Integration

Indefinite Integration
1 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Additional Resources
(Antiderivative and Indefinite Integral)

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-integration-new/ab-6-
7/v/antiderivatives-and-indefinite-integrals
(Definite Integral)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4CdMoucVfs
(Area under a Curve)

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/ap-calculus-ab/ab-applications-of-i
ntegration-new/ab-8-4/v/evaluating-simple-definite-integral
ntegration-new/ab-8-4/v/definite-integrals-and-negative-area
ntegration-new/ab-8-4/v/area-between-curves

Antiderivatives and
Indefinite Integration
Definition of Antiderivative: A function F is called an

antiderivative of the function f if for every x in the domain
of f
F’(x) = f(x) so, dy = f(x) dx
Integration is denoted by an integral sign .
Constant of
Integration
Integrand Variable of F’(x) also = f(x)

Integration (first derivative)
Basic Integration Formulas

Power Rule for the Indefinite
Integral, Part I
Ex.

Sum and Difference Rules
Ex.
Constant Multiple Rule
Ex.

Integrate

Rewriting before integrating

Find the general solution of the equation F’(x) = and
find the particular solution given the point F(1) = 0.
Now plug in (1,0) and solve for C.
0 = -1 + C Final answer.
C=1
Integrals of standard functions
• Integrals of standard functions

Contents
• Reversing the chain rule

• Integration by substitution
• Integration by parts

Integration
So far, we have only looked at functions that can be integrated

using:
For example:
Integrate with respect to x.

The integral of
The only function of the form xn that cannot be integrated by

this method is x–1 = .
Adding 1 to the power and then dividing would lead to the
meaningless expression,
This does not mean that cannot be integrated.
Remember that
Therefore

The integral of
We can only find the log of a positive number and so this is

only true for x > 0.
However, does exist for x < 0 (but not x = 0). So how do we
integrate it for all possible values of x?
We can get around this by taking x to be negative.
If x < 0 then –x > 0 so:
We can combine the integrals of for both x > 0 and x < 0 by

using the modulus sign to give:

The integral of
Find
This is just the integral of multiplied by a constant.
Find

Definite integrals involving
It is particularly important to remember the modulus sign when

evaluating definite integrals of functions involving .
Find the area under the curve y = – between x = –3,

x = –1 and the x-axis, writing your answer in the form ln a.
y
The area is given by .
–3 –1 0 x
Remember
that ln 1 = 0
units squared
By reversing the process of differentiation we can derive the

integrals of some standard functions.

Also, if any function is multiplied by a constant k then its

integral will also be multiplied by the constant k.
Find
In practice most of these steps can be left out.

Reversing the chain rule

Contents


A very helpful technique is to recognize that a function that we

are trying to integrate is of a form given by the differentiation of
a composite function. This is sometimes called integration by
recognition.
Let
By the chain rule:
So
It follows that for n ≠ 1

If the integral is multiplied by a constant k:
Don’t try to learn this formula, just try to recognize that the
function you are integrating is of the form k(f(x))n f ’(x) and
compare it to the derivative of (f(x))n + 1.
Suppose we want to integrate (2x + 7)5 with respect to x.
Consider the derivative of y = (2x + 7)6.
Using the chain rule: = 12(2x + 7)5
So

In general, you can integrate any linear function raised to a

power using the formula:
With practice, integrals of this type can be written down

directly. For example:

Let’s look at some more integrals of functions of the form

k(f(x))n f ’(x).
Integrate y = x(3x2 + 4)3 with respect to x.
Notice that the derivative of 3x2 + 4 is 6x.
Now consider the derivative of y = (3x2 + 4)4.
Using the chain rule: = 24x(3x2 + 4)3
So

Find .
Notice that the derivative of 2x3 – 9 is 6x2.

Now consider the derivative of y = (2x3 – 9)3.
Using the chain rule: = 18x2(2x3 – 9)2
So

Find . x2 is the derivative

of (x3 – 1).
Start by writing as
plus 1 is
Now consider the derivative of y =
Using the chain rule:
So

Reversing the chain rule for exponential functions
When we applied the chain rule to functions of the form ef(x) we

obtained the following generalization:
We can reverse this to integrate functions of the form k f ’(x)ef(x).

For example:
A numerical adjustment is usually necessary.

In general,
Find .

With practice, this method can be extended to cases where the

exponent is not linear. For example:
Find .
Notice that the derivative of 2x2 is 4x and so the function we

are integrating is of the form k f ’(x)ef(x).

Reversing the chain rule for logarithmic functions
When we applied the chain rule to functions of the form ln f(x)

we obtained the following generalization:
We can reverse this to integrate functions of the form

For example:
Remove a factor of
to write the function
in the form .
In general,

This is now of
Find . the form .
Evaluate , writing your answer in the form a ln b.
First of all, note that the graph of y = has a discontinuity

when 2x – 7 = 0, that is when x = 3.5.
This is outside the interval [–1, 2] and so the integral is valid.

This is now of
the form .
This can be written in the required form by using the rule that
ln a – ln b = ln .

This is now of
Find . the form .
This is now of
Find . the form .

The integral of tan x
We can find the integral of tan x by writing it as and

recognizing that this fraction is of the form .
It is ‘tidier’ to rewrite this without a minus sign at the front, using

the fact that –ln a = ln a–1:

Reversing the chain rule for trigonometric functions
When we applied the chain rule to functions of the form sin f(x)
and cos f(x) we obtained the following generalizations:
We can reverse these to integrate functions of the form

f ’(x) cos f(x) and f ’(x) sin f(x). For example:

Reversing the chain rule for trigonometric functions
As with other examples a numerical adjustment is often

necessary.
This is now of the
form –f ’(x) sin f(x).
In general, when dealing with the cos and sin of linear functions:

Integration by substitution

Contents


With practice, the technique of integration by recognition

can save a lot of time.
However, when it is too difficult to use integration by
recognition we can use a more formal method of reversing the
chain rule called integration by substitution.
To see how this method works consider the integral
Let u = 5x + 2 so that
The problem now is that we can’t integrate a function in u with
respect to x. We therefore need to write dx in terms of du.

When we used the chain rule for differentiation we saw that we

can treat informally as a fraction, so:
So if u = 5x + 2 and dx :
Now change the variable back to x:

Use a suitable substitution to find .
Let u = 2x2 – 5
Substituting u and dx into the original problem gives:

Notice that the
x’s cancel out.

Now we need to change the variable back to x :
This integral could also have been found directly by recognition.
However, there are functions that can be integrated by use of

a suitable substitution but not by recognition. For instance:
Use the substitution u = 1 – 2x to find .
If u = 1 – 2x then

Also if u = 1 – 2x then
We also have to substitute
the x so that the whole
integrand is in terms of u.
Substituting these into the original problem gives:

Changing the variable back to x gives:

Definite integration by substitution
When a definite integral is found by substitution it is easiest to

rewrite the limits of integration in terms of the substituted
variable.
Use the substitution u = to find the area under the curve
y= between x = 4 and x = 7.
Using the chain rule

If u = then for differentiation.

Now we need to find x in terms of u.

If u = then u2 = 8 – x
x = 8 – u2
Rewrite the limits in terms of u:
when x = 3,
when x = 1,
The area is given by . Rewrite this in terms of u:

Therefore, the required area is units squared.

Integration by parts

Contents


Suppose we wish to integrate the product of two functions,

such as x sin x, where one of the functions is not related to the
derivative of the other.
An expression such as this can be integrated using the method
of integration by parts.
When we differentiate the product of two functions u and v we
use the product rule:
where u and v are functions of x.

Integrating throughout with respect to x gives:

This can be rearranged to give:
To integrate a product using this formula we let one part equal

u and the other equal .
We find by differentiating the part we called u.
We find v by integrating the part we called .
It is important to choose u and so that
is easier to integrate than .

So, to integrate x sin x with respect to x:

Let and
differentiate integrate
So and
We don’t need
Now, using the formula : the “+ c” here.

Find .
Let and
So and
Now, apply the formula :

Find .
We don’t know the integral of ln x so:

let and
so and
Now, using the formula, :

The integral of ln x
We can also use integration by parts to find the integral of ln x.

We do this by writing ln x as (1 × ln x).
Let and
So and
Now we can integrate by parts:

To evaluate a definite integral using integration by parts we use:
Evaluate .
Let and
So and
sin π/2 = 1
cos π/2 = 0
cos 0 = 1
Definite Integration

Evaluating definite integrals
• Evaluating definite integrals

Contents
• The area under a curve

• Examination-style questions
56 of 36
57 © Boardworks Ltd 2005
2006
Definite and indefinite integrals
When we find the indefinite integral of a function the answer

takes the form of an expression plus a constant of integration.
When we find a definite integral of a function we find the
integral between two given limits to give a numerical result.
For example, the definite integral of 6x2 + 5 between x = 1 and
x = 3 is written as
Notice that square

It is evaluated as follows:
brackets are used
here …
…and rounded
brackets here.
c cancels out.

Definite integration
When evaluating a definite integral we can ignore constants

of integration because they cancel out.
In
general:

The area under a curve
• Evaluating definite integrals

Contents
• The area under a curve

• Examination-style questions
59 of 36
57 © Boardworks Ltd 2005
2006
The area under a velocity-time graph
The following graph shows how the velocity of a car changes

over a period of 40 seconds.
What does the area under
8
the graph represent?
velocity
6 Consider the area of a thin

(m/s)
4 strip of the graph.

2
If the strip is thin enough it
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 can be treated as if it is
time (s)
rectangular.
The area of the strip = velocity × time = distance
The area of each strip represents the distance travelled during
a small period of time.
∴ The total area is the total distance
60 of 57 travelled. © Boardworks Ltd 2006
The area under a velocity-time graph
In many situations the acceleration will not be constant and the

velocity-time graph will be curved.
For example, this graph shows the velocity-time graph for a
car in the first 10 seconds after it moves off from rest.
To find the distance travelled by
8
the car over this time we need to
6 find the area under the curve.
velocity
(m/s)
4 It is possible to estimate this area

by dividing it into thin vertical
2
strips and summing their areas.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 However, if we know the velocity
time (s) of the car as a function of time we
can find the area more
accurately by integration.
To see why the area under a curve can be found by integration,

consider a continuous curve y = f(x).
Let A be the area shown
y
between the curve y = f(x) and
δy the x-axis from x = 0 to x.
Now, imagine moving a small
distance along the x-axis, δx.
A δA
We can call the corresponding
increase in area δA and
0 x x+δx x
corresponding increase in y
δy.
Let’s look more closely at this increase in area.

We can see that δA must be between yδx and (y + δy)δx.

We can write this as
δy
yδx < δA < (y + δy)δx
Dividing through by δx gives
y δA y + δy
Now consider the limit as δx and δy → 0:

δx
s
o
Integrating both sides with respect to x gives

The area function
The area under a curve y = f(x) is therefore a function of x,

which we can write as A(x).
A(x) is the area under the curve from x = 0 to x.
Look what happens when the area function y = A(x) is plotted
for some function y = f(x) as x varies.

Suppose that we want to find the area A under a curve

between two given values of x; x = a and x = b.
If the area between x = 0 and b is A(b)
y
and the area between x = 0 and a is
A(a)
then the area A under the curve
A(a) A(b)
A
from x = a to x = b must be
a b x
A = A(b) – A(a)
In general: The area A under a curve y = f(x)

between the limits x = a and x = b is
given by

Find the area bounded by the curve y = 2x2 + 1,

the x-axis and the lines x = –1 and x = 3.
Start by sketching the graph of y = 2x2 + 1 and shading the
required area.
y = 2x2 + 1
A
–1 3 x
The final solution can be written as 22 units2.

Areas below the x-axis
Suppose the area that we are trying to find is below the x-axis.
For example:
Find the area bounded by the
curve y = x(x – 6) and the x-axis.
y This area is given by:

y = x(x – 6)
0 6 x
A
The calculated area is negative because it is below the x-axis.

We write the actual area as 36 units2.
In some cases the area may fall partly below the x-axis and
partly above. For example:
Find the area between
y = 9x – x3 and the x-axis.
Factorising gives y
y = x(3 + x)(3 – x)
So the graph cuts the x-axis at
x = –3, x = 0 and x = 3. –3 0 3 x
Also, x3 is negative so the curve

is -shaped.
The required area can now be shaded in.

Look what happens if we try to find the area under y = 9x – x3

between –3 and 3.
From the shading on our graph we know the area isn’t 0.

What has happened is that the negative area below the graph
has cancelled out the positive area above the graph.
To avoid this we have to find the areas above and below the
x-axis separately and then add the two areas together.

Let’s call the two areas A1 and A2.
A2
–3 0 3 x
A1
The total area = A1 + A2 = 40 units2.

The area between a curve and a line
Suppose we want to find the area between a curve and a

line. For example:
Find the area bounded by the curve
y = x2 + 1 and the line y = 2x + 4.
Start by sketching the graph, and shading the required area.
y Next, we have to find the
x-coordinates of the points where
y = x2 + 1
the curve and the line intersect.
Solving: x2 + 1 = 2x + 4
x2 – 2x –3 = 0
y = 2x + 4 –1 3 x
(x +1)(x – 3) = 0
∴ the curve and the line intersect when x = –1 and x =
The area under the line y = 2x + 4 between x = –1 and x = 3

is this area:
y
While the area under the curve
y = x2 + 1 between x = –1 and
y = x2 + 1 x = 3 is this area:
A So the area we require, A, can

be found by subtracting the area
y = 2x + 4 –1 3 x under the curve from the area
under the line.
This area is given by:

Since the limits are the same these two integrals can be
combined to give
So the required area is 7 units2.

The area between two curves
The method used to find the area between a curve and a

line can also be used to find the area between two curves.
In general: y
y = f(x)
The area A between two
curves y = f(x) and y = g(x) is A y = g(x)
given by
a b x
For example:
Find the area bound by the curves

y = 3 – 2x2 and x = – 1 – x2.

The area between two curves
Start by equating the curves to find

y y = 3 – 2x2 out where they intersect.
A 3 – 2x2 = – 1 – x2
x 4 – x2 = 0
(2 – x)(2 + x) = 0
y = – 1 – x2 So the curves intersect at x = 2
and x = –2.
Simplify the integral: Find the area:

Examination-style question 1
The following diagram shows the curve with equation

y = x2 – 4x + 5 and the line y = 8 – 2x.
The line and the curve intersect at the points A and B.
y a) Find the coordinates of A and B.

b) Find the area of the shaded
A region R.
R
B

a) Equating the given equations:
x2 – 4x + 5 = 8 – 2x
x2 – 2x – 3 = 0
(x + 1)(x – 3) = 0
x = –1 or x = 3
When x = –1, y = 10 and when x = 3, y = 2.
∴ The coordinates of A are (–1, 10) and the coordinates of B
are (3, 2).
b) The area of R is given by

Combining these gives
So the required area is 7 units2.


Integration

Uploaded by

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Document Informationclick to expand document information

Copyright:

Available Formats

Integration

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Integration

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Indefinite Integration

1 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

(Antiderivative and Indefinite Integral)

(Area under a Curve)

2 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Definition of Antiderivative: A function F is called an

Integrand Variable of F’(x) also = f(x)

4 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

5 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Constant Multiple Rule

6 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

7 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

8 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

find the particular solution given the point F(1) = 0.

Now plug in (1,0) and solve for C.

• Integrals of standard functions

• Reversing the chain rule

10 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

So far, we have only looked at functions that can be integrated

Integrate with respect to x.

11 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

The only function of the form xn that cannot be integrated by

This does not mean that cannot be integrated.

12 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

We can only find the log of a positive number and so this is

We can combine the integrals of for both x > 0 and x < 0 by

13 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

This is just the integral of multiplied by a constant.

14 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

It is particularly important to remember the modulus sign when

Find the area under the curve y = – between x = –3,

By reversing the process of differentiation we can derive the

16 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Also, if any function is multiplied by a constant k then its

In practice most of these steps can be left out.

17 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

• Integrals of standard functions

• Reversing the chain rule

18 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

A very helpful technique is to recognize that a function that we

By the chain rule:

It follows that for n ≠ 1

19 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

If the integral is multiplied by a constant k:

20 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

In general, you can integrate any linear function raised to a

With practice, integrals of this type can be written down

21 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Let’s look at some more integrals of functions of the form

Integrate y = x(3x2 + 4)3 with respect to x.

Notice that the derivative of 3x2 + 4 is 6x.

Now consider the derivative of y = (3x2 + 4)4.

Using the chain rule: = 24x(3x2 + 4)3

22 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Notice that the derivative of 2x3 – 9 is 6x2.

Using the chain rule: = 18x2(2x3 – 9)2

23 of 57 © Boardworks Ltd 2006

Find . x2 is the derivative