor, depending on the terms of the contract, the costs of
the various elements can be identified fairly easily. However, if the work is performed in-house,
practices for calculating the true cost of the various elements of the work or the overall activ-
ity vary substantially and the disparities between the calculated costs associated with different
methods of completing the work should be considered. Table 5 describes each of the cost terms.
Pavement-Maintenance Data
Current practices for maintenance data management vary dramatically among state highway
agencies as no single predominant system is available or in use. One common trend among
DOTs is the use of an MMS to store pavement-maintenance construction information. Most

commonly, maintenance activity data is stored centrally within the agency, although many
detailed aspects of the maintenance operation, activity, and cost remains decentralized in dis-
tricts or regional offices. The following sections highlight some of the state DOT practices related
to pavement-maintenance data collection.
Data Collection Methods

The use of mobile data collection has becoming increasingly popular in pavement manage-
ment implementations. The North Carolina DOT conducted a study on the feasibility of using
personal data assistants (PDAs) to collect employee and equipment time, work accomplishments,
and work locations (using GPS) for input into their MMS (Edgerton, Pilson, and Whitley, 2009).
This study found that smaller, rugged PDAs improved productivity and the GPS locations were
very accurate in locating the sites (95% of the time the locations were within 50 feet of a mapped
roadway centerline and 80% of the time the locations were within 10 feet). Based on this study,
the North Carolina DOT decided to make mobile pavement-maintenance data collection a regu-
lar practice.
The Texas DOT recently conducted the pilot implementation of a web-based GIS system to
provide information for pavement-maintenance decision making (Zhang and Murphy, 2013). The
system provides historical data on pavement conditions and performance and other pavement
inventory that enables the user to develop performance trends based on a family of pavement
sections.
Australia has also recognized the need to establish centralized databases for analyzing the
effectiveness of pavement-maintenance treatments. A nationwide PMDb covering a range of
roadways from various states in Australia was established by the Australian Road Research Board
(Martin, Byrne, and Aguiar, 2011). The database includes information on pavement-condition
data, roughness, rutting, texture, traffic, maintenance-related expenditures, and routine, periodic,
and other rehabilitation activities.
Data Collection Practices

Types of Data Collected
Pavement-maintenance data collected by most agencies include:
• Material type and quantity,
• Labor,
• Equipment,
• Cost,
• Maintenance method and activity,
• General location (between markers or mileposts), and
• Construction data.
Pavement-maintenance data not collected by most highway agencies include:
• Precise location (using GPS),
• Pavement condition at time of maintenance,
• Weather at time of maintenance, and
• Periodic performance after construction.
A survey was conducted to identify various existing pavement-maintenance data collec-
tion practices (see Appendix A). In response to the survey, many state DOTs reported that
some pavement-maintenance data related to labor and equipment are typically not tracked
if the maintenance work is done thorough contract. They also noted that, in general, there are

significant differences in the type of information collected and the level of details reported if
the work is done by contract or in-house.
Regarding cost data, while reporting a single unit cost may appear to be straightforward, agen-
cies do not use a consistent unit measure for any given treatment. For example, some agencies
pay for crack sealing by the pound and some by the linear foot. In addition, the survey identified
that cost data can be highly variable, depending on such factors as the location of the job, the size
of the job, the contracting method, the ancillary activities included in the treatment placement,
and the condition of the pavement.
Pavement-Maintenance Work Done by Contractors

Most of the state DOTs that responded to the survey indicated that they use contractors to
provide pavement-maintenance services and noted that approximately 55% of the pavement-
maintenance work was done by in-house agency forces (including other public agencies acting
on the agency’s behalf) and 45% of the pavement-maintenance needs were done by the contrac-
tors. Surface treatments (e.g., chip seals, slurry seals, microsurfacing) are typically performed by
contractors. The patching and crack sealing work is shared almost equally between contractors
and the in-house agency forces. Many state DOTs indicated that no general reporting require-
ments are placed on contractors hired for pavement-maintenance work; a few required hard
copies, electronic data, or tabular summaries of the work performed.
Use of Data Collected

Pavement-Maintenance Data
Survey responses indicate that pavement-maintenance data is used primarily to:
• Develop budgets,
• Track labor use,
• Schedule future maintenance work,
• Compare work accomplished versus planned work,
• Track material and equipment usage,
• Track pavement performance,
• Identify the most suitable maintenance actions based on pavement condition,
• Select cost-effective treatment strategies,
• Develop treatment performance models, and
• Validate performance of specific treatments.
Pavement-Maintenance Treatments
The selection of appropriate treatments must consider relevant factors, including the follow-
ing (Hicks, Seeds, and Peshkin, 2000):
• Existing pavement type,
• Type and extent of distress,
• Climate,
• Cost of treatment,
• Availability of qualified contractors,
• Time of year of placement,
• Facility downtime,
• Traffic loading,
• Expected life,
• Availability of quality materials,
• Pavement noise and surface friction,

• Anticipated level of service, and

• Other project-specific requirements.
Many of these factors must be collected in order to make appropriate pavement-maintenance

decisions. Thus, a national database of maintenance treatments and effectiveness is needed to
support the decisions. An example of a sequential approach for evaluating possible preservation
treatments and the data required to make decisions for an existing pavement and identifying the
preferred one is shown in Figure 2 (Peshkin et al., 2011).
NOTE: MPD = mean profile depth, MTD = mean texture depth, IFI = International Friction Index.
Figure 2. Process of selecting the preferred preservation treatment.

Figure 3. Basic components of a

typical pavement system.
Pavement Inventory Terms

Pavement is defined as the structure constructed above the existing subgrade soil, typically
placed in distinct layers and including compacted/natural subgrade, subbase, base, and the riding
surface (Figure 3). Broadly, this encompasses pavement structures in a number of different
facility types, such as highways, streets, roads, shoulders, and parking areas, but the focus of this
project is on pavement structures used in mainline paving of highways/roadways.
To describe the existing pavements on which maintenance operations may be performed,
DOTs commonly classify their pavement inventory. The data elements and definitions related
to pavement data are summarized in Table 6.
Pavement-Condition Terms
Maintenance treatments generally have some effect on the condition of pavements. Different
performance measures are used by highway agencies to evaluate the effectiveness of maintenance
actions; not all measures are applicable to study the effectiveness of every maintenance action
[e.g., the International Roughness Index (IRI) is not a good measure for the effectiveness of
crack sealing treatments, especially in the short term]. Overall performance measures (compos-
ite condition indices computed using raw distress data quantities) are among the most widely
Table 6. Pavement inventory data elements.
Data Element Description

Process by which streets and highways are grouped into classes or systems,
according to the character of traffic service that they are intended to provide. The
Functional classification
highway performance monitoring system (HPMS) classification codes are
commonly used.
Classification of the general climate conditions in which the pavement-
Climatic zone maintenance activities are performed. The HPMS and long-term pavement
performance (LTPP) climatic zones are commonly used.
Characteristics of the traffic operating on pavements, in terms of parameters such
Traffic loading as equivalent single axle load (ESAL), average annual daily traffic (AADT),
percentage of truck traffic, and growth rates of traffic.
Classification of the existing surface material (asphalt, concrete, existing
Pavement surface
preservation treatment) and thickness.
Characteristics of pavement layer(s) in the maintenance section including
materials (aggregate type/gradation, binder, additives, other proprietary products
Pavement layer(s)
etc.), thickness, and overall function of the layer (base, structural, wearing,
repair).
Pavement subgrade Characteristics of the soil and subgrade material and stiffness.
Longitudinal, lateral, or other features designed to move subsurface moisture
Subsurface drainage
away from the pavement structure.

Table 7. Pavement-performance measures.
Performance Measure Description

Distress types, severities, and quantities noted based on pavement-condition
Individual distresses
surveys
Composite indices used to describe pavement surface conditions using raw
Overall condition indicator
distressed data collected (e.g., PCI, PCR)
Effectiveness of the treatment in addressing distresses and slowing down the
Pavement service life
rate of deterioration; may be computed based on individual distresses or
extension
overall condition indicators
Effectiveness of the treatment in improving safety-related characteristics (e.g.,
Safety
friction, texture)
Effectiveness of the treatment in improving the overall smoothness and ride
Ride quality
quality of the surface (e.g., IRI, profile index)
Effectiveness of the treatment in reducing the noise due to tire-pavement
Noise
interaction
used. Levels of service are also frequently used by maintenance. In addition to the maintenance
activities performed to improve the service life of the pavements and delay major rehabilitation
activities, some treatments may be applied to address safety issues, reduce noise, and improve
the overall ride quality. Table 7 summarizes the measures that describe pavement-maintenance
treatment performance.
Pavement-Condition Data
Most agencies use PMS as the primary data source to track and report the performance of
pavement-maintenance treatments over time. The use of PMS has grown considerably since
its initial implementation by state highway agencies beginning in the late 1970s. A relatively
recent trend is the emergence and growth of pavement preventive maintenance and preserva-
tion programs.
Pavement-Performance Parameters
Most states collect individual distress data (e.g., cracking, rutting, faulting), composite
pavement-condition indices [e.g., Pavement Condition Index (PCI), Pavement Condition
Rating (PCR), or Pavement Serviceability Index (PSI)], and ride indices [e.g., IRI, Ride Condi-
tion Index (RCI)]. Very few states use subjective indices (e.g., good, fair, poor) to supplement
the other data collected.
Data Collection Frequency and Methods

Performance data on the National Highway System (NHS) routes and other primary routes
are generally collected every year. Performance data on other functional classes are typically
conducted every two years. The frequency of collection also varies in terms of coverage. Most
states collect performance data on a single representative lane within the given pavement route
while others collect multiple lanes of information.
State highway agencies are making conscious efforts to embrace state-of-the-art technologies
to collect data related to pavement maintenance. Pavement-performance data are currently col-
lected through both manual and automated surveys as a part of the PMS program. Automated
surveys are more common, although manual surveys are still conducted. Only a small percent-
age of the respondents to the survey noted that they used handheld devices or computers in
the field to collect and report data. Thus many pavement-maintenance data elements are not
captured digitally during initial data collection processes.

Integrating Pavement Management and Pavement Maintenance

The integration of pavement maintenance into pavement management requires a concen-
trated effort on the part of transportation agencies to re-evaluate their existing data collection
activities, to revise and update performance modeling approaches, and to improve overall pro-
gram development activities. The desired outcome is that the need for pavement-maintenance
treatments, the timing of application, and their performance (and effectiveness) be identified
within an agency’s PMS, and that the benefits realized from the application of the treatments be
accounted for in the system’s optimization analysis.
Pavement-Condition Data Practices

Most highway agencies use some form of an overall pavement condition indicator (e.g., PCI,
PCR) to assess the general performance of pavements. However, the overall pavement condition
indicator may not capture the true performance of some maintenance treatments. Maintenance
treatments may be applied primarily to seal the pavement, to improve safety characteristics, to
improve the general ride quality, or to address pavement-tire noise. While appropriate measures
to determine if such treatments are effective may be available through the PMS used by the state
highway agencies, some relevant information may not be available.
Recent studies have evaluated agency-wide pavement-maintenance and pavement-preservation
treatments (Ram and Peshkin, 2013; Peshkin, Ram, and Wolters, 2012), and considered the fol-
lowing items:
• Purpose of the treatment application (e.g., whether it was applied to address noise or friction,
seal the pavement, or stopgap),
• Cost of the treatment on a project-by-project basis,
• Equipment used to perform the maintenance activity,
• Materials data (e.g., aggregate gradation, binder details) and the quantities used,
• Condition of the pavement prior to the placement of the preservation treatment, and
• Accuracy of recording the location of the maintenance treatment and the ability to link the
location to the details stored in the PMS.
Two recent studies observed a lack of consistency in identifying treatments in PMDb (Ram
and Peshkin, 2013; Peshkin, Ram, and Wolters, 2012). A single type of treatment was noted to
have several names, which made it difficult for agencies to determine if the treatments are actu-
ally the same when modeling and comparing performance. Also, in some cases, only the year of
treatment application and pavement condition data collection were noted; the specific date of
the treatment was not recorded. This causes problems when analyzing the data if the pavement
collection and its treatment application occur in the same year. If the date of a treatment applica-
tion and pavement-condition data collection is not available, it is not possible to determine with
complete confidence if the pavement-condition data collection was performed prior to or after
the application of the treatment. Therefore, it is important to establish a database structure that
captures the critical elements of PMS and MMS and highlights the performance associated with
pavement-maintenance treatments.
Summary of Pavement Maintenance

Pavement-maintenance programs vary across the United States. While highway agencies may
perform many of the same maintenance activities, there is wide variation in how these activities
are identified, recorded, and reported. The use of a uniform or standardized database framework
and consistent definitions and measures for recording maintenance activities will facilitate the
evaluation of the effectiveness of maintenance and preservation treatments and decisions regard-
ing the use of the treatments.

CHAPTER 3
Database System
The PMDb framework provides the ability to store a historical record of pavement sections,
pavement-maintenance treatments, and their subsequent performances. The framework pro-
vides a means for establishing a record of actions that includes uniform descriptions of mainte-
nance activities, basis of measurements, costs, pavement conditions, and other relevant data for
use in cost-benefit analysis; evaluating the effects of maintenance on pavement performance;
selecting the maintenance actions needed, or making other related decisions.
The PMDb framework was structured to provide an archive of maintenance events and
condition-observation events for a defined section of a roadway. Each event record in the PMDb
framework contains information on a specific pavement section where a maintenance event and
a condition-observation event may occur. Given that maintenance and performance measures
are attributed to different pavement section boundaries, PMDb performs dynamic segmenta-
tion that allows for the identification of homogeneous pavement sections for further study.
Pavement-maintenance data terms and elements contained in PMDb are defined to provide
a common attribution of all activities. PMDb provides tools for index and value translations to
allow DOTs to transform their input data to the appropriate PMDb definition. Where appropri-
ate, new data elements and definitions can be created, thus providing PMDb the ability to adapt
to evolving maintenance and condition measures.
Figure 4 illustrates a model that allows for the stacking of multiple layers of data upon a defined
roadway section over time. This is particularly important as many maintenance treatments
require numerous years of use and condition assessment to demonstrate measurable differences
in performance.
Pavement-Maintenance Data Elements and Terms

The PMDb framework was structured to facilitate the archival of maintenance events and
condition-observation events for a defined section of a roadway. Each pavement section
recorded in PMDb will contain information on a specific pavement section and may contain
data in one of three categories—inventory, maintenance activity, and condition—as shown
in Figure 5.
• Inventory. This category of data elements and terms contains information related to the
existing roadway and location conditions. This includes the general climate, traffic, and other
conditions that may influence the types of maintenance treatments selected.
• Maintenance. This category of data elements and terms encapsulates all information related to
the specific maintenance activity. This includes the date for the activity, the resources used, and
any material-specific attributes that may be helpful in determining effectiveness.
17

Figure 4. Schematic of pavement

section and event layer data.
• Condition. This category encapsulates the data terms and elements that describe how the
pavement-maintenance treatment is performing over time or the outcome of the pavement-
maintenance activity. This includes the ability to attribute certain distresses to pavement
sections and track them over time.
The following section describes the data elements within the PMDb framework. Elements and
attributes can be added to support the evolving data requirements for the database framework.
A description of the data attributes is provided as well as an indication on if the field is required.
A required attribute means that a value must be provided for the attribute in order for it to
be valid. In addition, numerous data attributes have recommended validation ranges to help
Figure 5. Pavement section data elements.

Pavement-Maintenance Database System 19
provide guidance on acceptable values. Finally, where appropriate, a common list of value types
is enumerated to ensure consistency in data over time.
Pavement-Maintenance Data Definitions

Pavement Section Data Elements
A pavement section is defined as a fixed length segment on a route. The data elements described
in this section are common for all pavement sections stored within PMDb. The data elements
are attributed to inventory, maintenance activity, and condition and describe where and when
a particular event took place. The subsequent sections also indicate whether the data elements
are required to be entered into PMDb and if there is a valid range of values that are expected.
• Location. These data elements are used to describe where a particular event or maintenance
activity took place on a defined route. Location data elements are described in Table 8.
• Time. These data elements are used to describe when a particular event took place to establish
the chronological order of the activities that occurred on a given pavement section. Time data
elements are described in Table 9.
Pavement Inventory Data Elements

Inventory data elements are used to describe the pavement section on which the maintenance
activity is performed. The following data elements are common for all inventory sections within
PMDb.
• General. General data elements are used to describe the classification of the pavement section on
which the maintenance activity was performed. General data elements are described in Table 10.
• Traffic. Traffic data elements are used to describe the loading characteristics on the mainte-
nance activity that has been performed. Traffic data elements are described in Table 11.
Table 8. Pavement section location data elements.
Data Element Description Required?

State State abbreviation where the route is located Yes
Route Proper name of the route Yes
Direction Direction of travel on the route Yes
Lane Lane number or notation of lanes on the route No
Begin reference point Beginning reference point (milepost) on the route Yes
End reference point Ending reference point (milepost) on the route Yes
Table 9. Pavement section time data elements.
Data Element Description Required? Valid Range

Year Year when the source record item started Yes 1900–2100
Month Month, if known, of the source record item No 1–12
Day Day, if known, of the source record item No 1–31
End year, if known, for a source record item that
End year No 1900–2100
spans a period of time
End month, if known, for a source record item
End month No 1–12
that spans a period of time
End day, if known, for a source record item that
End day No 1–31
spans a period of time

Table 10. Pavement inventory: general data elements.
Data Element Description Required? Default Values

Interstate
Other freeways and expressways
Other principal arterial
HPMS functional
Functional classification Yes Minor arterial
classification code
Major collector
Minor collector
Local
Rural
Small urban
Rural code HPMS urbanized area code Yes
Large urban
Federal-aid interstate
Dry freeze
Environmental conditions at
Wet freeze
Climatic zone the location of the Yes
Dry no freeze
pavement
Wet no freeze
Table 11. Pavement inventory: traffic data elements.
Valid
Range
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic Yes >0
Percentage of the AADT that comprises heavy vehicle truck
Truck Traffic Yes ≥0
traffic (defined as FHWA Class 9 or greater)
ESALs Equivalent single axle loads on the road section No ≥0
Table 12. Pavement inventory: pavement surface data elements.
Valid
Range
Not Asphalt
Type of material used on the
Surface material Yes applicable Concrete
existing surface
(n/a) Existing treatment
Thickness of the surface
Thickness Yes ≥0 n/a
material layer in inches
• Pavement Surface. Pavement surface data elements are used to describe the existing pave-
ment surface on which the maintenance treatment was performed. Pavement surface data
elements are described in Table 12.
• Pavement Structure. Pavement structure data elements describe the structural state of the
pavement on which the maintenance activity was performed. Information on the structure
can be provided by layer. Pavement structure data elements are described in Table 13.
Pavement-Maintenance Activity Data Elements

The following data elements are common for all maintenance activity events within PMDb.
Maintenance activity data elements describe each pavement-maintenance operation.
• General. General data elements are used to describe the maintenance activities that have been
performed. General data elements are described in Table 14.
• Cost. Cost data elements are used to describe the cost elements for the maintenance activity
that has been performed. Cost data elements are described in Table 15.

Table 13. Pavement inventory: pavement structure data elements.
Valid
Range
An integer value indicating
layer sequence, starting with 0
Layer number Yes ≥0 n/a
for subgrade, and incrementing
with each additional layer
Material type found in the
Material Yes n/a n/a
pavement layer
Base
Structural
Pavement layer Purpose of the layer in the
Yes ≥0 Wearing
function pavement cross section
Repair
Leveling/wedge
Name of the material used in
Subgrade material No n/a n/a
the subgrade
Resilient modulus of the
Subgrade stiffness subgrade in pounds per square No ≥0 n/a
inch
Table 14. Pavement-maintenance activity: general data elements.

See asphalt-surface pavement
Name of the specific
treatment data elements
Treatment name maintenance activity being Yes
and concrete-surface pavement
performed
treatment data elements
Preventive
Category of maintenance
Treatment type Yes Routine
treatment
Reactive
Safety improvement
Noise reduction
Purpose or objective in placing Service life extension
Treatment reason Yes
the maintenance treatment Condition improvement
Ride improvement
Stopgap
In-house
Type of contract for the Contractor
Contract type Yes
maintenance treatment Warranty
Performance
Table 15. Pavement-maintenance activity: cost data elements.
Valid
Range
Total project cost for the
Total cost Yes >0
maintenance activity
Loaded cost of labor to apply
Labor cost No >0
treatment, $/unit
Rental or implied rental rate
Equipment cost for equipment used in No >0
treatment construction
Cost of all materials used in
Material cost No >0
treatment
Cost for providing traffic
Traffic control cost No >0
control, per project
Applied overhead cost per
Overhead cost No >0
project, if work done in-house

Asphalt-Surface Pavement Treatment Data Elements

This section shows the data elements that are available in the PMDb framework for each
asphalt-surface pavement treatment activity. These data elements are treatment specific and
define characteristics specific to the maintenance treatment activity that may be further used to
differentiate effectiveness. Tables 16 through 29 describe the data elements associated with each
of the maintenance treatments for asphalt-surface pavements, as described in Table 3.
Table 16. Asphalt patching data elements.
Valid
Range
Cold mix
Hot mix
Type of asphalt material used
Material Yes n/a Proprietary patch
for patching
Automated patch
Equipment material
Approximate area of patch in
Patch area Yes >0 n/a
square feet
Depth of patch at the deepest
Patch depth Yes 0–10 n/a
point in inches
None
Compressed air
Steps taken to prepare a patch Milling
Preparation method area before patch material is No n/a Saw cut
placed and compacted Jack hammer
Bucket
Automated equipment
Throw and go
Techniques for placing Throw, roll, and go
Placement No n/a
material in prepared patch area Automated equipment
Paver
Steps taken to complete
patching operations before Compaction
Finishing No n/a
pavement is ready to be Seal edges
opened to traffic
Cost to apply the asphalt patch
Cost No >0 n/a
per square foot

Table 17. Chip seal data elements.
Valid
Range
Hot-applied
Cutback
CRS-1
Asphalt product sprayed on CRS-1H
Binder type pavement surface prior to Yes n/a CRS-2
application of aggregate CRS-2H
CRS-2P
HFRS
HFRS-2P
Binder application Rate of binder application in
No >0 n/a
rate gallons per square foot
Limestone
Quartzite
Granite
Trap rock
Sandstone
Aggregate type Source of stone No n/a Natural gravels
Basalt
Manufactured
aggregate
Precoated
Other
5⁄8 in.
½ in.
Size of largest aggregate in 3⁄8 in.
Aggregate top size No n/a
gradation
¼ in.
#4
Average rate of aggregate
Aggregate
chip application in pounds per No n/a n/a
application rate
square foot
Pneumatic
Type of roller used to embed
Roller type No n/a Static steel wheel
and orient aggregate
Other
Is surface swept to remove Yes
Brooming used No n/a
loose stones? No
Time of brooming after
Brooming timing No >0 n/a
placement, in hours
Is additional binder applied to
Yes
Surface seal finished surface to promote No n/a
No
aggregate bond?
Single
Double
Defined by sequence and type
Triple
Seal type of materials used to construct Yes n/a
Racked-in
treatment
Cape
Inverted
Sandwich
Geotextile reinforced
Other
Cost to apply chip seal,
including binder, aggregate,
Cost and any post-construction No >0 n/a
activities (e.g., brooming,
fogging)

Table 18. Cold-in-place recycling data elements.
Valid
Range
Recycling train
Equipment used Name of equipment used Yes n/a
Single machine
Average depth of activity in
Depth Yes >0 n/a
inches
ASTM D4552
Rejuvenating agent Name of rejuvenating agent No n/a
Types A, B, C, D, E
If additional surfacing is used,
it needs to be indicated. The
additional surfacing can then Yes
Additional surfacing No n/a
be added as an additional No
treatment using the types
described here.
Type of treatment eventually
Chip seal
Type of surfacing placed after existing surface No n/a
HMA overlay
has been milled or pulverized
Average thickness of activity
Thickness of surfacing No ≥0 n/a
in inches
Total cost to apply treatment,
Cost per square foot (including No >0 n/a
final surface, if applied)
Table 19. Crack filling data elements.
Valid
Range
ASTM D6690 Type I
ASTM D6690 Type II
Material Type of sealant product Yes n/a ASTM D6690 Type III
ASTM D6690 Type IV
ASTM D5078
Quantity of cracks filled per
Quantity Yes >0 n/a
linear foot
Steps taken to prepare cracks Water blast
Preparation method for application of sealant No n/a Compressed air
material Sand blast
Recessed
Geometry of placed sealant
Configuration No n/a Flush
material
Overband
In-place cost of material and
In-place cost No >0 n/a
labor per linear foot

Table 20. Crack sealing data elements.
Valid
Range
ASTM D6690 Type I
ASTM D6690 Type II
Material Type of sealant product Yes n/a ASTM D6690 Type III
ASTM D6690 Type IV
ASTM D5078
Quantity of cracks filled per
Quantity Yes >0 n/a
linear foot
Depth of rout or sawcut for
Reservoir depth No 0–3 n/a
placement
Width of crack created by rout
Reservoir width No 0–1 n/a
or sawcut
Rout
Steps taken to prepare cracks Saw cut
Preparation method for application of sealant No n/a Water blast
material Compressed air
Sand blast
Recessed
Geometry of placed sealant
Configuration No n/a Flush
material
Overband
In-place cost of material and
Cost No >0 n/a
labor per linear foot
Table 21. Fog seal/rejuvenator data elements.
Valid
Range
CSS-1h
SS-1h
Binder type Specify grade of the binder Yes n/a
CQS-1h
LMCQS-1h
Dilution rate Percentage of water Yes 0–100 n/a
Binder application Rate of binder application, in
Yes n/a n/a
rate gallons per square foot
Application of sand or other
Yes
Friction cover material to temporarily restore Yes n/a
No
skid
Cost to apply fog seal, including
Cost No >0 n/a
friction cover, per square foot

Table 22. Hot-in-place recycling data elements.
Valid
Range
Single Stage Remixing
Name and/or type of Train
Equipment used Yes n/a
equipment used Multiple Stage
Remixing Train
Average depth of activity in
Depth Yes >0 n/a
inches
ASTM D4552
Rejuvenating agent Name of rejuvenating agent No n/a
Types A, B, C, D, E
If additional surfacing is used,
it needs to be indicated;
additional surfacing can then Yes
Additional surfacing No n/a
be added as an additional No
treatment using the types
described here
Wearing course placed over
Chip seal
Type of surfacing recycling project at time of No n/a
HMA overlay
construction
Average thickness of surface
Thickness of surfacing No ≥0 n/a
in inches
Total cost to apply treatment
Cost per square foot (including No >0 n/a
final surface, if applied)
Table 23. Microsurfacing data elements.
Data Element Description Required? Valid Range Default Values

Classification of type of II
Type Yes n/a
slurry III
SS-1
SS-1h
CSS-1
Type of emulsion used in
Binder Yes n/a CSS-1h
slurry
CQS-1h
Quick-Set mixing
Grade
Average rate of material
Application rate application in pounds per Yes n/a n/a
square yard
Single
Double
Application Type of placement Yes n/a
Rut fill only
Wedge
Seal surface
Reason for placing Fill ruts
Purpose No n/a
treatment Seal wide cracks
Other
Additives to
microsurfacing beyond Fiber
Modification No n/a
binder, aggregate, and Other
cement
Cost to apply treatment per
Cost No >0 n/a
square yard

Table 24. Milling data elements.
Valid
Range
Average depth of milling in
Depth Yes n/a n/a
inches
Milling machine
Equipment Name of equipment used No n/a Cold planer
Micromilling
Cost No >0 n/a
square foot
Table 25. Retrofitted edge drain data elements.
Valid
Range
Pipe edge drain
Prefabricated
geocomposite edge
Drain type Type of edge drain used Yes n/a
drain (PGED)
Aggregate trench or
“French drain”
Location along edge of pavement Pavement shoulder edge
Drain location Yes n/a
where drain is constructed Shoulder edge
Distance below pavement surface
Depth below surface
to the bottom of the drain in Yes 0–36 n/a
to bottom of drain
inches
Material placed around pipe or AASHTO No. 57
Backfill material No n/a
alongside geocomposite Same as base material
Cost to apply treatment per linear
Cost No >0 n/a
foot
Table 26. Slurry seal data elements.
Valid
Range
I
Type Classification of type of slurry Yes n/a II
III
SS-1
SS-1h
CSS-1
Type of emulsion used in
Binder Yes n/a CSS-1h
slurry
CQS-1h
Quick-set mixing
Grade
Indicate if binder was Polymer

Binder modification Yes n/a
modified by selecting a value. Rubber
Average rate of material

Application rate application in pounds per Yes n/a n/a
square yard
Cost No >0 n/a
square yard

Table 27. Thin and ultra-thin overlay data elements.
Valid
Range
PG 64-28
PG 64-22
Binder type PG binder of asphalt used Yes n/a PG 76-22
PG 70-22
PG 70-10
Limestone
Granite
Shale
Sandstone
Aggregate type Source of stone No n/a
Basalt
Manufactured
Slag
Recycled
½ in.
Size of largest aggregate in
Aggregate top size No n/a ⁄ in.
38
gradation
#4
Gap-graded
Aggregate gradation Size distribution of aggregates
Yes n/a Open-graded
type used in mix design
Dense-graded
Average thickness of overlay
Overlay thickness Yes 0.2–0.8 n/a
in inches
Yes
Tack coat Is tack coat used? No n/a
No
Cost No >0 n/a
square foot
Table 28. Ultra-thin bonded wearing course data elements.
Valid
Range
PG 64-28
PG 64-22
Type of material used in mix
Binder Yes n/a PG 76-22
to bind aggregates together
PG 70-22
PG 70-10
Limestone
Granite
Shale
Source of stone used in Sandstone
Aggregate type No n/a
surfacing Basalt
Manufactured
Slag
Recycled
Size of largest aggregate in ½ in.
Aggregate top size No n/a 3⁄8 in.
gradation
#4
Aggregate gradation Size distribution of Open-graded
Yes n/a
type aggregates used in mix design Gap-graded
Placement Name and/or type of
No n/a Spray paver
equipment equipment used
Type of modifier used in tack Polymer
Tack coat binder Yes n/a
coat Rubber
Average depth of ultra-thin
Thickness bonded wearing course in No ≥0 n/a
inches
Cost No >0 n/a
square foot

Table 29. Bonded concrete resurfacing data elements.
Valid
Range
Thickness Average depth of surface in inches Yes ≥0 n/a
Slab width Typical concrete slab width in feet No >0 n/a
Slab length Typical concrete slab length in feet No >0 n/a
Cost Cost to apply treatment per square foot No >0 n/a
Concrete-Surface Pavement Treatment Data Elements

This section shows the data elements that are available in the PMDb framework for each
concrete-surface pavement treatment activity. These data elements are treatment specific and
define characteristics specific to the maintenance treatment activity that may be further used
to differentiate effectiveness. Tables 30 through 38 describe the data elements associated with
each of the maintenance treatments for concrete-surface pavements, as described in Table 4.
Table 30. Crack sealing data elements.
Valid
Range
Steps taken to prepare crack Saw
Crack preparation
for application of sealant Yes n/a Rout
method
material None
Width of rout or sawcut for
Reservoir width Yes 0–1.5 n/a
placement in inches
Depth of crack created by
Reservoir depth Yes 0–2 n/a
rout or sawcut in inches
Material inserted into
Yes
Backer road prepared crack to help No n/a
No
achieve desired shape factor
ASTM D6690
Type of material used in
Sealant material Yes n/a D5078
crack sealing process
D5893
Cost No >0 n/a
linear foot
Table 31. Cross stitching data elements.
Valid
Range
Material used in cross stitching
Stitching material Yes n/a Rebar
process
Stitch length Length of stitch in feet Yes >0 n/a
Stitch diameter Diameter of stitch in inches No >0 n/a
Stitch spacing Spacing of stitches in inches Yes 1–36 n/a
Type of material grouted into Epoxy
Grout type Yes n/a
drilled holes Cement
Cost No >0 n/a
linear foot

Table 32. Diamond grinding data elements.
Valid
Range
Type of process used for Conventional
Method Yes n/a
diamond grinding operation NEXTGEN
Groove width Width of groove in inches No 0–0.4 n/a
Spacing between grooves in
Land area No 0–1 n/a
inches
Depth Depth of groove in inches Yes 0–0.5 n/a
Density of diamond blades in
Number of blades No < 65 n/a
number of blades per foot
Cost No >0 n/a
square foot
Table 33. Diamond grooving data elements.
Valid
Range
Grooving pattern constructed Transverse
Orientation Yes n/a
on pavement surface Longitudinal
Spacing between grooves in
Land area No 0–2 n/a
inches
Groove depth Depth of groove in inches No 0–0.5 n/a
Groove width Width of groove in inches No 0–0.4 n/a
Cost No >0 n/a
square foot
Table 34. Full-depth repair data elements.
Valid
Range
Length in the direction
Surface area of repair in square of traffic
Area Yes n/a
feet Width perpendicular to
the direction of traffic
Depth Depth of repair in inches Yes 0–18 n/a
Transverse joint
Location where repair is to be
Repair location Yes n/a Longitudinal joint
performed within a given slab
Mid-panel
Type of repair material used in Cast-in-place PCC
Repair material Yes n/a
patch Precast panel
Saw and jackhammer
Method used to prepare Jackhammer
Preparation method pavement for placement of Yes n/a Mill
patch repair material Drill and lift-out
Other
Tie-bar
Specify load transfer method
Load transfer Dowel bar
employed at leading joint on No n/a
method, front joint Nothing
slab in direction of travel
Other
Tie-bar
Load transfer Specify load transfer method
Dowel bar
method, passenger employed at joint on right side No n/a
Nothing
side joint of slab in direction of travel
Other

Table 34. (Continued).
Valid
Range
Tie-bar
Load transfer Specify load transfer method
Dowel bar
method, driver side employed at joint on left side of No n/a
Nothing
joint slab in direction of travel
Other
Tie-bar
Specify load transfer method
Load transfer Dowel bar
employed at trailing joint on No n/a
method, rear joint Nothing
slab in direction of travel
Other
Time to trafficking, Curing time required before
No >0 n/a
hour patch can be open to traffic
Cost No >0 n/a
cubic foot
Table 35. Joint resealing data elements.
Data Element Description Valid

Required? Default Values
Range
Saw
Joint preparation Steps taken to prepare joint for
Yes n/a Rout
method application of sealant material
None
Width of rout or sawcut for
Reservoir width Yes 0–1.5 n/a
placement in inches
Depth of crack created by rout
Reservoir depth Yes 0–2 n/a
or sawcut in inches
Material inserted in joint
Yes
Backer road reservoir to help achieve No n/a
No
desired shape factor
ASTM D6690
Type of material used in joint
Sealant material Yes n/a D5893 (silicone)
sealing process
D2628 (neoprene)
Transverse
Longitudinal
Joint type Type of joint being sealed No n/a
Isolation
All
Cost >0 n/a
linear foot
Table 36. Load transfer retrofit data elements.
Valid
Range
Load transfer device Dowel
Type of LTD used Yes n/a
(LTD) Plate
Number of LTDs per Number of LTDs placed in
Yes 1–6 n/a
wheelpath, count each wheelpath
Slot preparation Method used to prepare slot Saw
Yes n/a
method for LTD Mill
PCC
Type of material used to
Repair (filler) Rapid-setting
encase LTD in existing Yes n/a
material proprietary materials
pavement
Epoxy-resin adhesives
LTD length Total length of LTD in inches No 12–24 n/a
Thickness or diameter of LTD
LTD diameter No ⁄ –2
58 n/a
in inches
Cost No >0 n/a
joint placed

Table 37. Partial-depth repair data elements.
Valid
Range
Transverse joint
Location where repair is to be
Repair location Yes n/a Longitudinal joint
performed within given slab
Mid-panel
Length in the direction
Surface area of repair in square of traffic
Area Yes n/a
feet Width perpendicular to
the direction of traffic
Average depth of repair in
Depth, in. Yes n/a n/a
inches
Saw and jackhammer
Method used to prepare
Jackhammer
Preparation method pavement for placement of Yes n/a
Mill
patch repair material
Other
PCC
HMA
Type of repair material used in
Repair material Yes n/a Cold patch
patch
Proprietary cementitious
Proprietary bituminous
Indicate if a bonding agent was Yes
Bonding agent No n/a
used No
Curing time required before
Time to trafficking patch can be open to traffic in No >0 n/a
hours
Cost No >0 n/a
cubic foot
Table 38. Slab stabilization data elements.
Valid
Range
Coring
FWD
Technique used to locate areas
Void detection method Yes n/a Visual observation
of void beneath the slab
Epoxy injection
Other
Cementitious material
Type of material selected for Bituminous material
Stabilization material Yes n/a
the slab stabilization process Expandable
polyurethane foam
Cost No >0 n/a
joint placed
Thin and Ultra-Thin Overlay Data Elements

The data elements for thin and ultra-thin overlays in Table 27 may be used for rigid pavement-
maintenance treatments.
Ultra-Thin Bonded Wearing Course Data Elements

The data elements for ultra-thin bonded wearing course in Table 28 may be used for rigid-
maintenance pavement treatments.

Composite Pavement Treatment Data Elements

Composite pavements are pavement structures consisting of a combination of asphalt and
concrete layers; most commonly asphalt overlays of concrete pavements (concrete overlays of
asphalt pavements are discussed in the previous section on concrete pavements). For mainte-
nance purposes the same treatments applied to asphalt-surfaced pavements apply to compos-
ite pavements; the maintenance activities for composite pavements would be similar to those
described for the asphalt-surfaced or concrete-surfaced pavements described here. However,
there are treatments to mitigate reflection cracking that are unique to composite pavements
consisting of HMA overlays of jointed concrete pavements (e.g., saw and seal).
Pavement-Condition Data Elements

The following data elements are used to describe the condition of a defined pavement sec-
tion before and after a maintenance event and are commonly used to describe the outcome of a
pavement-maintenance treatment.
• Individual Distresses. Data elements that describe individual distresses that are used to
describe pavement surface conditions (raw distressed data collected are listed in Table 39).
• Condition Index. The condition of a pavement section using an index value based on specific
algorithms that combines various different distress types. Some common condition index
characteristics are described in Table 40.
• Ride Quality. State DOTs are required to report pavement ride quality, making that measure
useful to assess pavement performance. Ride quality data elements are described in Table 41.
• Noise. The effect of a maintenance treatment on noise level due to tire-pavement interaction
is measured in some DOTs. The most common noise characteristic captured is described in
Table 42.
Table 39. Individual distress data elements.

Name of distress being recorded (see Table 44
Distress name Yes
and Table 45)
Severity or state of distress, such as low,
Distress severity Yes
medium, or high
Specific amount of distress, such as linear feet
Distress amount Yes
or square feet
Table 40. Condition index data elements.

Valid
Range
PCI Pavement Condition Index 0–100
PSR Pavement Serviceability Rating 0–5
Table 41. Ride quality attribute description.

Valid
Range
Measurement of roughness of pavement,
expressed as ratio of accumulated suspension
motion to distance traveled obtained from
IRI ≥0
mathematical model of standard quarter car
traversing measured profile at speed of 50 mi/h
(80 km/h) (ASTM E1926), in inches per mile

Table 42. Noise attribute description.

Valid
Range
Noise level Pavement-tire noise at the source, decibels ≥0
Table 43. Safety-related data elements.

Valid
Range
Friction number Pavement-tire friction ≥0
Skid number Pavement-tire skid resistance ≥0
Pavement surface texture properties
Mean texture depth ≥0
(macrotexture), in inches
• Safety. The data elements used to measure the effectiveness of a maintenance treatment in
improving safety-related characteristics are described in Table 43.
Asphalt-Surface Pavement Distress

Asphalt-surface pavement distress elements are discussed in Table 44.
Table 44. Asphalt-surface pavement distress.
Distress Definition
Series of interconnecting cracks on the surface of asphalt concrete pavement
Alligator cracking caused by fatigue failure under repeated traffic loading (ASTM D6433); also
referred to as fatigue cracking
Formation of a film of asphalt material on pavement surface that creates a
shiny, glasslike, reflecting surface that usually becomes quite sticky; bleeding
is caused by excessive amounts of asphaltic cement or tars in the mix,
Bleeding
excessive application of an asphalt-based crack sealant, excessive application
of a tack coat, low air void content, or a combination of all these factors
(ASTM D6433)
Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement into approximately
rectangular pieces; blocks may range in size from approximately 1 ft × 1 ft
(0.3 m × 0.3 m) to 10 ft × 10 ft (3 m × 3 m); block cracking is caused mainly
Block cracking
by shrinkage of the asphalt concrete and daily temperature cycling, which
results in daily stress/strain cycling; it is not associated with pavement
loading (ASTM D6433)
Bump and sag Deviation in surface elevation which impacts ride quality (ASTM D6433)
Series of closely spaced ridges and valleys (ripples) occurring at fairly regular
intervals, usually less than 10 ft (3 m) along the pavement; ridges are
Corrugation perpendicular to the direction of traffic; it is usually caused by traffic action
combined with an unstable pavement surface or base; also known as
washboarding (ASTM D6433)
Localized pavement surface areas with elevations slightly lower than those of
Depression
the surrounding pavements (ASTM D6433)
Pattern of distress in asphalt pavements which runs parallel to and usually
within 1 ft to 1.5 ft (0.3 m to 0.5 m) of the outer edge of the pavement; it is
Edge cracking
accelerated by traffic loading and can be caused by a frost-weakened base or
the presence of subgrade near the edge of the pavement (ASTM D6433)
Difference in elevation between pavement surface and shoulder surface at the
pavement edge, in inches; it is caused by shoulder erosion, shoulder
Lane-shoulder drop-off
settlement, or by building the roadway without adjusting the shoulder level
(ASTM D6433)

Distress Definition
On asphalt pavements, these cracks are parallel or perpendicular to the
pavement centerline or laydown direction; caused by poorly constructed
Longitudinal and transverse paving joints, asphalt shrinkage, or reflective cracking, which is caused by
cracking (not reflective) cracking in the underlying surface; not usually load-associated (ASTM
D6433); also referred to as longitudinal cracking, transverse cracking, and
thermal cracking
Area of pavement that has been replaced with new material; done to repair an
existing pavement; considered a defect no matter how well it performs
Patching and utility cut (patched area or adjacent area usually does not perform as well as the original
pavement section); some roughness is associated with this distress (ASTM
D6433)
Wearing away of aggregate texture by repeated traffic applications (ASTM
Polished aggregate
D6433)
Loss of pavement surface in a small—usually less than 30 in. (750 mm) in
Potholes
diameter—bowl-shaped area of the pavement; generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole (ASTM D6433)
Dislodging of coarse aggregate particles in an HMA surface; caused by
Raveling insufficient asphalt binder, poor mixture quality, insufficient compaction,
segregation, or stripping (ASTM D6433)
Occurs in asphalt cocrete layers that have been placed over a concrete slab;
does not include reflection cracks from any other type of base (i.e., cement- or
lime-stabilized); caused mainly by thermal- or moisture-induced movements
Reflection cracking
of the concrete slab beneath the asphalt concrete surface; not load-related,
however, traffic loading may cause breakdown of the asphalt surface near the
crack (ASTM D6433)
Depression in the wheel paths of a pavement surface; it is a permanent
Rutting
deformation of one or more layers of the pavement structure (ASTM D6433)
Permanent, longitudinal displacement of a localized area of an HMA
Shoving
pavement surface caused by traffic loading (ASTM D6433)
Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks in an HMA surface; usually transverse
Slippage cracking to the direction of travel; produced when braking or turning wheels cause the
pavement surface to slide or deform (ASTM D6433)
Upward bulge in pavement surface; a long, gradual wave more than 10 ft
Swelling
(3 m) long (ASTM D6433)
Wearing away of the asphalt binder and fine aggregate matrix (ASTM
Weathering
D6433)
Concrete-Surface Pavement Distress

Concrete-surface pavement distress elements are discussed in Table 45.
Table 45. Concrete-surface pavement distress.
Distress Definition
Reaction between the alkalis (sodium and potassium) in portland cement
binder and certain siliceous rocks or minerals, such as opaline chert, strained
Alkali silica reaction quartz, and acidic volcanic glass, present in some aggregates; products of
reaction may cause abnormal expansion and cracking of concrete in service
(Taylor, Kosmatka, and Voigt, 2007)
Vertical pavement deformations that usually occur in hot weather; usually
occurs at a transverse crack or joint that is not wide enough to permit slab
Blowup and buckling
expansion; insufficient width is usually caused by infiltration of
incompressible material into the joint space (ASTM D6433)
(continued on next page)

Distress Definition
Crack in jointed PCC pavement that intersects the joints at a distance less than
Corner break or equal to one-half the slab length on both sides, measured from the corner of
the slab (ASTM D6433)
Breakdown of concrete slab within approximately 1.5 ft (0.5 m) of the corner
Corner spalling
or joint (ASTM D6433)
Slab that is divided by cracks into four or more pieces due to overloading or
Divided slab
inadequate support, or both (ASTM D6433)
Failure mechanism in concrete in which the freeze–thaw expansion of large
aggregates over time gradually breaks down the concrete; usually begins at the
Durability cracking bottom of the slab and appears as a pattern of cracks running parallel and close
to a joint or linear crack (ASTM D6433); also referred to as D-cracking or
freeze–thaw damage
Difference in elevation across a transverse discontinuity such as a joint or
Faulting
crack (ASTM D6433)
Any condition involving failure of the sealant in a concrete pavement that
Joint seal damage enables soil or rocks to accumulate in joints or allows significant water
infiltration (ASTM D6433)
Breakdown of concrete slab within approximately 1.5 ft (0.5 m) of the corner
Joint spalling
or joint (ASTM D6433)
Difference between the settlement or erosion of the shoulder and the pavement
Lane-shoulder drop-off travel-lane edge. Elevation difference can be a safety hazard and can also
cause increased water infiltration (ASTM D6433)
Cracks which divide a PCC slab into two or three pieces; usually caused by a
Linear cracking (longitudinal, combination of repeated traffic loading, thermal gradient curling, and repeated
transverse, and diagonal) moisture loading (ASTM D6433); also referred to as longitudinal cracking and
transverse cracking
Area where original pavement has been removed and replaced by filler
material; a utility cut is a patch that has replaced the original pavement to
Patch and utility cuts allow for the installation or maintenance of underground utilities; severity
levels of a utility cut are assessed by the same criteria as large patching
(ASTM D6433)
Wearing away of the aggregate texture by repeated traffic applications
Polished aggregate
(ASTM D6433)
Loss of a small piece of the pavement due to freeze–thaw action; more
Popouts commonly found with expansive aggregates, chert, clay particles, and other
low quality materials (ASTM D6433)
Ejection of material from the slab foundation through joints or cracks; caused
Pumping
by deflection of the pavement from passing loads (ASTM D6433)
In a CRCP, a localized area of the slab that is broken into pieces; it can take
Punchout many different shapes and forms but it is usually defined by a crack and a joint
(ASTM D6433)
Hairline cracks that are usually less than 6.6 ft (2 m) long and do not extend
Shrinkage cracks
across the entire concrete slab (ASTM D6433)
Network of shallow, fine, or hairline cracks that extend only through the upper
surface of the concrete; cracks tend to intersect at angles of 120°; usually
Scaling, map cracking,
caused by concrete over-finishing and may lead to surface scaling, which is a
and crazing
breakdown of the slab surface to a depth of approximately 0.25 in. to 0.5 in.
(6 mm to 13 mm) (ASTM D6433)

Asphalt-Surface Pavement Distress Type Attributes

This section describes the severity data elements that describe specific condition measures for
the asphalt-surface pavement distress types described in Table 44. The severity data elements
are seen in Table 46.
Table 46. Asphalt-surface pavement distress type attributes

(based on ASTM 2011).
Distress Type Data Element Description

Fine, longitudinal hairline cracks running parallel to each
Low severity, sq. ft. other with no or only a few interconnecting cracks; the
cracks are not spalled
Further development of light alligator cracks into a pattern
Alligator cracking Medium severity, sq. ft.
or network of cracks that may be lightly spalled
Network or pattern cracking has progressed so that the
High severity, sq. ft. pieces are well defined and spalled at the edges; some of
the pieces may rock under traffic.
Bleeding has occurred only slightly and is noticeable only
Low severity, sq. ft. during a few days of the year; asphalt does not stick to
shoes or vehicles
Bleeding has occurred to the extent that asphalt sticks to
Bleeding Medium severity, sq. ft.
shoes and vehicles during only a few weeks of the year.
Bleeding has occurred extensively and considerable
High severity, sq. ft. asphalt sticks to shoes and vehicles during at least several
weeks of the year
Low severity, sq. ft. Blocks are defined by low-severity cracks
Block cracking Medium severity, sq. ft. Blocks are defined by medium-severity cracks
High severity, sq. ft. Blocks are defined by high-severity cracks
Low severity, linear ft. Bump or sag causing low-severity ride quality
Bumps and sags Medium severity, linear ft. Bump or sag causing medium-severity ride quality
High severity, linear ft. Bump or sag causing high-severity ride quality
Low severity, sq. ft. Corrugation produces low-severity ride quality
Corrugation Medium severity, sq. ft. Corrugation produces medium-severity ride quality
High severity, sq. ft. Corrugation produces high-severity ride quality
Low severity, sq. ft. ½ in. (13 mm) to 1 in. (25 mm)
Depression Medium severity, sq. ft. 1 in. (25 mm) to 2 in. (50 mm)
High severity, sq. ft. More than 2 in. (50 mm)
Low severity, linear ft. Low or medium cracking with no breakup or raveling
Edge cracking Medium severity, linear ft. Medium cracking with some breakup and raveling
High severity, linear ft. Considerable breakup or raveling along the edge
Difference in elevation between the pavement surface and
Low severity, linear ft. the shoulder surface at the pavement edge is more than
1 in. (25 mm) and less than 2 in. (50 mm)
Lane-shoulder drop-
Medium severity, linear ft. the shoulder surface at the pavement edge is more than
off
2 in. (50 mm) and less than 4 in. (100 mm)
High severity, linear ft. the shoulder surface at the pavement edge is more than
4 in. (100 mm)


One of the following conditions exists: nonfilled cracks of
Low severity, linear ft. width less than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) or filled cracks of any
width (filler in satisfactory condition)
One of the following conditions exists: nonfilled crack
width is greater than or equal to 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) to 3 in.
(75 mm); nonfilled crack width is less than or equal to
Medium severity, linear ft.
Longitudinal and 3 in. (75 mm) surrounded by light and random cracking; or
transverse cracking filled crack is of any width surrounded by light random
(not reflective) cracking
One of the following conditions exists: any crack (filled or
nonfilled) surrounded by medium- or high-severity
random cracking; nonfilled crack width is greater than
High severity, linear ft.
3 in. (75 mm); or cracks of any width where approximately
4 in. (100 mm) of pavement around the crack is severely
broken
Patch is satisfactory and in good condition or ride quality
Low severity, sq. ft.
is rated as low severity, or better
Patching and utility Patch is moderately deteriorated or ride quality is rated as
Medium severity, sq. ft.
cut medium severity, or both
Patch is badly deteriorated or ride quality is rated as high
High severity, sq. ft.
severity, or both; needs replacement soon
Areas of pavement where the portion of the aggregate
extending above the asphalt binder is either very small or
Polished aggregate Present, sq. ft.
there are no rough or angular aggregate particles at the
surface
Average diameter between 8 in. and 18 in. and maximum
Low severity, each depth between 0.5 in. and 1 in., or average diameter
between 4 in. (100 mm) and 8 in. and maximum depth
between 1 in. (25 mm) and 2 in. (50 mm)
Average diameter between 4 in. (100 mm) and 8 in.
(200 mm) and maximum depth greater than 2 in. (50 mm),
Potholes or average diameter between 8 in. (200 mm) and 18 in.
Medium severity, each (450 mm) and maximum depth between 1 in. (25 mm) and
2 in. (50 mm), or average diameter between 18 in.
(450 mm) and 30 in. (750 mm) and maximum depth
between 0.5 in and 1 in. (25 mm)
Average diameter between 18 in. (450 mm) and 30 in.
High severity, each
(750 mm) and maximum depth greater than 1 in. (25 mm)
Not defined in ASTM D6433; distress recorded only in
medium or high severity
Considerable loss of coarse aggregate, more than 20 stones
Raveling Medium severity, sq. ft. per square yard or clusters of missing coarse aggregate are
present
Surface is very rough and pitted, coarse aggregate may be
High severity, sq. ft.
completely removed in places
One of the following conditions exists: nonfilled crack of
Low severity, linear ft. width is less than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) or filled crack of any
width (filler in satisfactory condition)
One of the following conditions exists: nonfilled crack
width is greater than or equal to 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) and less
than 3 in. (75 mm); nonfilled crack width less than or
Medium severity, linear ft.
equal to 3 in. (75 mm) surrounded by light secondary
cracking; or filled cracks of any width surrounded by light
Reflection cracking
secondary cracking
One of the following conditions exists: any crack (filled
or nonfilled) surrounded bymedium- or high-severity
secondary cracking; nonfilled cracks of width greater than
High severity, linear ft. 3 in. (75 mm); or cracks of any width where approximately
4 in. (100 mm) of the pavement around the crack is severely
raveled or broken


Low severity, mean rut
¼ in. (6 mm) to ½ in. (13 mm)
depth, in.
Medium severity, mean rut
Rutting More than ½ in. (13 mm) to 1 in. (25 mm)
depth, in.
High severity, mean rut
More than 1 in. (25 mm)
depth, in.
Low severity, sq. ft. Shove causes low-severity ride quality
Shoving Medium severity, sq. ft. Shove causes medium-severity ride quality
High severity, sq. ft. Shove causes high-severity ride quality
Low severity, sq. ft. Average crack width is less than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm)
One of the following conditions exists: average crack
width is greater than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm) and less than 1-½ in.
Medium severity, sq. ft.
Slippage cracking (38 mm), or the area around the crack is moderately
spalled or surrounded with secondary cracks
One of the following conditions exists: average crack
High severity, sq. ft. width is greater than 1½ in. (38 mm) or the area around
the crack is broken into easily removable pieces
Swell causes low-severity ride quality; not always easy to
see but can be detected by driving at speed limit over the
pavement section; upward motion occurs at swell if
Swelling present
Medium severity, sq. ft. Swell causes medium-severity ride quality
High severity, sq. ft. Swell causes high-severity ride quality

Asphalt surface is beginning to show signs of aging, which
may be accelerated by climatic conditions; loss of fine
Low severity, sq. ft. aggregate matrix is noticeable and may be accompanied by
fading of the asphalt color; edges of coarse aggregates are
beginning to be exposed [less than 0.05 in. (1 mm)]
Loss of fine aggregate matrix is noticeable and edges of
coarse aggregates have been exposed up to ¼ of the width
Weathering Medium severity, sq. ft.
(of the longest side) of the coarse aggregate because of
loss of fine aggregate matrix
Edges of coarse aggregates have been exposed greater than
¼ of the width (of the longest side) of the coarse
High severity, sq. ft. aggregate; considerable loss of fine aggregate matrix
leading to either a potential or actual loss of the coarse
aggregate

Concrete-Surface Pavement Distress Type Attributes

This section describes the severity data elements that describe specific condition measures for
the concrete-surface pavement distress types described in Table 45. The severity data elements
are listed in Table 47.
Table 47. Concrete-surface pavement distress type attributes

(based on ASTM 2011 and ASTM 2012).

Minimal to no spalling from cracks, joints, or popouts;
Low severity
cracks at surface are tight
Alkali silica reaction Some spalling of cracks, greater density of cracking, or
Medium severity
cracks are greater than 0.05 in. (1 mm) wide
Loose or missing pieces of concrete and/or surface
High severity
degradation and loss of functional performance
Low severity, per slab Buckling or shattering causes low-severity ride quality
Blowup and buckling Medium severity, per slab Buckling or shattering causes medium-severity ride quality
High severity, per slab Buckling or shattering causes high-severity ride quality
Defined by a low-severity cracking; crack is less than ½ in.
(13 mm) in width, cracks of any width with satisfactory
Low severity, per slab
filler, no faulting; area between the break and the joints is
not cracked or may be lightly cracked
Defined by a medium-severity cracking; nonfilled crack of
width greater than ½ in. (13 mm) and less than 2 in. (50
mm); nonfilled crack of width less than 2 in. (50 mm) with
Corner break Medium severity, per slab
faulting of 3⁄8 in. (10 mm); any filled crack with faulting of
greater than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm); or the area between the break
and the joints, or both, has medium cracking
Defined by a high-severity cracking; nonfilled crack of
width greater than 2 in. (50 mm); any filled or nonfilled
High severity, per slab
crack with faulting greater than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm); or the area
between the break and the joints, or both, is highly cracked
Slab is broken into 4 or 5 pieces by predominantly low-
severity cracks
Slab is broken into 4 or 5 pieces with more than 15% of the
Medium severity, per slab cracks of medium severity or into 6 or more pieces with
Divided slab
more than 85% of cracks of low severity
Slab is broken into 4 or 5 pieces with at least some cracks
High severity, per slab of high severity or into 6 or more pieces with more than
15% of cracks of medium or high severity
D-cracks cover less than 15% of the slab area; most of the
cracks are tight but a few pieces may be loose or missing
D-cracks cover less than 15% of the slab area and most of
the pieces are loose or missing, or D-cracks cover more
Durability cracking Medium severity, per slab
than 15% of the area and most of the cracks are tight but a
few pieces may be loose or missing
D-cracks cover more than 15% of the area and most of the
pieces have come out or can be easily removed
Difference in elevation of the two adjoining slabs at the
joint is more than 1 in. (25 mm) and less than 2 in. (50 mm)
Faulting Medium severity, per slab joint is more than 2 in. (50 mm) and less than 4 in.
(100 mm)
joint is more than 4 in. (100 mm)


Joint sealant is in generally good condition throughout
section and performing well, with only minor damage; only
a few of the joints have sealer which has debonded from,
Low severity, by project but is still in contact with, the joint edge; this condition
exists if a knife blade can be inserted between the sealer and
the joint face easily
Joint sealant is in generally fair condition throughout
section with only a few of the joints having any of the
following conditions: joint sealer is in place but water
access is possible through visible openings no more than
Joint seal damage Medium severity, by 1⁄8 in. (3 mm) wide; pumping debris are evident at the joint;
project joint sealer is oxidized and “lifeless” but pliable (like a

rope) and generally fills the joint opening; or vegetation in
the joint is obvious but does not obscure the joint opening;
condition exists if a knife blade cannot be inserted between
the sealer and the joint face easily
Joint sealant is in generally poor condition throughout
section with 10% or more of the joints having any of the
High severity, by project
conditions described for moderate severity or if 10% or
more of the sealer is missing
Low severity, per slab the shoulder surface at the pavement edge is more than 1 in.
(25 mm) and less than 2 in. (50 mm)
Lane-shoulder
Medium severity, per slab the shoulder surface at the pavement edge is more than 2 in.
drop-off
(50 mm) and less than 4 in. (100 mm)
High severity, per slab the shoulder surface at the pavement edge is more than 4 in.
(100 mm)
Nonfilled cracks less than ½ in. (13 mm) in width or filled
Low severity, per slab cracks of any width with the filler in satisfactory condition;
no faulting exists
One of the following conditions exists: nonfilled crack of
Linear cracking
width more than ½ in. (13 mm) and less than 2 in. (50 mm);
(longitudinal,
Medium severity, per slab nonfilled crack of any width less than 2 in. (50 mm)
transverse, and
with faulting less than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm); or filled crack of
diagonal)
any width with faulting less than 3⁄8 in. (10 mm)
One of the following conditions exists: nonfilled crack with
High severity, per slab a width 2 in. (> 50 mm) or filled or nonfilled crack of any
width with faulting 3⁄8 in. (> 10 mm)
Low severity, per slab Patch is functioning well, with little or no deterioration
Patch is moderately deteriorated or moderate spalling can
Patch and utility cuts Medium severity, per slab be seen around the edges, or both; patch material can be
dislodged with considerable effort
High severity, per slab Patch is badly deteriorated and needs replacement
No degrees of severity are defined; however, the degree of
Polished aggregate, per
Polished aggregate polishing should be clearly evident in the sample unit in that
slab
the aggregate surface should be smooth to the touch
No degrees of severity are defined for popouts but popouts
must be extensive in order to be counted as distress; average
Popouts Popouts, per slab
popout density must exceed approximately three popouts
per square yard over the entire slab area
Pumping, per slab No degrees of severity are defined; it is enough to indicate
Pumping
(usually two are affected) that pumping exists


Longitudinal and transverse cracks are tight and may have
Low severity, per slab spalling less than 75 mm or faulting less than 6 mm with no
loss of material and no patching
Spalling equal to or less than 75 mm and less than 150 mm
Medium severity, per slab
Punchout or faulting ≥ 6 mm and < 13 mm exists
Spalling equal to or more than 150 mm, or concrete within
the punchout is punched down by equal to or more than
13 mm, or is loose and moves under traffic, or is broken into
two or more pieces or contains patch material
Crazing or map cracking exists over most of the slab area;
Low severity, per slab the surface is in good condition, with only minor scaling
Scaling, map cracking, present
and crazing
Medium severity, per slab Slab is scaled but less than 15% is affected
High severity, per slab Slab is scaled over more than 15% of its area
Shrinkage cracks Shrinkage cracks, per slab Indicate if shrinkage cracks are present
Less than 1 in. deep, and up to 12 in. × 12 in.; or 1 in. to
2 in. deep and between 5 in. × 5 in. and 12 in. × 12 in.
Spalling, corner Between 1 in. to 2 in. deep and greater than 12 in. × 12 in.
or greater than 2 in. deep and greater than 12 in. × 12 in.
High severity, per slab Greater than 2 in. deep and greater than 12 in. × 12 in.
Less than 1 in. deep and up to 12 in. × 12 in; or 1 in. to 2 in.
deep and between 5 in. × 5 in. and 12 in. × 12 in.
Spalling, joint Between 1 in. to 2 in. deep and greater than 12 in. × 12 in.
or greater than 2 in. deep and greater than 12 in. × 12 in.
High severity, per slab Greater than 2 in. deep and greater than 12 in. × 12 in.

CHAPTER 4
Software Application
The PMDb framework includes a two-part record processing system and a single page web
application acting as the user interface to filter, search, and download records. In the first phase
of ingestion, source files are archived to the server and records are then extracted from the files
to be put into the source record database. During the second phase, archival records are used to
generate logical normalized segments from which analysis and query activities can take place.
This flow maintains the data integrity of the original source data while allowing for long-term
flexibility and scalability in how the PMDb system filters, summarizes, and combines datasets
for the end user. An overview of the architecture can be seen in Figure 6.
Functional Elements
Each functional element of the system is contained within the remote procedure call (RPC)
application programming interface (API) and its purpose can be summarized as follows:
• Bulk data importing. This functional element is responsible for validating users and data
sources prior to storing data on the server filesystem. The uploaded files are stored in a flat
file system within the server using a hash-defined folder system per organization. Within
this scheme, when files with the same name are uploaded, the last file uploaded always takes
precedence, although the original file is maintained in the file system for archival purposes.
This allows users to update a file they uploaded onto PMDb in the past and then override the
existing file with updates while preserving the original file.
• Record archiving. This functional element is responsible for processing uploaded data source
files from the server filesystem and processing them into the source record archive. During
this step, validation routines are run on the source data and a source record index transla-
tion is performed to match records to existing route records within PMDb. When this step is
complete, the source records are ready for processing into the system records.
• Record processing. This functional element encapsulates the process by which the records in
the source record archive are transformed and dynamically segmented into system records.
System records are discrete segments of defined routes that contain maintenance, inventory,
and condition data for filtering, analyzing, and reporting. To produce uniform segments, all
source data is transformed through a data field mapping process. The end result is that data
is stored within PMDb for subsequent search or aggregation.
• System record access. The system record access functional element provides API endpoints
for the web browser application to view, filter, query, report, and download data within
PMDb. The access functions do not manipulate or transform data; the access functions only
package and present data quickly and efficiently to the user. To enable quick retrieval of data
43

Figure 6. PMDb framework and system overview.
and aggregations, data views and cache tables will be created by the database during the system
record processing.
The following section describes the key elements of the system in further detail.
System Components
Server Filesystem
The server filesystem is used to store all uploaded data files for subsequent processing into
the source record archive. The server filesystem maintains the integrity of the original data from
the source file throughout the chain of processing to ensure that no valid data is ever lost during
transformation. Each source data file and corresponding record in the source record archive is
linked dynamically to the system records allowing end users to always access the original data
source provided by an agency when filtering or downloading data.
Data Sources
The PMDb framework provides the ability to load data from existing sources at DOTs, includ-
ing PMSs, design and construction data systems, MMSs, and reporting systems for labor, materi-
als, and equipment used during maintenance events. For the purposes of PMDb, this is defined
as source record data.

Pavement-Maintenance Database Software Application 45
Figure 7. Schematic of PMDb source record segments.
Source Record Data

Source record data exists in a multitude of formats and structures across and within agencies.
To provide a common language to ingest the data into PMDb, a standardized source record
input format was developed. Each record with the source record data contains key attributes
required within the database in a well-formatted tab, csv, or JavaScript Object Notation (JSON)
structured flat file. This format provides a mechanism to have a uniform index for archiving and
ultimately normalizing the data contained within system records.
Source record data for each category of data (maintenance, inventory, and condition) is com-
monly different pavement section lengths. A schematic to illustrate how each of these layers of
data can have different segment lengths by which their measures are recorded is seen in Figure 7.
Well-formatted source records are defined as any record, or a set of records, that contains the
index fields described in Table 48. The index fields are used to indicate the location and time of
a given data event consistently throughout the database system. Each data source accepted by the
PMDb framework must contain source index fields although not all index fields require values
to be accepted. Data type and format of the input field is also indicated.
Every other column in the source record data file will be put in the PMDb_DataBag column in
the database which is a JSON blob data type. An example of a properly formatted source record
index data is displayed in Figure 8.
Pavement-Maintenance Database Data Bag

To ensure that the database system is scalable over time to accommodate existing and new
fields as well as terms, PMDb stores all attribute data in a scalable data bag of key attributes and
values that allows the metadata for each source record to be flexible. The attributes contained
within the data bag are subsequently mapped to PMDb defined fields during the system record
field mapping process described later.
The benefit of using a data bag is that PMDb will retain all data source field names and values
and provide links back to those values when searching so that common terminology and values
can still be accessed and used. For example, if an agency described a condition using a field titled
“Agency_Field” that mapped to the data field of “PMDb_Field1,” users will still be able to ref-
erence the data they are searching for by the “PMDb_Field1” moniker or by using the original

Table 48. Source index fields required for imported data source.
Data Field Description

PMDb_State (REQUIRED) [string] State abbreviation where route is located
Unique route number or name that describes where
PMDb_Route (REQUIRED) [string]
source record item took place
Direction of travel on route where source record item
PMDb_Direction [string]
took place
PMDb_Lane [string] Lane number or notation of lanes on route
PMDb_BRP (REQUIRED) [number] Beginning reference point (milepost) on route
PMDb_ERP (REQUIRED) [number] Ending reference point (milepost) on route
PMDb_Year (REQUIRED) [YYYY] Year source record event started
PMDb_Month [number, 0 for unknown] Month, if known, of source record event
PMDb_Day [number, 0 for unknown] Day, if known, of source record event
End year, if known, for source record event that spans a
PMDb_EndYear [number, 0 will use PMDb_Year]
period of time
End month, if known, for source record event that spans
PMDb_EndMonth [number, 0 for unknown]
a period of time
End day, if known, for source record event that spans a
PMDb_EndDay [number, 0 for unknown]
period of time
PMDb_DataBag [text] All other attributes as defined in data source
source data “Agency_Field” moniker in the filter interface. An example data bag can be seen in
Figure 9 for data that was generated from the National Highway Planning Network (NHPN)
describing inventory elements.
Once a source file has the appropriate source record index fields defined, it may be uploaded
into the server filesystem for processing into the source record archive. During data ingestion
the following steps are performed:
1. Ensure that the required index columns are provided.
2. Ensure that the required index columns are the data type we expect them to be.
3. Ensure the validity of the columns (e.g., PMDb_BRP ≤ PMDb_ERP, PMDb_Year ≤ PMDb_
EndYear).
PMDB_State PMDB_Route PMDB_Direcon PMDB_Lane PMDB_BRP PMDB_ERP PMDB_Year PMDB_Month PMDB_Day PMDB_EndYear PMDB_EndMonth PMDB_EndDay PMDB_DataBag
WA 2I R 71.16 71.22 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 71.42 71.67 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 71.77 71.89 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 71.99 72.07 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 72.39 72.49 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 73.66 73.81 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 74.32 74.56 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 74.87 75.02 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 78.96 78.99 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 81.2 81.3 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 81.35 81.44 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 81.95 82.14 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 82.2 82.33 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 83.47 83.65 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 83.71 83.75 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 83.9 83.97 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2I R 84.35 84.65 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2D L 71.12 71.35 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
WA 2D L 71.39 71.72 2000 0 0 2000 0 0 …
Figure 8. Sample source record index data for input in PMDb.

Figure 9. PMDb_DataBag field with sample data from

NHPN.
Following validation, the source record data file will be ingested into the source record archive
database for subsequent processing steps to become the system data records.
Source Record Archive

The source record archive is a database representation of each source data record. It is
important to maintain the integrity of all data that is provided to the database system, and the
source record archive performs this function, while also serving as the basis for system record
generation.
Source Record Index Translation

The source record index translation provides a mechanism to transform the source record
index values as described earlier to match a consistent route index within the database in order to
track and maintain a historical record of route segment maintenance activities and performance
over time given that input data is routinely captured using different segment bounds.
Route Index Data Table

To maintain integrity of the historical data for a given section of the roadway, a common
route index table, using the fields seen in Table 49, was created to serve as the master inventory
of all routes in the database. Each route whereby pavement-maintenance activity is performed
is assumed to have a unique name identifier for each roadway owner. This is necessary as route
naming must be consistent among input datasets to achieve the desired goal of measuring
the effectiveness of pavement-maintenance treatments. To achieve this consistency, source

Table 49. PMDb route index data field descriptions.

IDRoutesIndex (REQUIRED) [number] Unique identifier for route autogenerated by PMDb
Name of route (all source record data must match
Name (REQUIRED) [string]
existing route name)
State (REQUIRED) [string] State where route is located
RuralCode (REQUIRED) [string] Code indicating if current route is rural or urban
Code for functional class of route (as provided by
FunctionalClass (REQUIRED) [string]
FHWA)
Lowest ARM on route (most commonly this is 0,
MinimumBARM (REQUIRED) [number]
although it can be more for segmented routes)
MaximumEARM (REQUIRED) [number] Highest ARM on route within current state
Note: ARM = accumulated route mile, BARM = beginning accumulated route mile, EARM = ending accumulated route mile.
records must either transform their route value to match an existing route during the index
translation process or the route will not be archived and searchable within the database.
System Record Database

System record data for each category of data (maintenance, inventory, and condition) are
data records generated from source record data for a normalized unit length of the pavement
in order to effectively correlate the various layers of events stored within PMDb over time. Each
of these layers of data can have different segment lengths by which their measures are recorded
and compared to the schematic shown in Figure 10 of the resulting normalized PMDb system
record that is generated.
System Record Index

The system record index defines each pavement segment of a route within PMDb that can contain
data. It represents a normalized segment of roadway that contains a historical record of maintenance
actions and conditions over time. In also includes inventory and material data and information. The
length of the system record index is arbitrary to the design of the database although the initial index
has been defined in one-mile segments to keep the database size manageable.
Figure 10. Schematic of normalized PMDb system record

segment.

Table 50. PMDb system record index data field descriptions.

State (REQUIRED) [string] State abbreviation where route is located
Unique route number or name that describes where
Route (REQUIRED) [string]
source record item took place
BARM (REQUIRED) [number] Beginning accumulated route mile for system record
EARM (REQUIRED) [number] Ending accumulated route mile for system record
IDRoutesIndex (REQUIRED) [number] Pointer to route in route index data table
The system record index fields also define the segments by which all source record data is
normalized using data field mappings and data field aggregations as described later. The primary
system record index fields in the database system are described in Table 50.
System Record Data

System record data provides a mechanism to store all the data associated with a given system
record for a particular time. This is a means of providing a record of the events in a linear fashion
that have occurred over time on a particular section of the road. Certain attributes have been
promoted to be indexable fields to enable summary results during filter and aggregation opera-
tions (Table 51).
The event-based model relies on a series of facts defined by a system record index and then
utilizes the source record data table to describe each particular event that occurred on that
route segment. A snapshot of the data table structure and event model can be seen in Figure 11.
Table 51. PMDb system record data field descriptions.

IDSystemRecords (REQUIRED) [integer] Link to specific system data record index
Link to original data in source record archive for which
IDSourceRecordArchive (REQUIRED) [integer]
this data was generated
Direction of travel on route where source record item
Direction [string]
took place
Lane [string] Lane number or notation of lanes on route
Category by which data belong (e.g., maintenance,
Category (REQUIRED) [number]
condition, inventory)
Data element associated with current
DataElement (REQUIRED) [number]
data attribute
DataAttribute (REQUIRED) [YYYY] Attribute name for current data record
DataValue (REQUIRED) [string] Value for given data attribute for given event
Year (REQUIRED) [YYYY] Year source record item started
Month [number, 0 for unknown] Month, if known, of source record item
Day [number, 0 for unknown] Day, if known, of source record item
End year, if known, for source record item that spans a
EndYear [number, 0 will use PMDb_Year]
period of time
End month, if known, for source record item that spans a
EndMonth [number, 0 for unknown]
period of time
End day, if known, for source record item that spans a
EndDay [number, 0 for unknown]
period of time
Similar to data bag, key value pair store used to describe
Metadata [string]
all elements of this event

System Record Index
System Record Data
Figure 11. System record database model.
Field Mappings
Data field mappings represent how data elements are grouped within the system record
database. It is where a user performs a function similar to that of the source record index
translation although across different dimensions within the data. The primary dimension
maps attribute names contained within source records and matches the existing data attribute
names, in many cases as defined in the glossary. As seen in Figure 12, field mapping pro-
vides users the ability to transform the attributes specified within the source to match defined
attributes (as defined in the glossary and glossary categorization) within the existing PMDb
framework.
The second dimension of field mappings involves transforming values or groups of values
through a data type aggregation process as described below.
Data Type Aggregation

As part of the field mapping process, values are normalized within the system record index
segment according to the data type aggregation specified in the field mapping definition. The
data type aggregation is used to consolidate values within the normalized segment length and
represent the value of that data element within the segment. A diagram illustrating the concept
of normalizing source data records into system records is seen in Figure 13.

Figure 12. Field mapping workflow illustrating attribute name transformation.
Data type aggregations will be expanded once sample data is collected and tested within the
system. However, only the following aggregations are currently supported:
• Average. This is the average of values within the event to get the representative value for the seg-
ment. For example, if a user had 10 density readings that took place within a given segment, the
average of those readings would be the representative number expressed in the system record.
• Weighted average by length. This refers to the average of values weighted by the length of the
measurement or activity. For example, a distress measurement of 10% cracking over 500 feet
added to a distress measurement of 25% cracking over 5,000 feet would more heavily weight
the percentage cracking from the 25% cracking observation, since it was observed over a
longer segment.
• Distribution. This occurs when the value is not aggregated but proportionally distributed
along the length of the system record. This is common for values such as cost that are typically
distributed over the entire segment.
Figure 13. Conceptual illustration of data value normalization

during segmentation process.

System Record Access

Data within the system record database is used by the system record access function to quickly
search, filter, and aggregate data across thousands of records to find specific result sets. The result
sets can then be downloaded and subsequently analyzed using tools chosen by the user. The
system record access function provides an interface to handle the various requests that will read
the data in the system record database as well as the source record archive.
Security and Access Control

A role-based security scheme was developed to provide security and access control require-
ments for the database system. In computer systems security, role-based access control is an
approach to restrict access to system functions by authorized users. A description of the resulting
user roles and a corresponding permission matrix can be seen in Table 52. For a description of
the functional requirements that were developed for PMDb, refer to the appendices.
User roles are described as the following:
• All users. This category includes all casual users who may come to the site. It is the “catch all
user” level that includes all unregistered and registered users.
• Registered users. Registered users are those who have created an account in the database
system that has been approved by an administrator or the validation process. The validation
process is done by an email white list (a list of permitted email addresses). Once approved,
Table 52. User roles defined by functional requirement.
User Roles
Contributor Users
Registered Users
Administrator
All Users
Users
Functional Requirement
View resources/references
View glossary
View data dictionary
View system statistics
Register for access
Browse and view pavement sections
Query for pavement section datasets
Download pavement section datasets
Perform user account functions
Submit new data
Append data
Publish data
Append new data terms and elements
Perform user management functions
Modify and remove data

registered users are granted access to view and extract data within the system. It is anticipated
that registered users will include state agency personnel and researchers who are interested in
accessing the data for subsequent analysis.
• Contributor users. Contributor users can submit data to PMDb. It is anticipated that con-
tributor users are users who have access to specific data and are responsible for uploading data
at each agency. For example, this may be a pavement-maintenance manager or technician at a
given agency. Only agency-approved personnel will be allowed to contribute to the database
system.
• Administrator users. Administrator users are the stewards of PMDb and are capable of man-
aging data within the database. They are responsible for managing user accounts and access
and administering access policies created by the group that manages PMDb.
Browser Application
The diagram in Figure 14 identifies the different interfaces within PMDb to deliver the func-
tions listed in Table 52. Each interface within the Browser Application interacts with the RPC
API to generate data and present results to the user. All web interactions are done through a
single webpage application which provides a quick, responsive display to the user. This is par-
ticularly important with large datasets that are anticipated to be uploaded into PMDb during
the implementation effort.
Static Content
PMDb contains several static content pages to aid user navigation and understanding of data.
This includes the following pages:
• Home. This is the landing page for the site and contains links and navigation to the key inter-
face elements and screens. A screenshot can be seen in Figure 15.
• Getting Started. This page contains information to help users navigate through the PMDb
software. When clicked on, a document containing instructions in Adobe format will be opened.
• Glossary. This page contains glossary items that describe the intended definition of the data
element or attribute. Further details can be found in the glossary on page 81.
System Management
To manage users within PMDb, a user management scheme was implemented to facilitate
user sign up and access while providing a secure method of verifying the user’s identity. This
involved the development of two data structures, one for organizations and the other for users
as described below.
Organizations
Organizations are collection points for registered users and contributor users. Users of the
system with elevated privileges, such as an administrator user, will have access to a mainte-
nance screen to create organizations. An organization allows users from a particular agency to
self-register with a white listed email address pattern defined per organization (Figure 16). For
example, Acme agency has a white-listed email (*@acme.com) which allows users to self-register
and confirm registration if they have a valid email address with the organizational domain (e.g.,
john.doe@acme.com). If there is no organization match during sign up, a customized organiza-
tion creation form will be made available to the potential user.

Figure 14. Browser application interface elements and

navigational structure.
Users
Users are members of a particular organization who can then have additional rights granted to
them to conduct the administrative actions of a contributor when their access is elevated by an
administrator. The only attributes particular to users involve their username, name, and email.
In addition to managing users, PMDb also tracks user activity on the site to determine who are
uploading and downloading data. A screenshot of the edit user interface is seen in Figure 17.
System Features
Dashboard
The dashboard is an interface that communicates the amount of data in PMDb that is cur-
rently available to users. This is helpful because it shows what data is currently within PMDb and
where the gaps exist. Currently PMDb supports data grouped by state. As such, the dashboard

Figure 15. Home page of the PMDb system.
Figure 16. Screenshot of the organization list in the browser application.

Figure 17. Screenshot of the user modification interface.
interface groups all routes with data by state and indicates the number of data records that reside
within PMDb for that particular state.
Create a Route Inventory

PMDb allows users to browse all the routes in the system and also to add routes using a
web interface workflow. A baseline route index must be established prior to a source record
ingestion in order to link up the records. Users can also leverage geospatial route data from
external sources such as NHPN as seen in Figure 9 to populate the route index. NHPN is a geo-
spatial network database that contains just over 450,000 miles of highways in the United States.
NHPN contains geospatially referenced information on the National Highway System (NHS),
the Eisenhower Interstate System, the Strategic Highway Network (STRAHNET), and the NHS
Intermodal Connectors. In terms of highway functional class, it covers all principal arterials and
rural minor arterials. It also has an existing linear referencing system that allows HPMS and
National Bridge Inventory data to be linked to the network (Figure 18).
Upload Dataset
PMDb provides a workflow interface to allow a user to upload and transform their data to
align to PMDb standards. The workflow is described further in Chapter 5. A schematic diagram
of the process can be seen in Figure 19.
Source Records. To upload a dataset to PMDb and generate source records, one must first
define a data source for their organization. This is done to maximize data integrity and control
the data that is being loaded into PMDb. Once a data source has been defined within PMDb, data
files may be uploaded directly to the server filesystem by authorized users. Users can consult the
uploaded data file list interface within PMDb to view each of the files uploaded and determine
whether or not it has been processed into a source record.

Figure 18. Screenshot of the route inventory listing for PMDb with sample data from the NHPN route inventory.
Source Data Field

Source Index System Data
Record Mapping
Records Translation Records
Archive
Route Data Field Glossary

Inventory Definitions
PMDb Data Processing Workflow

Figure 19. Uploading a dataset workflow process.

Figure 20. Browser application interface for specifying the active filters.
Index Translation. To allow for translation of the key source index fields to map to an exist-
ing route in the route index dataset, a source record transformation function has been developed.
The function allows users to define distinct actions that will be performed on the source record
archive data. Actions can be additive and several powerful translation functions are available
including the use of regular expressions, find and replace, and forceful override.
Filter a Result Set

As the primary interface to extract meaning from data contained within PMDb, users can
specify criteria to identify sections for further analysis as well as to examine the result set that
was returned. Criteria can be specified as either a value filter whereby one or more specific values
are searched for within the database or a range filter whereby a numeric range for a given attri-
bute can be specified. All filters are summed to find the resulting system records that match
all criteria as seen in Figure 20. The resulting interface is then intended to provide users with
a summary of the data contained within their result set in order to determine if it is ready for
download as seen in Figure 21.
Export a Dataset
System records and source records can be downloaded once they have been selected by the
filter function. This allows end users to download both the system records that were generated
as well as the source records that reflect the original data. The export function downloads data
as an aggregate (all data for the given record set) and can be downloaded in numerous formats
(csv, tab, JSON).

Figure 21. Browser application interface displaying the search results from the filter.

CHAPTER 5
Workflow and Applications
PMDb is a web-based database framework that can be run and installed in both a desktop
environment to serve an individual user as well as a server environment to serve many individuals.
This chapter describes the steps involved in using the browser application and illustrates the use
through a series of example applications using sample data.
Workflow Description
PMDb has four major workflows available, all of which are focused on enabling designated
users to optimize their use of the application.
• Adding or editing route inventory data. This workflow is required to create the route inven-
tory onto which source event data can be attributed.
• Adding source data. This workflow enables administrators to upload, translate, and map data
into PMDb.
• Extracting data from the database system. This workflow enables users to download data or
data subsets for analysis, manipulation, and review.
• Managing glossary terms. Glossary terms allows PMDb administrators to review, add, and
edit terms in the PMDb glossary.
These workflows are discussed in greater depth in the following sections.
Adding or Editing Route Inventory Data

PMDb provides a workflow to create route inventory records within PMDb. The steps include:
1. Add a route,
2. Edit a route, and
3. Regenerate system records.
Add a Route
The “add a route” function is available from the route inventory interface as seen in Figure 22.
When users click on the add a route button, they will be prompted to enter in the state, route
name, minimum ARM, and maximum ARM for the route. Additional information on rural
cost and functional class may also be entered. Long routes may extend through various rural
codes and functional classes. Each unique route segment should be entered discretely into
PMDb. Once complete, users need to click save and will be shown the saved record, as seen
in Figure 23.
60

Pavement-Maintenance Database Workflow and Applications 61
Figure 22. Screenshot of interface for adding a route.
Figure 23. Screenshot of the completed route inventory

interface.

Figure 24. Screenshot of interface for editing route information.
Edit a Route
Similar to adding a route, users can “edit a route” definition by clicking on the pencil icon as
seen in Figure 24. The subsequent interface will allow users to edit the route data in the same
manner by which they originally added the route data.
Regenerate System Records

Once route data has been added a pre-processing step to “regenerate system records” must be
performed. To perform this step, users need to click on the regenerate system records button as
seen in Figure 25 from the route inventory entry screen. This step will pre-populate the system
record with the segments required for dynamic population during source record ingestion. Once
system records have been generated, a confirmation screen, as shown in Figure 26, will be visible.
Adding Source Data

The PMDb framework provides a comprehensive process to upload source data. The steps are
described further in this section and include:
4. Upload,
5. Build archive,
6. Translate index,
7. Preview matches,
8. Map fields, and
9. Import data.
Upload
The “upload” a data file function gets users started on the adding source data workflow
process. A screenshot is shown in Figure 27. To specify a data source, users with appropriate

Figure 25. Screenshot of interface used to regenerate

system records.
permissions can either select the data source from the drop-down list or use “add a data
source” to include a name and a hash designation for the source data file if it is not listed. If a
data source needs to be added, a prompt will appear as seen in Figure 28. Users need to enter
the data source name and a hash, which defines the uniqueness of the dataset (the server file-
system folder by which the data should be stored for the organization). Once a data source has
been created, it will appear in the list of data sources available within PMDb, and can be used
to locate and update the data file.
When users have successfully uploaded a data file to PMDb, a screen similar to the screen-
shot, as shown in Figure 29, will appear. Users need to click on “build archive” to proceed to
the next step.
Figure 26. Screenshot of successful system record

regeneration following addition of route.

Figure 27. Screenshot of the data file upload interface.
Figure 28. Screenshot of interface for adding a new data source.
Figure 29. Screenshot of an uploaded data file.

Figure 30. Interface for building the source record archive from an uploaded data file.
Build Archive
During the “build archive” step, data that was in the original data source is uploaded into
PMDb and placed in the source record archive. To execute the process, users will have to click
on the process file button, as shown in Figure 30. Imperfect input data will generate an error
message.
Translate Index
“Translate index” is done once per data source. This allows users to create a consistent source
for the data and ensures the inclusion of key fields in the data source for it to be uploaded suc-
cessfully. This involves adding index translations using the interface seen in Figure 31, whereby
users need to select the data source and source index field and add a description of the translation
to be performed. Defining the sequence of translations is important if multiple translations are
planned. The transformation fields enable the setting of a transformation type and the values
to be found and replaced in the transformation match and transformation replace fields. As the
name indicates, the default value field allows users to set a default value for the field where no
value currently exists.
Preview Matches
Once users have completed defining or reviewing the source record index translations, they
need to click on “preview matches” to dynamically review the results of the translation. This
will display a list of the existing data in gray and the post-translated data in black, as seen in
Figure 32. Users can compare how the translations ended up and return to translate index if
further refinement is needed. This function is especially useful to determine how many source
records match an existing route and to identify additional translations that need to be made.
Map Fields
To map the source data fields to specific data fields within PMDb, users need to click on “map
fields.” This step involves identifying the data source, identifying the record name, and recording
a record hash—a unique name for the record (Figure 33). The record archetype identifies the
grouping/data element for the record.
Source and destination fields are needed to identify the original column name and find out
where it is to be mapped. Action and ordinal sequence of events are set at their default values of
copy and 0. The active field is set at 1. The final action before saving is to set the transformation
type. Users will have to choose between the options of none, regular expression, replace, value
set, and validation.

Figure 31. Interface to specify a source index field translation definition.
Figure 32. Screenshot of source index translation matches during upload workflow.

Figure 33. Screenshot of field mapping edit interface.
Import Data
During “import data,” data and transformations populate the systems record database. This
step can take a significant amount of time depending on the amount of data being processed. A
screenshot of the step is seen in Figure 34.
Extracting Data from the Database System

The “export data” function allows administrators to extract and download data from PMDb
for review, analysis, manipulation, or other operations. PMDb provides a simplified process to
extract both source data and normalized system data records for further analysis. The steps are
described further in this section and include:
1. Apply filters,
2. View summarized results, and
3. Download data.
Apply Filters
The search function located at the top of the screen is driven by the use of data filters as shown
in Figure 35. The filter function allows users to find pavement sections within the database
whereby certain conditions are met to allow that data to be downloaded for further analysis.
Either a value filter or a range filter must be applied to display the desired data subset. A value
filter, as seen in Figure 36, allows users to select a specific value for any attribute within PMDb.
The result set will return all system records that contain the exact match.

Figure 34. Screenshot of the import data step in the upload workflow.
Figure 35. Screenshot of the active filter interface in the search function.
Figure 36. Value filter interface.

Figure 37. Range filter interface.
A range filter allows users to indicate a range of values in the active filter interface. Only attri-
butes that can be queried by a numeric range will be visible in the “select a range filter” box, as
seen in Figure 37.
View Summarized Results

Once a filter has been applied, the summarized results of the filter will be displayed to indi-
cate what type of data has been returned. The data summary, as seen in Figure 38, indicates the
amount of data that exists and can be returned to users for the selected pavement sections based
on the filter criteria. This is helpful if users are looking for specific pavement sections that con-
tain inventory, maintenance, and condition data.
Download Data
To download data for subsequent analysis, users are presented with two options at the bot-
tom of the result list. The download source data presents data in its original format as it was
uploaded in PMDb (Figure 39) and the download system data provides users with the system
record segments generated after the data was mapped and translated.
Managing Glossary Terms

The PMDb framework has been populated with a large number of data terms and elements as
described in this report. These terms are used to define what each attribute or value represents
within the database and serve as a guide in identifying what information to collect. Within the
PMDb browser application, these terms are also defined in a dynamic glossary which allows
users to add new terms and modify existing terms, as required. The steps involved in adding a
term and editing a term are described in this section.
Adding Glossary Terms

Once users have determined that a glossary term has not been defined, the glossary terms
link under data management can be used to go to the listing page, which lists all existing terms.
To add a new term, click on “add a term” and follow the on-screen prompts to enter a term
name, uniform resource identifier (URI), and a one-paragraph definition as seen in Figure 40.
The URI is a lowercase version of a single term or a lowercase and hyphenated version of two
or more terms without any spaces between the terms (e.g., Analysis Period will be entered as
analysis-period).

Figure 38. Browser application interface displaying search results from filter.
The definition field is where the user will add the definition source, citations, and links, using
the format seen in Figure 41.
When users have completed adding the term, they need to click on “save” to return to the
glossary term listing page, as shown in Figure 42.
Editing Glossary Terms

Users can also use the glossary terms function to edit a glossary term by rolling the mouse
pointer over the appropriate term and clicking on the pencil icon, as shown in Figure 43. The
term will open in edit mode, enabling users to make changes and updates on an interface screen
similar to that of adding a glossary term (Figure 44).
Applications and Case Studies

To demonstrate the use of PMDb, sample data and analysis scenarios were generated to illus-
trate several possible maintenance applications for asphalt and concrete pavements. Sample
data were generated in part from the existing data provided by state agencies as well as from a
random data generator (Figure 45). All data and illustrative examples presented in this report
are not accurate representations of existing state agency data. The data have been altered and

Figure 39. Example of downloaded source record data file.
Figure 40. Interface for editing a glossary term.

>**Source:** Preservation Approaches for High-Traffic-Volume Roadways (SHRP 2, TRB 2011)
>**Reference:**[onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/shrp2/SHRP2_S2-R26-RR-
1.pdf)](http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/shrp2/SHRP2_S2-R26-RR-1.pdf)
Note that if a link to your reference is not available, please use the following format:
>**Reference:** Author, Title, Publication, Date, Page Number.
> **Category:** [Maintenance](#dynamicglossary/category/maintenance)
Figure 41. Syntax for entering a glossary term definition.
Figure 42. Screenshot for saving a glossary term.

Figure 43. Interface for selecting a glossary term to edit.
Figure 44. Interface for editing an existing glossary term.

Figure 45. Screenshot of sample data in Excel format.
supplemented to help demonstrate the use of PMDb and should in no way be construed as
attempting to provide a conclusion regarding pavement-maintenance activity or effectiveness.
The following sections describes several possible applications of PMDb.
Examining Chip Seal Effectiveness When Used as a Preventive

Measure versus a Reactive Measure
An agency may use a chip seal as both a preventive maintenance treatment and as a reactive
(stopgap) application. Sample data were generated to illustrate how available treatment and
performance data from PMDb can be used such that the expected purpose for using the chip
seal could be determined. Some reasons for an agency to perform such an examination include
providing improved analysis of preventive maintenance treatment performance by separating
out of any analysis the use of the treatment in non-preventive applications and examining the
effectiveness of chip seals applied at different times and conditions in the life of a pavement.
Data Elements and Attributes

To conduct this illustration, a dataset containing the following data elements was generated
to describe the maintenance sections:
• Pavement section elements (state, route, direction, lane, begin reference point, end reference
point, year, month, day, end year, end month, end day),
• Inventory elements,

• Surface type,
• Maintenance elements for chip seal,
• Treatment name,
• Treatment type,
• Treatment reason,
• Condition elements at treatment year and after 3 years, and
• Overall condition index.
Performing the Analysis

The steps to perform the analysis include:
• Develop a primary filter for all the chip seal treatment sections.
• Select and download the data elements listed above.
• Export to Excel and illustrate analysis case showing the effectiveness of chip seals applied
under different treatment applications (preventive versus reactive) by examining conditions
of pavement performance as well as differing pavement life.
Examining the Effect of Thin Asphalt Overlays

on Existing Asphalt Pavements
Thin HMA overlays are commonly used as a maintenance treatment. This case study will
examine the effect of thin HMA overlays placed on existing asphalt pavements by illustrating
how historical performance data can be used to quantify the change in one or more condition
measures as well as the duration of that change. Some reasons for an agency to perform such
an examination include determination of the effect of thin HMA overlays on pavement perfor-
mance and the impact of traffic on performance of thin HMA overlays.

To conduct this illustration, a dataset containing the following data elements was generated:
point, traffic, functional class, year, month, day, end year, end month, end day) are required
for each element group below,
• Surface type,
• Age of surface,
• Maintenance elements for thin HMA overlay,
• Treatment name,
• Treatment type,
• Condition elements at treatment year and after 3 years,
• IRI, and

• Develop a primary filter for all thin HMA overlay treatment sections.
• Identify and refine the filter for segments with the available data elements listed above.
• Export to Excel and illustrate analysis case showing the service life of thin HMA overlays by
developing performance trend charts describing pre- and post-treatment performance.
• To demonstrate how additional characteristics can be used in the analysis, group data by traf-
fic levels to assess the impact of traffic on the performance of thin HMA overlays.

Examining the Cost and Performance of a Crack Sealing Program

Crack sealing is commonly used as a maintenance treatment. This case study will illustrate
how the effectiveness of a crack sealing program can be analyzed by combining the calculation
of effectiveness with the associated costs to achieve that effect. A key reason for an agency to per-
form such an examination is to determine the cost-effectiveness of their crack sealing program.

To conduct this illustration, a dataset containing the following data elements was generated:
point, traffic, functional class, year, month, day, end year, end month, end day) are required
for each element group below,
• Surface type,
• Age of surface,
• Maintenance elements for crack sealing,
• Treatment name,
• Treatment type,
• Treatment reason,
• Project cost,
• Condition elements at treatment year and after 3 years, and

• Identify and refine filter for segments with the available data elements listed above.
• Export to Excel and illustrate analysis case showing the treatment service life by developing
performance trend charts describing pre- and post-treatment performance.
• To demonstrate how cost characteristics can be used in the analysis, use treatment service life
and associated cost (unit cost of project cost) to determine the benefit–cost ratio.

CHAPTER 6
Recommendations for Research
Highway agencies perform a variety of maintenance activities to maintain and preserve

highway pavements. Generally, highway agencies document information pertaining to these
maintenance actions including methods, rates, basis of measurements, costs, performance, and
other related factors as part of an MMS. Similarly, agencies document information on pavement
condition as part of a PMS.
NCHRP Project 14-31 was conducted to develop a database framework and system for the
storage and retrieval of pavement-maintenance data. This database, known as PMDb, together
with clear definitions of maintenance items, provides a uniform format for inputting, reporting,
and storing information on pavement maintenance. In addition to archiving the data needed to
evaluate the effectiveness of maintenance treatments, this database will promote compatibility of
maintenance data reported by different agencies, provide a mechanism for consistent interpretation
of data, and facilitate sharing of data among highway agencies.
At present, there are a variety of systems and practices for recording pavement-maintenance
work and pavement-performance data at state DOTs. PMDb will offer a uniform means for
archiving pavement-maintenance data and other related data over time. Pavement-maintenance
data terms and elements are defined for PMDb to provide for a common attribution of all activi-
ties. Where appropriate, new attributes and definitions can be dynamically created, providing
PMDb the capacity to adapt to evolving maintenance and condition measures.
PMDb was envisioned to function as a framework to aggregate and organize agency data stored
in other databases, not as an alternative to the various types of databases already in use within
an agency, such as PMS and MMS. However, to the extent that PMDb highlights data needed
for maintenance analyses that are not captured in existing agency databases, this may suggest the
need for internal refinements to those databases. The applications for PMDb become more useful
as the data store of pavement-maintenance activities and pavement condition grows over time.
Several areas where additional research may help further the results of this research and
PMDb include:
• Establishing common cost data elements and unit costs for various pavement-maintenance
treatments. This research identified a strong need for consistent documentation of cost ele-
ments within agencies. Further research could recommend best practices for agency cost
documentation which could improve the ability of a national database framework to provide
value to all agencies.
• Establishing common data collection practices for pavement-maintenance treatments. This
study identified a lack of uniformity in data collection methods, frequency, units, and levels
of service. These variable factors will make it challenging to establish and maintain a national
database framework that can provide lasting value for multiple agencies.
77

• Identifying common key performance measures for pavement-maintenance treatments as

well as recommended guidance for agencies to migrate existing performance data to these
measures. Performance measures and the respective data collection processes for them vary
widely among agencies for pavement-maintenance treatments. This limits the ability to trans-
late to a common set of performance measures limiting the ability to compare treatment
performance effectively.
• Establishing best practices for identifying a purpose for each pavement-maintenance treat-
ment. The research identified a need to find a method to consistently document the purpose
of a maintenance treatment such that its effectiveness can be compared against other treat-
ment applications for the same purpose.

References
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Chang, J.-R., D.-H. Chen, and C.-T. Hung. 2005. “Selecting Preventive Maintenance Treatments in Texas: Using
the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution for Specific Pavement Study—
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Chen, D.-H., D.-F. Lin, and H.-L. Luo. 2003. “Effectiveness of Preventative Maintenance Treatments Using Four-
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Washington, D.C. pp. 3–8.
Geoffroy, D. N. 1996. “Cost-Effective Preventive Pavement Maintenance.” NCHRP Synthesis of Highway Practice 223.
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Hicks, R. G., S. B. Seeds, and D. G. Peshkin. 2000. Selecting a Preventive Maintenance Treatment for Flexible
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79

Labi, S., G. Lamptey, S. Konduri, and K. C. Sinha. 2005. “Analysis of Long-Term Effectiveness of Thin Hot-Mix
Asphaltic Concrete Overlay Treatments.” Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation
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in Indiana—Methodology and Case Study.” Transportation Research Board 85th Annual Meeting. 06-2390.
Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.
Labi, S., M. I. Mahmodi, C. Fang, and C. Nunoo. 2007. “Cost-Effectiveness of Microsurfacing and Thin Hot-Mix
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tion Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.
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AZ-06-371. Arizona Department of Transportation. Phoenix, Arizona.
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Preservation of High-Traffic-Volume Roadways.” SHRP 2 Report S2-R26-RR-2. Transportation Research
Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C.
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Michigan Department of Transportation. Lansing, Michigan.
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Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City, Utah.
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National Concrete Pavement Technology Center. Ames, Iowa.
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Pavement Maintenance Decision-Making.” Report 5-9035-01-P1-Final. Texas Department of Transportation,
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Transportation Research Board, No. 1827. Transportation Research Board of the National Academies,
Washington, D.C.

Glossary
Agency cost: Costs to an agency of an activity that are directly related to the quantity of work
(e.g., labor, material, equipment usage, contract pay items) (AASHTO) (1). Also referred to
as direct cost.
Aggregate: Granular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed stone, crushed hydraulic-cement
concrete, or iron blast furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either
concrete or mortar, or used with asphalt cement to produce asphalt concrete, or used in the base
and/or subbase layers of a pavement structure (CPTC 2007) (9). Also referred to as stone, gravel.
Aggregate gradation: The distribution of particles of granular material among various sizes,
usually expressed in terms of cumulative percentages larger or smaller than each of a series of sizes
(sieve openings) or the percentages between certain ranges of sizes (sieve openings) (CPTC 2007)
(9). Also referred to as gradation.
Alkali silica reaction (ASR): The reaction between the alkalis (sodium and potassium) in
Portland cement binder and certain siliceous rocks or minerals, such as opaline chert, strained
quartz, and acidic volcanic glass, present in some aggregates; the products of the reaction may
cause abnormal expansion and cracking of concrete in service (ASTM D5340) (4).
Alligator cracking: A series of interconnecting cracks in the surface of an asphalt concrete pave-
ment caused by fatigue failure under repeated traffic loading (ASTM D6433) (3). Also referred
to as fatigue cracking.
Annual average daily traffic (AADT): Total volume of vehicle traffic of a highway or road for a
year divided by 365 days.
Asphalt concrete: A mixture of asphalt binder and aggregate thoroughly mixed and compacted
into a mass (AI) (2). Also referred to as bituminous concrete, flexible pavement, hot-mix asphalt.
Asphalt emulsion: A blend of asphalt binder and water that contains a small amount of an
emulsifying agent. Emulsified asphalt droplets may be of either the anionic (negative charge),
cationic (positive charge), or nonionic (neutral) (AI) (2). Also referred to as emulsion, bituminous
emulsion.
Asphalt patching: Replacement of a localized area of pavement. Used to treat localized distresses;
partial-depth patches address surface distresses and full-depth patches address structural distresses
(SHRP 2) (15). Also referred to as patching, HMA patching, asphalt concrete patching.
Base: The layer of material immediately beneath the pavement surface or binder course (AI) (2).
Base course: A layer of specified select material of planned thickness constructed on the subgrade
or subbase below a pavement to serve one or more functions such as distributing loads, providing
drainage, minimizing frost action, or facilitating pavement construction (CPTC 2007) (9).
81

Bleeding: The formation of a film of asphalt material on the pavement surface that creates a
shiny, glasslike, reflecting surface that usually becomes quite sticky. Bleeding is caused by excessive
amounts of asphaltic cement or tars in the mix, excess application of an asphalt-based crack sealant,
excess application of a tack coat, low air void content, or a combination thereof (ASTM 6433) (3).
Block cracking: Interconnected cracks that divide the pavement into approximately rectangular
pieces. The blocks may range in size from approximately 1 by 1 ft. (0.3 by 0.3 m) to 10 by 10 ft.
(3 by 3 m). Block cracking is caused mainly by shrinkage of the asphalt concrete and daily tem-
perature cycling, which results in daily stress/strain cycling. It is not associated with pavement
loading (ASTM 6433) (3).
Blow up and buckling: Vertical pavement deformations that usually occur in hot weather, usually at
a transverse crack or joint that is not wide enough to permit slab expansion. The insufficient width
usually is caused by infiltration of incompressible materials into the joint space (ASTM 6433) (3).
Chip seals: Sprayed application of asphalt (usually emulsion, although heated asphalt cement
and cutbacks are also used) followed by aggregate chips rolled to achieve 50% to 70% embed-
ment. Different types of chip seals are obtained by varying the binder, the aggregate, or by placing
multiple courses (NCHRP 342) (17). Also referred to as oil and chip, seal coat, surface treatment.
Cold-in-place recycling: Milling and sizing reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) and mixing
in-place with recycling additive and new aggregate which is then re-laid and compacted as new
base course. Cold-in-place recycling requires that a new surface be placed over it, usually an
asphalt overlay or other surface treatment (ARRA) (NCHRP 342).
Continuously reinforced concrete pavement (CRCP): A concrete pavement characterized by
no transverse joints and continuous longitudinal reinforcement (CPTC 2007) (9).
Corner break: A crack in a jointed PCC pavement that intersects the joints at a distance less
than or equal to one-half the slab length on both sides, measured from the corner of the slab
(ASTM 6433) (3).
Crack filling: Placement of adhesive material into and over non-working cracks. Often character-
ized by minimal crack preparation and use of lower-quality sealant materials (NCHRP 784) (11).
Crack sealing: Placement of adhesive material into and over working cracks. Often characterized
by good crack preparation and the use of high-quality sealant materials (CPTC 2008) (10).
Cross stitching: Technique used to maintain load transfer across non-working longitudinal
cracks in concrete pavements that are in relatively good condition (CPTC 2008) (10).
Depression: Localized areas of the pavement surface with elevations slightly lower than those of
the surrounding pavement (ASTM 6433) (3).
Diamond grinding: Removal of thin concrete layer (0.12 in. to 0.25 in.) from pavement surface
using special equipment outfitted with diamond-tipped saw blades (CPTC 2008) (10).
Diamond grooving: Cutting narrow, discrete grooves (typically longitudinal) into pavement surface
to increase tire-pavement contact when surface is wet and to reduce noise (CPTC 2008) (10).
Dowel bar: A device placed across transverse joints at mid-depth of a PCC slab to transfer load
from one slab to the adjoining slab. These are commonly smooth, round steel bars that are
coated to resist corrosion (CPTC 2007) (9).
Dowel bar retrofit (DBR): Placement of dowel bars across joints or cracks in existing jointed
concrete pavement (SHRP 2) (15).
Durability cracking: A failure mechanism in concrete in which the freeze–thaw expansion of
the large aggregate, over time, gradually breaks down the concrete. This distress usually begins

Glossary 83
at the bottom of the slab and appears as a pattern of cracks running parallel and close to a joint
or linear crack (ASTM 6433) (3). Also referred to as D cracking, freeze–thaw damage.
Edge cracking: A pattern of distress in asphalt pavements which runs parallel to and usually
within 1 to 1.5 ft. (0.3 m to 0.5 m) of the outer edge of the pavement. This distress is accelerated
by traffic loading and can be caused by frost-weakened base or subgrade near the edge of the
pavement (ASTM 6433) (3).
Equipment cost: A value assigned to equipment as part of an overall life-cycle cost calculation.
It may be a rental cost or an ownership cost spread over the expected life of the equipment.
Equivalent single axle load (ESAL): ESAL is a concept developed from data collected at the
American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) Road Test to establish a damage
relationship for comparing the effects of axles carrying different loads.
Faulting: The difference in elevation across a transverse discontinuity, such as a joint or a crack
(ASTM 6433) (3).
Fog seal: Very light application of asphalt emulsion to seal an existing asphalt surface (SHRP 2) (15).
Full-depth asphalt pavement: The term full-depth (registered by the Asphalt Institute with the
U.S. Patent Office) certifies that the pavement is one in which asphalt mixtures are employed for
all courses above the subgrade or improved subgrade. A full-depth asphalt pavement is placed
directly on the prepared subgrade (AI) (2).
Full-depth repairs: Removal and replacement of deteriorated concrete through the full depth
of the slab using approved repair materials; may be cast-in-place or precast (CPTC 2008) (10).
Functional classification: A way of grouping or categorizing highway routes using a set
of planning objectives that range from serving long-distance passenger and freight needs
to serving neighborhood travel from residential developments to nearby shopping centers
(FHWA) (6).
Hot-in-place recycling: The removal and replacement of a portion of the surface of an existing
asphalt pavement to correct surface distresses within top 2 inches (51 mm). The pavement surface
is softened by heat, mechanically loosened, picked up and mixed with recycling agent, aggregate,
rejuvenators, and/or virgin asphalt, and then relayed (ARRA 2001) (NCHRP 342). Also referred
to as HIR, HIPR.
Hot-mix asphalt (HMA): A plant-produced, high-quality hot mixture of asphalt cement and
well-graded, high-quality aggregate thoroughly compacted into a uniform dense mass (AI) (2).
Also referred to as asphalt concrete.
International Roughness Index (IRI): A measurement of the longitudinal profile of a pavement,
expressed as the ratio of the accumulated suspension motion to the distance traveled obtained
from a mathematical model of a standard quarter car traversing a measured profile at a speed of
50 mi/h (80 km/h) (ASTM E1926).
Joint reflection cracking: The projection through the surface of an HMA pavement of a joint in
an underlying layer of a PCC pavement. This does not include reflection cracks from any other
type of base, that is, cement- or lime-stabilized; these cracks are caused mainly by thermal- or
moisture-induced movement of the concrete slab beneath the AC surface. This distress is not
load-related; however, traffic loading may cause a breakdown of the asphalt surface near the
crack (ASTM 6433) (3).
Joint resealing: Removal of existing longitudinal/transverse joint sealants, preparing and install-
ing new sealant material (CPTC 2008) (10).

Joint seal damage: Any condition involving failure of the sealant in a concrete pavement
that enables soil or rocks to accumulate in the joints or allows significant water infiltration
(ASTM 6433) (3).
Jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP): A concrete pavement system characterized by short
joint spacing and no mid-panel reinforcement. Smooth dowels may be placed across the trans-
verse joints to facilitate load transfer. (CPTC 2007) (9).
Jointed reinforced concrete pavement (JRCP): A concrete pavement system characterized by
long joint spacing and containing steel mesh reinforcement distributed throughout the slab to
hold any cracks tightly together. Load transfer devices are a common characteristic of this type
of design (CPTC 2007) (9).
Labor cost: The costs of labor used in performing an activity. Often added to the cost of materials
and equipment to result in the total cost of the activity.
Linear cracking: Cracks which divide a PCC slab into two or three pieces, usually caused by a
combination of repeated traffic loading, thermal gradient curling, and repeated moisture load-
ing (ASTM 6433) (3). Also referred to as longitudinal cracking, transverse cracking.
Longitudinal and transverse cracking: On asphalt pavements, these cracks are parallel or perpen-
dicular to the pavement centerline or laydown direction. They may be caused by poorly constructed
paving joints, asphalt shrinkage, or reflective cracking caused by cracking in the underlying surface.
They are not usually load-associated (ASTM 6433) (3). Also referred to as longitudinal cracking,
transverse cracking, and thermal cracking.
Maintenance: Activities that enable a transportation system to continue to perform at its intended
level; comprises a range of services in preservation, cleaning, replacing worn or failed compo-
nents, periodic or unscheduled repairs and upkeep, motorist services (incident response, hazard-
ous materials response), snow and ice control, and servicing of traffic devices and aids; does not
add to structural or operational capacity of an existing facility (FHWA) (5).
Map cracking and scaling: A network of shallow, fine, or hairline cracks that extend only
through the upper surface of the concrete. The cracks tend to intersect at angles of 120°. Map
cracking or crazing usually is caused by concrete over-finishing and may lead to surface scaling,
which is the breakdown of the slab surface to a depth of approximately 0.25 in. to 0.5 in. (6 mm
to 13 mm) (ASTM 6433) (3). Also referred to as crazing.
Material cost: Cost of materials used to perform an activity.
Microsurfacing: Mix of crushed, well-graded aggregate, mineral filler, and latex-modified
emulsified asphalt spread over entire pavement surface with specialized equipment (ISSA 2010)
(ARRA).
Partial-depth repairs: Localized removal and replacement of deteriorated concrete (most often
in vicinity of joints) in the upper third of the slab using approved repair materials (SHRP 2) (15).
Patching: The removal and replacement of a localized area of pavement with new material to
repair the existing pavement. A patch is considered a defect no matter how well it is performing
(ASTM 6433) (3).
Pavement Condition Index (PCI): A rating of pavement performance on a scale of 0 to 100,
where 0 represents a failed pavement and 100 represents a pavement that is in excellent condi-
tion (ASTM 6433) (3).
Pavement distress: Visible indicators of pavement deterioration caused by loading, environ-
mental factors, construction deficiencies, or a combination thereof. Pavement distresses are
typically further characterized by severity level: low, medium, and high (ASTM 6433) (3).

Glossary 85
Pavement maintenance: Work that is planned and performed on a routine basis to maintain
and preserve the condition of the highway system or to respond to specific conditions and events
that restore the highway system to an adequate level of service (SHRP 2) (15).
Pavement subbase layer: Layer of material in a pavement structure immediately beneath the
base course (SHRP 2) (15).
Pavement subgrade: The native soil prepared and compacted to support a pavement structure
(SHRP 2) (15).
Pavement wearing course: The top layer of a pavement structure. Also referred to as pavement
surface, surface course, surface layer, wearing course, and weathering course.
Polished aggregate: The wearing away of aggregate texture by repeated traffic applications
(ASTM 6433) (3).
Popout: The loss of a small piece of pavement due to freeze-thaw action. More commonly found
with expansive aggregates, chert, clay particles, and other low quality materials (ASTM 6433) (3).
Potholes: The loss of the pavement surface in a small—usually less than 30 in. (750 mm)
in diameter—bowl-shaped area of the pavement surface. They generally have sharp edges and
vertical sides near the top of the hole (ASTM 6433) (3).
Present serviceability index (PSI): A subjective rating of the pavement condition made by
a group of individuals riding over the pavement, ranging from 0 (impassable) to 5 (perfect)
(SHRP 2) (15).
Preventive maintenance: A planned strategy of cost-effective treatments to an existing roadway
system and its appurtenances that preserves the system, retards future deterioration, and main-
tains or improves the functional condition of the system (without significantly increasing the
structural capacity) (FHWA) (13).
Pumping: The ejection of material from the slab foundation through joints or cracks. This is
caused by deflection of the pavement from passing loads (ASTM 6433) (3).
Punchout: In a CRCP, a localized area of the slab that is broken into pieces. The punchout
can take many different shapes and forms, but it is usually defined by a crack and a joint
(ASTM 6433) (3).
Raveling: Dislodging of coarse aggregate particles in an HMA surface. Raveling may be caused
by insufficient asphalt binder, poor mixture quality, insufficient compaction, segregation, or
stripping (ASTM 6433) (3).
Reactive maintenance: Emergency or other unprogrammed time-sensitive maintenance or
repair that arises as a response to observed defects or performance problems (e.g., small bridge
deck repairs, traffic signal repairs, incident response) (AASHTO) (1).
Retrofitted edge drains: Devices added to a pavement after it is in service to facilitate removal
of subsurface water. They usually consist of a drainage feature that is placed between the edge of
the pavement and the shoulder. This is a technique used to collect water that has infiltrated into
the pavement structure and discharges it to the ditches through regularly spaced outlet drains
(CPTC 2008) (10).
Roughness: Longitudinal distortions of the road surface that contribute to an undesirable,
unsafe, uneconomical, or uncomfortable ride (SHRP 2) (15).
Routine maintenance: Work that is planned and performed on a routine basis to maintain and
preserve the condition of the highway system or to respond to specific conditions and events that
restore the highway system to an adequate level of service (FHWA) (13)

Rutting: A depression in the wheel paths of a pavement surface. It is a permanent deformation

of one or more layers of the pavement structure (ASTM 6433) (3).
Sandblasting: The use of compressed air to blast a surface with an abrasive medium (sand) for
quickly preparing the surfacing for repair.
Shattered slab: A concrete slab that is divided by cracks into four or more pieces due to
overloading, or inadequate support, or both (ASTM 6433) (3). Also referred to as divided slab.
Shoving: A permanent, longitudinal displacement of a localized area of an HMA pavement
surface caused by traffic loading (ASTM 6433) (3).
Shrinkage cracking: Hairline cracks that usually are less than 6.6 ft. (2 m) long and do not
extend across the entire concrete slab (ASTM 6433) (3).
Slab stabilization/slab jacking: The restoration of support beneath concrete slabs by filling
voids, thereby reducing deflections. Slab jacking involves raising slabs to their desired elevation
by pressure inserting material beneath settled slabs (CPTC 2008) (10).
Slippage cracking: Crescent or half-moon shaped cracks in an HMA surface, usually transverse
to the direction of travel. They are produced when braking or turning wheels cause the pavement
surface to slide or deform (ASTM 6433) (3).
Slurry seal: A mixture of quick- or slow-setting emulsified asphalt, well-graded fine aggregate,
mineral filler, and water. It is used to fill cracks and seal areas of asphalt pavements (ISSA 2010)
(ARRA).
Spalling: Breakdown of a concrete slab within approximately 1.5 ft. (0.5 m) of a corner, joint,
or crack (ASTM 6433) (3).
Surface friction: The retarding force developed at the tire-pavement interface that resists sliding
when braking forces are applied to the vehicle tires (SHRP 2) (15).
Swelling: An upward bulge in the pavement’s surface; a long, gradual wave more than 10 ft. (3 m)
(ASTM 6433) (3).
Thin bonded wearing course: A bituminous layer placed on top of an existing pavement to
improve the functional or surface characteristics of the pavement, including enhancing friction
and reducing noise. Consists of open-graded or gap-graded aggregates and rubberized or polymer-
modified asphalt layer 0.4 in. to 0.8 in. (10 mm to 20 mm) thick well bonded to the concrete surface
(NAPA) (7). Also referred to as ultra-thin bonded overlay and ultra-thin bonded wearing course.
Treatment cost: The total cost of applying a maintenance treatment (includes labor, equip-
ment, materials, pay items, traffic mobilization, and overhead costs).
Ultra-thin and thin HMA overlay: Asphalt binder (may be polymerized) and dense-graded,
gap-graded, or open-graded aggregate combined in central mixing placement and placed with
paver in thickness ranging from 0.625 in. to 0.75 in. (16 mm to 19 mm) for ultra-thin and 0.75 in.
to 1.5 in. (19 mm to 38 mm) for thin overlays. Cost and performance depends on binder type
and whether milling is performed prior to treatment placement (NAPA) (7).
Ultra-thin whitetopping: A thin, 2 in. to 4 in. (50 mm to 100 mm), PCC overlay of an existing
HMA pavement. Ultra-thin whitetopping is a functional overlay that provides a stable surface
that is resistant to deformation from static, slow moving, and turning loads (CPTC 2008) (10).
Also referred to as thin concrete overlay.
Weathering: The wearing away of the asphalt binder and fine aggregate matrix (ASTM 6433) (3).

Appendix A
Participant Responses
to Electronic Survey
The following responses were collected between August 9, 2013, and September 8, 2013. The
following state agencies participated: Arizona, Colorado, Georgia, Indiana, Missouri, Minnesota,
Montana, North Carolina, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New York, Oklahoma,
Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Washington, and West Virginia.
What follows are summarized responses to the questions contained within the survey. Where
appropriate, additional free entry responses are listed.
What information does your agency collect about pavement-

maintenance construction? (Select all that apply.)
100%
90%
Periodic performance after construction
Pavement condition before maintenance
80%
Weather at time of maintenance
70%
Location (precise)
Location (between marker/mile posts)
60%
50%
40%
Other
Material Quantities
30%
Costruction Date
Method/Activity
Material Type
Equipment
20%
Labor
Costs
10%
0%
87

Are there differences in the information collected if the work is

done by contract or in-house?
26.3%
Yes No
73.7%
Additional Comments
Are there differences in the information collected if the work is done by contract or in-house?
Labor and equipment costs are not tracked for contract work.
The contracts are precisely located while the work done in-house is for a county and route.
Construction inspectors collect quality control data for contract projects but not for in-house work.
Less testing is done, so less data is available when the work is done in-house.
In-house information is collected and stored in the assets work management system. Contract work is
stored in PMS.
We do not have labor and equipment information if the work is done by contract.
We do not collect the contractor's labor and equipment costs.
If the work is done by contract, a construction administration crew (resident engineer) tracks all work,
according to the bid schedule and inspection reports. If the work is done by maintenance forces in-
house, the work is tracked by MMS.
Contract information is less detailed.
How is pavement-maintenance construction information collected?
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Manual input by Written records Collected with
maintenance supervisor handheld device or
computer in field (please
identify device in text box
below)
Additional Comments
How is pavement-maintenance construction information collected?
Computer at site office.
Will implement laptop in field in January 2015 with server based MMS.
We use SiteManager, an AASHTO program, and also an in-house MMS.
Patching is done by state forces and input into an MMS. All other maintenance treatments are
delivered by contract.
All the above depending on the region.

Participant Responses to Electronic Survey 89
How is pavement-maintenance construction information stored? (Select all

that apply.)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Locally, by the Regionally, Centrally, in Server-based Mainframe
collecting office by a district headquarters or in MMS computer MMS
or region the maintenance or other
office
How is pavement-maintenance construction information made

available to users? (Select all that apply.)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Downloaded Accessed from Via handheld or In GIS output Hard copy
from mainframe agency server other portable reports
devices distributed by
central office

Are all data available, only summaries of data available, or is a

combination of all data and summaries of data available?
30.0%
All data are available
Only summaries of data are

available
A combination of all data and
summaries of data is available
15.0%
55.0%
How is information about the performance of pavement-maintenance treatments

collected over time?
15.0%
5.0% No information is collected
0.0%
5.0% Collected as part of the pavement
management process
Collected as part of maintenance
0.0% management
Informally collected by maintenance
forces
Collected by the agency if performed
15.0% by contract
Collected by financial management
processes
60.0% Other (please specify)
Identify the pavement-performance parameters that are collected.

(Select all that apply.)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Individual Condition Ride indices Subjective Other (please
distresses indices (e.g., (e.g., IRI, RQI) rating (e.g., specify)
PCI, PCR, PSI) good, fair, poor)

If pavement-maintenance performance data are collected, how frequently are they collected for
each functional classification?
Functional Classification Data Collection Frequency
Every two Every year Other
years
NHS/Interstate 4 15 0
Primary 7 10 1
Secondary 12 4 2
Other functional class 8 2 2
Is the performance of pavement-maintenance treatments over time

monitored by your agency (i.e., is information reviewed and used in
decision-making)?
31.6%
No
Yes
68.4%
Who is responsible for monitoring the performance of pavement-

maintenance treatments over time? (Select all that apply.)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Agency, centrally Agency, at district, Consultant under Other (please
region, or yard level contract specify)

How are the data collected? (Select all that apply.)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Manual surveys Automated surveys Automated surveys Other
as part of pavement distinct from
management pavement
management
Additional Comments
Describe how pavement-maintenance information is reviewed and used in agency decision-
making.
It is part of the decision tree in our PMS. Certain conditions will generate preventive maintenance.
Our road analyzer collects raw data which is refined in our planning division and used by our
maintenance division.
A pavement optimization program considers the condition and history of the pavement, and then
recommends the most cost-effective treatment strategy.
It falls within our PMS.
We used a performance system that evaluated pavement management.
Yearly data are summarized in one-mile segments and disseminated in 4 regions where project
selection is finalized based on PMS data and field review.
Pavement performance data, condition, deterioration curves, year of last work done, and other factors
are used to select a treatment recommendation for each segment each year. Segments are selected
for work based on available funds and program priorities.
Pavement-management information is used in decision making.
Individual sites are being monitored now to determine the effectiveness of various treatments.
The performance of pavement-maintenance treatments are reviewed and evaluated periodically and
used to determine if the treatment/practice should be allowed to continue and/or if their specifications
and/or construction practices need to be changed.

Which of the following management systems does your agency use? For
each identified system, identify whether the system was internally developed or
a proprietary system.
20
18
16
Number of Responses
14
12
Internally developed
10
Commercial software
8
6
4
2
0
Asset Pavement Maintenance Bridge
Do you use contractors to provide pavement-maintenance services?
10.5%
No
Yes
89.5%
What percentage of your agency’s pavement-maintenance needs are met

by contractors?
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Contractors (including fence-to-fence Agency forces (including another public
maintenance contracts) agency acting on your behalf)

What pavement-maintenance activities are contractors hired for? (Select all

that apply.)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Crack sealing Patching Surface treatments Other (please
identify)
Additional Comments
What pavement-maintenance activities are contractors hired for? (Select all that apply.)
Small localized paving/patching, 95% for crack sealing and surface treatments.
Mowing, guide rail, and paving.
Milling and thin overlays.
Thin overlays.
100% of crack sealing and surface treatments are delivered by contract. 100% of pothole patching is
delivered by state forces.
Microsurfacing, chip seals, and thin-lift HMA.
What data reporting requirements are placed on contractors hired for

pavement maintenance? (Select all that apply.)
50%
45%
40%
35%
30%
25%
20%
15%
10%
5%
0%
None Electronic data Hard copy Tabular Others
files that can be reports summaries
imported into an
MMS or PMS

How are pavement-maintenance data used? (Select all that apply.)
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Forecast staffing
Others
Schedule work
Monitor efficiency of
Track pavement
accomplished vs.
Track equipment
Monitor treatment
Develop budgets
Track labor use
Track material use
Forecast equipment
Control costs
Compare work
performance
work planned
performance
needs
workers
needs
What improvements in pavement-maintenance monitoring or reporting would benefit your

agency?
A better link to the work done by in-house forces to the PMS, particularly when and where the work
was done.
A pavement asset management system.
A more comprehensive reporting and collecting system.
An interactive system that would readily allow the generation of a variety of reports, connecting
maintenance and performance and enabling scheduling of maintenance activities on a more rational
basis.
Implementation of new MMS in January 2015.
Better control over limits of work.
Based on this survey, I'm not sure I see a significant benefit from this effort. We have a good handle on
treatment cost and performance, well developed deterioration curves, and a robust treatment selection
model. Regarding MMS, pavement maintenance is just one sub-set of tasks that our field managers
need to balance every day. Work is balanced based on funding and crew availability, priorities (long-
term and short-term), and performance targets. Data are used within the overall context of highway
maintenance to allocate resources where they are needed most.
We are exploring combining the empirical data obtained by the pavement program with the subjective
data obtained through the MLOS surveys. A part of this effort is to quantify the benefits of maintenance
treatments and incorporate these into the pavement management program.
Integration with other systems like pavement and bridge.
Contract reporting requirements. Mobile (hand-held) device to collect data.
Pavement-maintenance performance measures for contract and in-house work.
Improving the quality of construction data that is contracted at the division level.
Having our pavement analysis software integrated with our assets management system.
Have more frequent pavement reviews conducted on primary and secondary routes so that data is
more timely.
Consistent data collection and reporting. Practices vary from one region to another.
Need more staff dedicated to monitoring treatment performance and evaluating cost effectiveness/life
cycle costs for each of the treatments.

Appendix B
Interview Summaries by State
96

Appendix C
System Requirements
The following section describes the functional and non-functional requirements that were
identified to guide the development of PMDb.
Functional Requirements
In software engineering, a functional requirement defines a function of a system or its compo-
nent. Functional requirements define what a system is supposed to accomplish. The functional
requirements of PMDb are summarized in the table below.
Functional Requirement Description

All users will have the ability to browse and review
documentation in the system and access links to
View resources/references
references and resources used in the development
process.
All users will have the ability to browse, search, and
review glossary terms and definitions as they pertain to
View glossary data elements within the database system. Terms should
be presented to users in alphabetical order as well as
tagged to data elements and attributes.
All users should have the ability to view the summarized
statistics that describe the amount of data contained
within the database system. The statistics should include
a quantity of pavement maintenance sections, availability
View system statistics
of data, types of treatments, all potentially broken out by
state agency. It may also be presented graphically by a
chart or map to help communicate what states have
contributed data to encourage system use.
All users will be able to complete a registration process
to request access to datasets within the database system.
Access requests will be processed by a system
Register for access administrator or an email validation routine. Once access
is provided, users will receive a notification by email and
be allowed to browse, search, and download specific data
within the database system.
Registered users will be able to browse the pavement
maintenance sections that are contained within the
database to view the data that are available with the
Browse and view system records and
section. The goal is to view section locations and
source records (pavement sections)
treatment types and identify what types of data elements
are available for the given pavement maintenance
section.
Registered users will be able to query the database
system to identify maintenance sections that contain the
desired characteristics. Users should be able to select any
data element within the database and select either a value
Query for pavement section datasets
that exists or range of values that exist and be presented
with a result set of pavement maintenance sections that
match the given criteria. Users may combine data
element criteria to form a complex filter.
98

Pavement-Maintenance Database System Requirements 99
Functional Requirement Description

Registered users will be able to download pavement
section datasets from the results of the query for
pavement section of the database system. The download
will include all pavement section data by default. Data
Download pavement section datasets
will be packaged into the following format for maximum
portability: .csv (100K max rows). Data in the download
will match the data model of the database system and
include a copy of the current data dictionary.
Registered users will be able to perform standard user
account functions. When not logged in, users will be able
to retrieve their password by email and log in. When
Perform user account functions logged in, users will be able to update their profile
information and modify their password. They may also
request to become a contributor to the database system by
sending an email to the site administrator.
Contributor users will be able to submit new data to the
database system for their state. Contributors may only
submit data for the states for which they are authorized.
Administrators can submit data for any state. For
submission, users will be expected to format their
existing data into a suitable acceptance format for upload
Submit new data
to the database system. This format will be provided in a
template to all contributor users for download once
logged in. During the import process, users will proceed
through a workflow discussed below to help normalize
their data to the existing dataset such that meaningful
analysis can be conducted.
Contributor users will be able to append additional data
to existing pavement sections over time. For example, it
is anticipated that condition data will be collected on a
periodic basis and will be appended to the existing
pavement section. Contributor users will be able to
Append data identify individual pavement sections to add data to. In
general, users will be adding condition data, although
support will be provided for users to upload and append
data elements where they do not exist. At this time, no
support for collision detection will be provided, the last
data in will override any existing data.
Once a contributor user has uploaded data, the data will
remain in a draft state, available and visible only to the
contributor user until it is moved to a published state.
Contributor users can only publish data they have
Publish data
uploaded through a simple state change for any selected
pavement section. Contributor users will not be able to
publish portions of data for a given pavement section; it
will be all or nothing.
Contributor users will have the ability to add new values
to the glossary and data terms over time to maintain
system flexibility and scalability. During the upload
process for data submission, users will be presented with
an interface for helping to normalize their existing data
with values already in the system. For example, for each
Append new data terms and elements maintenance treatment name that doesn’t match an
existing name in the database, users will be presented the
option of normalizing it to an existing value or creating a
brand new treatment. This is done in order to help
normalize the wide variance in the naming conventions
for treatments and group them in a logical way for
subsequent analysis.
Administrator users will be able to view all users in the
system and manage their credentials and access level.
Administrators can reset user passwords, grant a
registration request, change user access levels to
Perform user management functions
registered or contributor, as well as revoke access.
Administrators may also log in as any user in order to
assist with their upload functions or perform a function
on their behalf.
Administrator users will be able to modify or remove
data from the database system. At this time, the function
Modification of data will be limited to direct database manipulation; a web
interface may be desired if this function becomes a
greater need.

Non-Functional Requirements
A non-functional requirement is a requirement that specifies criteria that can be used to
judge the operation of a system, rather than specific behaviors. This should be contrasted with
functional requirements that define specific behavior or functions. A summary of the suggested
non-functional requirements for PMDb is described here.
Product Requirements
• Performance requirements (availability, capacity, speed, and storage):
• The system should be available 99% outside of scheduled maintenance periods (down
< 87.6 hours per annum).
• Scheduled maintenance periods for upgrades
• No more than 24 hours of downtime per month
• Estimated total capacity of 250 registered users (5 per state)
• Maximum simultaneous connections projected at 2% user load (5 users)
• Reliability: can have up to a maximum of a single week outage at a time (not a mission critical
application)
• Alert users of application downtime or outages via the maintenance page with email notifica-
tions to user account emails
• Network response (browser client)
• Reports and visualizations: simple reports and visualizations which render non-compound
query content should be constructed and viewable in under 10 seconds.
• Page loads should take less than 5 seconds to complete
• Data downloads will happen asynchronously (may take longer time)
• Connection speed supported
• Broadband internet connection (256 kBps or better)
• Scalability and load: the system should be able to maintain the aforementioned speed
requirements on the server to support the maximum simultaneous web users
• Initial support for less than 500 GB is expected based on sample data from customers.
• Database and file storage is expected to grow over time both with additional projects and more
data per project.
• The system should provide scalable support for storage either locally or in the cloud to
manage large datasets.
Interface Requirements
• Display size and resolution
• Minimum screen resolution of 1024 x 768 as this application does not demand nor warrant
mobile access.
• Widescreen support (1366 x 768)
• Standards requirements
• The system’s communications should function over HTTP V1.1 and be compliant with the
latest web standards.
• Look and feel standards to follow applicable branding and font guidelines.
Security Requirements
• Access to the website URL will be available to all Internet users.
• Access to individual functions of the website will be managed by user groups as described later
in this document.

Pavement-Maintenance Database System Requirements 101
• Encryption strength: no encryption will be used for this project at this time as the data is all
public domain.
User Account Requirements

• Username will be the email address registered to the user account. The username will be used
as the key value in the authentication process. All government issued emails (.gov) will be
validated as registered users.
• Passwords should contain at least eight characters, at least one upper- and one lower-case
letter, and at least one number. Passwords will not timeout.
• Metadata
• All user accounts will be required to provide a first and last name.
• All user accounts will indicate what organization/agency they work for.
Portability Requirements
• Browser client: browser interfaces will be compatible with the most current version of
Chrome, Firefox, and Safari at the time of release. Internet Explorer, Version 8 and above,
will be supported as well.
• Server: platform and architecture of the server component will be on Linux x64 systems,
utilizing PHP 5.3+ to provide multiple release options.
Operational Requirements
• Failure and restart: In the event of failure, the system shall provide for the execution of an
automatic restart process.
• During the process of automatic restart, there should be a default webpage displayed to browser
client users and a message to tablet client users (in the event of a synchronization request),
announcing that the system will be available shortly.
• In the event of an automatic restart, the system will be fully functional within 120 seconds
of rebooting.
• All data file transfers between the client and the server will occur via an asynchronous batch-
ing process that provides a per-batch file download confirmation to the sender when ready.
• Downloaded data files shall be stored for 30 days and then removed from the server to limit
storage requirements.
Maintainability Requirements
• The system will support an update release process which will involve taking the system offline
for no longer than 24 hours.
Usability Requirements
• The system should allow for training and orientation via solely online resources.
• No further assistance should be required to become proficient in the use of the application.
Support Requirements
• Documentation will be supplied via access to online materials hosted on the site.
• Documentation to include: user’s manual for end users
• Case study examples of conducting search and analysis

• Integrated help tool tips for users (included within application)

• Localization: The system will not support localization.
• English language only
• U.S. customary units only
Infrastructure Requirements
• Cloud or Single Machine Support
• The system will be deployable to a cloud implementation such as Amazon Web Services (AWS),
as well as to a Linux, Apache, MySQL, and PHP (LAMP) stack local or customer controlled
machine.
• The system should be designed in a manner that allows for movement between solutions in a
somewhat simple manner.
External Requirements
• Legal requirements or disclaimer: the system must support the display of a standard dis-
claimer message to the user.

Appendix D
Database Virtual Machine
Installation Procedure
To demonstrate the use of PMDb, sample data and analysis scenarios were generated to illus-
trate several possible maintenance applications for asphalt and concrete pavements. Sample data
were generated in part from the existing data provided by state agencies as well as from a random
data generator (Figure 45). All data and illustrative examples presented in this report are not
accurate representations of existing state agency data. The data have been altered and supple-
mented to help demonstrate the use of PMDb and should in no way be construed as attempting
to provide a conclusion regarding pavement-maintenance activity or its effectiveness.
Steps to Setup and Install PMDb from DVD

Step 1. Download VMware Player
VMware Player is a free virtual machine player that allows the user to run PMDb on the desk-
top or laptop. To download VMware Player, use the link below and select the operating system.
https://my.vmware.com/en/web/vmware/free#desktop_end_user_computing/vmware_player/
7_0|PLAYER-713|product_downloads
Note: If the above link doesn’t work, using a web browser go to http://www.google.com and type in
“vmware player 7.1.3 download” in the search box to find the appropriate link to the software on
the VMware site. The download should be labeled “VMware Player for Windows 64-bit operating
systems, Version 7.1.3.”
103

Step 2. Install VMware Player

Once the VMware Player has been downloaded, launch the installation file and follow the
on-screen prompts shown below.
Click next to perform the installation and follow the on-screen prompts.

Pavement-Maintenance Database Virtual Machine Installation Procedure 105
Step 3. Launch VMware and Import PMDb

Once the VMware Player has been installed, copy the PMDb folder from the DVD (CRP-
CD-179; Volume 1) to the computer. Double click on the PMDb.ovf file located in the PMDb
folder to initialize and launch the virtual machine.
This process may take a few minutes the first time it is done and users can see progress prompts
and messages.

Once the import is complete PMDb will launch on the desktop of the virtual machine where
users can click to start PMDb. “Welcome to the PMDb” will appear on the screen.
If prompted for a password, enter “pmdb.” This prompt may not show up at all, depending
on the system configuration.

Appendix E
Loading Sample Data into the

To demonstrate the use of PMDb, sample data and analysis scenarios were generated to
illustrate several possible maintenance applications for asphalt and concrete pavements.
Sample data were generated in part from the existing data provided by state agencies as well
as from a random data generator (Figure 45). All data and illustrative examples presented in
this report are not accurate representations of existing state agency data. The data have been
altered and supplemented to help demonstrate the use of PMDb and should in no way be
construed as attempting to provide a conclusion regarding pavement-maintenance activity
or effectiveness.
Login to the Pavement-Maintenance Database

Step 1. Open PMDb and click on the login button in the upper right hand corner.
107

Step 2. Login to PMDb with administrator credentials.

• Username: admin
• Password: password
Create Route Inventory

To load data into PMDb, an inventory of routes needs to be created to which inventory,
maintenance, and performance data can be attributed. PMDb was designed to ingest the NHPN
dataset and use the dataset as a base inventory although it does allow individual route additions.
To add the sample data provided in Table E-1, perform the following steps:
Step 1. Click on “route inventory” to view the current inventory.

Loading Sample Data into the Pavement-Maintenance Database 109
Table E-1. Sample inventory data.

State Route Rural Minimum Maximum
Name Code Functional Class ARM ARM
MI I-75 Urban Urban Interstate 0 28.29
MI M-20 Rural Rural Principal Arterial 0 26.371
MI US-10 Urban Urban Freeway or Expressway 0 22.36
MI US-131 Urban Urban Freeway or Expressway 0 17
Step 2. From the route inventory page, click on “add a route” to add a new route to the
inventory.
Step 3. Enter the route information. The route state represents the two-letter abbreviation of the
state the route is located within, the route name is the formal name of the route, the rural code is
the classification of the route, and the functional class represents one of the federal functional clas-
sifications for the route. For the minimum ARM and the maximum ARM, enter the accumulated
route mile boundary conditions of the route which represents the minimum and the maximum
value against which events can be attributed for this section. For routes that traverse multiple
codes, you may break them up into multiple segments or simply select the most appropriate or
representative section. Click on “save” when complete. Use the information in Table E-1 to create
the route inventory.

76.26
Step 4. Regenerate system records. Click on “regenerate systems records” to process the new
route into the system records segments.
Once the new route has been regenerated, a confirmation screen will appear with a message
indicating that the route was successfully populated into the system data segments.

Table E-2. Sample data file.

Sample Data File Description
MDOT CPM Treatments 1992 to 1994.tab This sample data file contains a listing of various
maintenance and preservation treatments by
treatment type, length, and cost.
MDOT Sample Data.tab This sample data file contains details on project
type, surface type, and other details specific to
each maintenance project performed.
MDOT Performance.tab These data files contain sample performance data,
MDOT-Year1.tab limited to a condition index value. Each file
MDOT-Year2.tab represents a subsequent year of performance data
MDOT-Year3.tab capture after the performance treatment.
Step 5. Enter complete inventory of routes. To allow a portion of the sample data to be
processed, enter data for the routes as seen in Table E-1 by repeating Steps 1 to 4. Click on
“regenerate system records” after each entry to ensure that the route is segmented appropriately
in the system record database.
Upload Data Files to the

Sample Data Folder and Files
To illustrate how PMDb performs, several sample data sources were generated. The sample
data folder, included in the CD (CRP-CD-179, Volume 2) contains sample data files, as shown
in Table E-2.
The following steps should be repeated for each sample data file.
Sample Data Upload Procedure

Step 1. Select “upload a file” from the primary navigation menu.

Table E-3. Sample data sources and files.

Corresponding Sample
Name Hash User Description
Data File(s)
Treatments Treatments Data source providing treatment MDOT CPM Treatments
type, length, and cost. 1992 to 1994.tab
Treatment Treatment- Data source providing project type, MDOT Sample Data.tab
Details Details surface type, and other details
specific to each maintenance project
performed.
Performance Performance Data source providing performance MDOT Performance.tab
data on an annual basis for pavement MDOT-Year1.tab
sections. MDOT-Year2.tab
MDOT-Year3.tab
Step 2. Select a data source and select a file that needs to be uploaded. Using the drop-down
menu, select the name of the data source, according to Table E-3. The uploaded file will be
attributed to this data source. If the data source name is not listed in the drop-down menu it
needs to be created. For the sample data, select “add a data source” to add a new data source to
the database.

From the data source input screen enter in the name, hash, and user description for a data
source as seen in Table E-3. Press “save” when complete to store the new data source and then
select it from the drop-down menu.
Next, select the data file to be uploaded by clicking on the “browse” button.

To select the file associated with the data source described in Table E-3, insert the CD into
the drive on your computer. To access the CD-ROM drive from the virtual terminal it must be
connected to the virtual machine. To verify and enable the CD-ROM drive, click on the “player”
button on the upper left hand corner of the VMware Player and ensure that “CD/DVD” is
checked under “removable devices.”
Now click on browse from the PMDb application and a file dialog box will appear. From the
dialog box, select the “sample data” CD/DVD as seen below and navigate to the “sample data”
folder and click open.

From the sample data folder, select the appropriate file that aligns with the data source
selected, as seen in Table E-3. Once selected, click on “open” and the file name will be placed
into the application interface for upload.
Once the file path has been set, click on “upload” to process the file into PMDb. This will
automatically lead to the next step.

Step 3. Click on “build archive” in the workflow and then click on “process file” to import
the uploaded data file into the source record archive data table. When this step is complete you
will be taken to the “translate index” step. The uploaded file format must adhere to the format
defined within the report in order to successfully be processed.
Step 4. Translate the source index files. This step can be used to clean and transform source
data so that it aligns with routes defined within the inventory. For the sample data provided, no
translations are required so the table listing will be blank.

Step 5. Preview the matches found in the source data. During this step the transformations are
applied to the source data and compared against the original data. In the example below, note
how the route index value has been modified. This will only occur if an index translation has
been made. Click on “map fields” in the workflow at top to proceed to the next step.
Step 6. Create the field mappings. This step is where the source field names are mapped to the
PMDb data fields. One can add transformations to the source data as well during this step to
allow for data to be cleansed or validated. To add a field mapping click on the “add a data field
mapping” in the upper right as seen below.

Table E-4. Sample data mappings.
Data Source Name Hash Archetype Source Field Destination Field Operation
Treatment Maintenance Maintenance > General
Treatments Type Gen-TrType -General WORK TYPE > Treatment Type Copy
Gen- Maintenance Maintenance > Cost >
Treatments Total Cost TotalCost -Cost COST Total Cost Copy
Condition-
Overall
Condition Condition > Overall
Performance PCI Cond-PCI Index PCI Condition Index > PCI Copy
Pavement
Surface- Inventory > Pavement
Treatment Surface Surface SURFACE Surface > Surface
Details Type Inv-Surface Material TYPE Material Copy
Treatment Treatment Inv- Maintenance TREATMENT Maintenance > General
Details Reason TrtReason -General REASON > Treatment Type Copy
Treatment Treatment Inventory- Maintenance Maintenance > General

Details Type ContractType -General WORK TYPE > Treatment Type Copy
Complete the entry fields for the field mappings for the data source you are working on as seen
in Table E-4. For all non-specified inputs, use the default value. Once complete with each entry,
click “save” and you will be returned to the field mapping listing page.

Step 7. Import and process sample data records. Once you have successfully mapped the fields
for the data source, click on “import data” at the top to proceed to the next step.
To process the records and complete the import, click on “process system data record
mappings” as seen below. Once this process completes, the data will have been imported into
system records. At this point you have completed the upload process.

Perform System Maintenance

Following completion of uploading a new batch of files, one must perform the system
maintenance functions to rebuild the lookup tables and statistic tables that help preview the
results for the user. The steps to perform system maintenance are as follows:
Step 1. Click on “administration” from the top navigational menu as seen below.
Step 2. Click on “rebuild lookup” and when complete click on “rebuild statistics.” Each process
can take several minutes to complete based on the size of the database and the speed of the server.

Search and Download Data

Once data has been uploaded and processed into the system, the search function located in
the top-most menu enables the user to find sections that satisfy criteria across any data source
and that are based on the system record segments that match the given criteria.
To apply a filter, select “add a filter” from the active filters menu and select a filter type. A value
filter allows you to match a particular value whereas a range filer is available for numeric entries
and allows you to specify a range of values.
In the example below, all segments of routes within the system that had a surface material of
asphalt and PCI between 10 and 50 were found by using the search and filter mechanisms.
In this example, the search result indicates that there are 6 miles of matching segments on
M-28 and 11 miles of matching segments on US-41 in the sample data that both had an asphalt
surface and a PCI between 10 and 50.
To perform additional analysis or explore the additional data associated with these segments,
download the source records or the system records using the buttons located at the bottom of
the screen.

Abbreviations and acronyms used without definitions in TRB publications:

A4A Airlines for America
AAAE American Association of Airport Executives
AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ACI–NA Airports Council International–North America
ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program
ADA Americans with Disabilities Act
APTA American Public Transportation Association
ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATA American Trucking Associations
CTAA Community Transportation Association of America
CTBSSP Commercial Truck and Bus Safety Synthesis Program
DHS Department of Homeland Security
DOE Department of Energy
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FAST Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act (2015)
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
FMCSA Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration
FRA Federal Railroad Administration
FTA Federal Transit Administration
HMCRP Hazardous Materials Cooperative Research Program
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991
ITE Institute of Transportation Engineers
MAP-21 Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (2012)
NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASAO National Association of State Aviation Officials
NCFRP National Cooperative Freight Research Program
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
NTSB National Transportation Safety Board
PHMSA Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
RITA Research and Innovative Technology Administration
SAE Society of Automotive Engineers
SAFETEA-LU Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation Equity Act:
A Legacy for Users (2005)
TCRP Transit Cooperative Research Program
TDC Transit Development Corporation
TEA-21 Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (1998)
TRB Transportation Research Board
TSA Transportation Security Administration
U.S.DOT United States Department of Transportation

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ISBN 978-0-309-44598-6
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Framework For A Pavement-Maintenance Database System

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Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance

FIND RELATED TITLES SUGGESTED CITATION

NCHRP REPORT 820

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY NCHRP REPORT 820

Published reports of the

NATIONAL COOPERATIVE HIGHWAY RESEARCH PROGRAM

Transportation Research Board

and can be ordered through the Internet by going to

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Learn more about the Transportation Research Board at www.TRB.org.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMS

CRP STAFF FOR NCHRP REPORT 820

NCHRP PROJECT 14-31 PANEL

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

This report presents a framework for a pavement-maintenance database (PMDb). The

A variety of maintenance actions are performed by highway agencies to preserve highway

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

98 Appendix C Pavement-Maintenance Database

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Framework for a Pavement-

Highway agencies perform a variety of maintenance activities to maintain and preserve

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

2 Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

4 Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System

Organization of the Report

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Scope of Pavement Maintenance

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6 Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System

Figure 1. Potential effect of pavement

Pavement Maintenance and Pavement Preservation

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Background on Pavement-Maintenance Practices 7

Table 1. Pavement-maintenance terms.

Table 2. Pavement-maintenance operations.

Operation Type Description

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8 Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System

Table 3. Maintenance treatments for asphalt-surfaced pavements.

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Background on Pavement-Maintenance Practices 9

Table 4. Maintenance treatments for concrete-surfaced pavements.

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10 Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System

Table 5. Pavement-maintenance costs.

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Background on Pavement-Maintenance Practices 11

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Practices

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12 Framework for a Pavement-Maintenance Database System

Pavement-Maintenance Work Done by Contractors