1293151

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LTR0010.1177/13621688241293151Language Teaching ResearchChen et al.

LANGUAGE
TEACHING
Article RESEARCH

Language Teaching Research

Dynamic positioning in identity

1­–27
© The Author(s) 2024

development: Case studies Article reuse guidelines:

of Chinese university English sagepub.com/journals-permissions
https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688241293151
DOI: 10.1177/13621688241293151

language teachers journals.sagepub.com/home/ltr

Shan Chen
Weifang University, China

Lawrence Jun Zhang

University of Auckland, New Zealand

Stuart McNaughton
University of Auckland, New Zealand

Abstract
This multiple-case study examines the dynamics of identity among Chinese university teachers of
English as a foreign language (EFL) in response to challenges that arise from individual teaching
contexts. Grounded in Dialogical Self Theory (DST), the study investigates how these teachers
navigate conflicting pedagogies, exercise agency, and negotiate their professional identities. Through
in-depth interviews and classroom observations, the findings demonstrate the ways in which
participating teachers drew on diverse position repertoires to manage the complexities of their
teaching roles. The study identified several key positioning strategies, including the adoption of
meta-positions, the creation of third positions, the utilization of promoter positions, the formation
of coalitions of positions, and the management of cacophonous positioning. The findings contribute
to the growing body of research on language teacher identity, highlighting the dynamic complexity
of identity construction. The study offers implications for professional development programs,
advocating for opportunities that foster critical reflection on teachers’ multiple I-positions.

Keywords
dynamic positioning, professional identity, dialogical self, positioning strategies, Chinese EFL
teachers

Corresponding author:
Lawrence Jun Zhang, Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Auckland, Private Bag 92601,
10 Symonds Street, Auckland 1042, New Zealand
Email: lj.zhang@auckland.ac.nz
2 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

I Introduction
Researchers have long acknowledged the challenges, contradictions, and tensions that
teachers encounter in their profession (Aoki, 1993; Aoyama, 2023; Lampert, 1985;
Windschitl, 2002; Zeng & Murphy, 2007). These difficulties are particularly pronounced
in language teaching, where Kramsch (1993) has identified several dichotomies that can
lead to role confusion and identity conflicts. These dichotomies include grammatical vs.
functional syllabi, teacher-centered vs. student-centered classrooms, cognitive vs. expe-
riential learning styles, and learning-based vs. acquisition-based pedagogies (Richards,
2010). Given these characteristics, language teaching provides fertile ground for explor-
ing teacher identity, which is integral to professional development, as it encompasses
teachers’ cognitions, emotions, and how they perceive themselves and act in various
contexts (Alsup, 2006; Wei, 2021; Pennington & Richards, 2016; Tsui, 2007).
The study reported here is part of a larger project focusing on Chinese tertiary English
language teachers’ identity development in the context of ongoing curricular and peda-
gogical reforms. As China’s global interactions increased, it became clear that the tradi-
tional grammar-focused, teacher-centered approach did not adequately prepare students
for English communication in real-life situations. The traditional approach (TA) was
criticized for producing students who performed well in exams but struggled with listen-
ing and speaking skills, leading to the term ‘deaf-and-dumb English’ (Tsui, 2007). To
address these challenges, the Ministry of Education introduced a nationwide curriculum
reform in the early 2000s and updated it in 2015 and 2020, promoting communicative
language teaching (CLT) as an alternative. CLT emphasizes real-life communication,
language experimentation, error tolerance, integration of language skills, accuracy and
fluency development, and student autonomy in learning. More recent teaching methods,
such as Task-Based Language Teaching, Content-Based Instruction, and Content and
Language Integrated Learning, follow the principles of CLT.
In recent decades, language teacher identity (LTI) has emerged as a vibrant and sig-
nificant area of research in language teacher education (Barkhuizen, 2016; Cheng et al.,
2023; Mercer & Kostoulas, 2018; Wang & Zhang, 2024; Zhang & Zhang, 2014). Early
studies on LTI focused on understanding its multidimensionality (i.e. personal, profes-
sional and social aspects) and the relationships between these dimensions (Farrell, 2011;
Wette & Barkhuizen, 2009). They also explored the dynamic formation and trajectories
of teacher identity development (Tsui, 2007). These studies revealed that ongoing teacher
identity development often involves cognitive and emotional conflicts or struggles
(Barkhuizen, 2016; Chen et al., 2022; Shahri, 2018; Song, 2016).
However, there has been limited attention given to how language teachers, particu-
larly seasoned language teachers, navigate these conflicts. Recent research on pre-
service teacher identity has highlighted the agentic nature of teacher identity
(Ruohotie-Lyhty & Moate, 2016; White, 2018; Zhu & Chen, 2022). Agency, defined as
the active management of complex and sometimes conflicting power relations (McNay,
2000), plays a crucial role in identity development and can influence the choices teach-
ers make when faced with challenges and conflicts. Moreover, recent research has
demonstrated that teacher agency is manifested and achieved through the process of
experiencing, which involves facing, expressing, and resolving the critical conflicts
Chen et al. 3

and contradictions inherent in their professional practice (Sannino, 2010). Therefore,

it is essential to devote more scholarly attention to examining teacher agency in rela-
tion to identity formation in LTI research.
In this study, we aim to deepen our understanding of the intricate inner workings of
teacher identity through a lens of Dialogical Self Theory (DST). A DST perspective views
teacher identity as a dynamic process of negotiating multiple I-positions through various
engagements and participations in such a way that a relatively coherent self is maintained
(Akkerman & Meijer, 2011). In light of such a theoretical framework, we focused on four
language teachers to explore how they leveraged their position repertoires to navigate ten-
sions and challenges, and enacted agency to perform their professional identities. In so
doing, this study seeks to enhance our understanding of teacher identity in the context of
language teaching and contribute to the existing body of research.

II Literature review and theoretical framework

1 Conflicts, tensions and dilemmas in teacher identity development
Teachers frequently face conflicts at the intrapersonal, interpersonal, and contextual lev-
els, which can encompass a wide range of issues such as gender, educational policies,
institutional culture, and workplace regulations. Such conflicts can cause tensions, pose
dilemmas, and challenge a teacher’s self-identification, making identity development an
ongoing struggle (Maguire, 2008). For instance, Said (2014) conducted a study on
Krystle, a Chinese English teacher, and traced her early career development. The study
revealed that Krystle developed her identity in relation to, and at times in contrast with,
the discourses from her family, mentors, and colleagues. This finding reveals that a
teacher’s choices and actions in response to external cues and prompts, or teacher agency,
are crucial in identity development.
Similarly, Aoyama (2021) identified a conflict between the expectation of official edu-
cational mandates and the realities of Japanese English teachers’ English proficiency.
Although both the Education Policy Document and local Japanese English teachers them-
selves hoped that teachers themselves could serve as good language models for students,
the interview data showed that most teachers were concerned about their accented English
and lack of proficiency, resulting in a failure to meet such expectations.
Identity conflicts and tensions can also occur when individual selves interact with
sociocultural contexts. For example, in Tsui’s (2007) narrative inquiry, the focal teacher
Mingfang explicitly stated that an identity conflict between an imposed identity (by the
department) as a Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) practitioner and a real self
as an eclecticist featured in the early stages of his career teaching English in a Chinese
university. In another narrative study, Moradkhani and Ebadijalal (2024) explored work-
place conflicts and identity changes in three teachers of English as a foreign language
(EFL) in a private language institute in Iran. They found that a discrepancy arose between
their imagined identities as motivated and erudite EFL teachers and their practiced iden-
tities as demotivated teachers whose efforts went unnoticed. In Nguyen’s (2017) study,
Vietnamese English teachers experienced intense tensions when their teaching jobs
could not provide a sufficient living. Due to meager monthly salaries, they reported
4 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

being unable to be the devoted, ideal teacher they wanted to be. They switched to private
tuition to provide for their basic needs, prioritizing the private tutor position over the
teaching position at school, which was reduced to a title for qualifying them to give pri-
vate classes.
In summary, empirical studies have suggested that the activity of teaching is fraught
with conflicts and tensions at various levels, and the ways in which they negotiate such
challenges shape their professional identities (Aoyama, 2023; Song, 2016; Yuan &
Zhang, 2020). However, much of the research in this area has focused on pre-service
teachers or those in primary and secondary schools, leaving a gap in understanding the
experiences of seasoned in-service teachers. To address this gap, this study, situated in
the Chinese tertiary context, uses a DST lens to investigate how university English teach-
ers position selves and exercise agency to negotiate pedagogical challenges and conflicts
in diverse teaching environments.

2 Dialogical conceptualization of teacher identity

Recent perspectives on professional identity, particularly influenced by postmodern
views, highlight the multiple, discontinuous, and social nature of identity (Akkerman &
Meijer, 2011; Barkhuizen, 2016; Karaman & Edling, 2021; Yuan, 2019). According to
these perspectives, identities are constantly evolving and are shaped through interactions
with various individuals, groups, institutions, and cultures (Akkerman & Meijer, 2011;
Lee & Schallert, 2016). The negotiation of identity involves active reflection and inter-
pretation within the social and cultural context, where personal experiences, interests,
values, and beliefs are considered in relation to professional expectations and external
work conditions (Beijaard et al., 2004).
However, Akkerman and Meijer (2011) argue that relying solely on postmodern views
presents certain challenges. For example, if identity is constantly changing, how can
individuals maintain a coherent sense of self over time? To address this, they propose a
dialogical approach to conceptualizing teacher identity, which views identity as both
unitary, and multiple, both continuous and discontinuous, and both individual and social.
The concept of identity within the Dialogical Self Theory (DST) involves the dynamic
interplay of multiple self ‘voices’ or I-positions, functioning akin to characters in a story
(Hermans & Hermans-Konopka, 2010). These I-positions can be internal, external, or a
combination of both, leading to intertwining with the voices of others (Hermans &
Hermans-Konopka, 2010). This dialogical movement of multiple I-positions is a unique
experience for each individual and reflects the self’s pursuit of coherence. To reconceptu-
alize teacher identity from the DST perspective, Akkerman and Meijer (2011) highlight
the continuous positioning and repositioning of I-positions as teachers ‘construct and
negotiate their identity in relation to the various people they meet and the communities
they are or become engaged in’ (p. 314). Hence, a teacher’s identity at any given moment
reflects both ‘who am I at this moment?’ and a response to ‘the people and things attended
to at that moment’ (Akkerman & Meijer, 2011, p. 312). To facilitate better understanding,
key terms of DST used in the analysis are shown in Table 1 and illustrated with hypotheti-
cal examples based on the first author’s language teaching experience.
Chen et al. 5

Table 1. Terms in the positioning theory of Dialogical Self Theory (DST).

Positions Definitions Examples

I-position A location appropriated by I position myself as a loving teacher
the I within a repertoire toward students.
of positions, differentially
positioned in time and
space, felt as belonging to
the self.
Disowned An I-position from which In the context of language teaching,
I-position an individual would ‘I as a student-centered teacher’, and
distance oneself and say, ‘I as a constructivist teacher’ typically
‘This is not me.’ owned and accepted as parts of the
self, whereas their counterparts ‘I as
a traditional teacher’, ‘I as dominating
the instruction’, and ‘I as authoritative’,
are often disowned.
Promoter A position that provides ‘I as a dedicated teacher’ is a promoter
position structure and guidance position as it gives a developmental
for the expansion of impetus to the future self.
the position repertoire.
Promoter positions can
emerge both in the internal
domain of the self or can
be external to the self.
Meta-position A superordinate position, When I reflect on my multiple
an observing ego or I-positions as a teacher, I am taking a
meta-cognition, allowing meta-position which enables me to see
for an overarching view of the linkages between these positions,
multiple positions. recognize which one is dominating
and may lead to a reorganization of
position repertoire.
Third position A mediator between two When I selectively integrate TA and
conflicting positions. CLT, I am developing a new teacher
position, a third position in which
I include some elements of two
conflicting positions.
Coalitions of Cooperation of a range In my professional life, I create a
positions of I-positions, may cooperative coalition of I-positions,
significantly contribute to including me being a caring mentor, a
the unity and continuity strict disciplinarian, and an innovative
of the self. Coalitions educator. While my disciplinarian
may be detrimental to an position ensures a structured learning
individual’s well-being when environment, I integrate my caring
they become maladaptive. mentor role with the innovative
educator role by designing engaging,
student-centered lesson plans that
cater to diverse learning styles.
(Continued)
6 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

Table 1. (Continued)

Positions Definitions Examples

Cacophony A disorganized, chaotic As an EFL teacher, I assume multiple
mixture of voices. The positions as an enthusiastic cultural
self, when populated by ambassador, a supportive language
an increasing number of coach, and an advocate for immersive
contrasting and opposing learning experiences. However, the
voices may end up in a administration insists on improved
cacophony or identity crisis standardized test scores in English,
(e.g. requiring teachers to focus heavily on
identity confusion, or grammar drills and exam preparation.
adding extra With this new pressure, my existing
positions to an already I-positions are challenged by new,
crowded repertoire). contrasting voice, resulting in an
identity crisis.

Sources. Hermans, 2019; Hermans and Hermans-Konopka, 2010; Monereo and Hermans, 2023.

3 DST in teaching, teacher education and language teacher identity

With a growing body of research adopting a DST perspective in exploring teacher iden-
tity, Monereo and Hermans (2023) conducted a review of representative educational
research utilizing DST. They observed that studies focusing on teachers in the workplace
primarily highlight the tensions between personal and professional identities (e.g.
Stewart, 2022), as well as the distinct multiple I-positions that are developed in practice
by both novice (Arvaja, 2023; Gertsen, 2021) and experienced teachers (Badia & Liesa,
2020; Vandamme, 2018). Notably, they identified a clear advantage for experienced pro-
fessionals in terms of their promoter, regulatory, and meta-positional functions, along
with a reduced influence of external voices on teacher decisions.
In language education, DST is also gaining prominence in the expanding literature of
LTI. The majority of these studies focus on understanding how pre-service teachers navi-
gate tensions and challenges while developing their teacher identity. One researcher,
Alastair Henry, has been particularly interested in applying DST to examine the dynamic
and complex nature of student teachers’ identity development in teacher education or
practicum experiences. Alastair Henry has published works in 2016, 2019, 2021 and
2022, either individually or with co-authors (Henry, 2016, 2019, 2021; Henry &
Mollstedt, 2022). His efforts have provided nuanced understanding of contradictory
positions, tensions and struggles in developing LTI, and the dynamics of teacher identity
system. This interest is shared by scholars such as Ballantyne (2022), Ruohotie-Lyhty
and Moate (2016), Zhu and Chen (2022), and Uştuk and Yazan (2024), who have also
explored the application of DST in their studies related to language teacher education.
These studies utilize DST to analyse the reflections, metaphors, and experiences of pre-
service teachers in various contexts. The findings highlight the multiple I-positions
enacted by preservice teachers, the role of dialogic engagement in navigating identity
tensions, and the importance of integrating personal and professional selves in the teach-
ing profession. Collectively, such empirical efforts have proved that DST is useful for the
study of teacher identity because it allows for a deeper and nuanced understanding of the
Chen et al. 7

construction and cohabitation of different positions within teachers and how these
I-positions moved dynamically to shape teacher identities (Ballantyne, 2022; Robertson
& Yazan, 2022).
Despite a wealth of literature on LTI among pre-service and beginning teachers (e.g.
Kayi-Aydar, 2018; Nguyen & Dao, 2019; Said, 2014; Steadman et al., 2018; Wang,
2020; Xu, 2013; Zhu & Chen, 2022), in-service teachers have received comparatively
less attention. Additionally, there is a call for theoretical pluralism in LTI research,
emphasizing the need for diverse perspectives and approaches. To address these gaps,
this study employs the DST framework to examine the identity dynamics of Chinese
university EFL teachers in response to educational reforms. Specifically, the study aims
to answer the following research questions:

• Research question 1: What challenges do Chinese tertiary English teachers face

while implementing communicative, student-centered instruction?
• Research question 2: How do teachers use their position repertoires to navigate
tensions and conflicts in the development of professional identities?

III Methods
1 Context and participants
This qualitative research focuses on the teaching of EFL in tertiary settings in Mainland
China. In China, learners have limited exposure to English and few opportunities to use
the language in their daily lives. Despite significant time and resources dedicated to
English language learning, the effectiveness of English education in China has been criti-
cized as inefficient and time-consuming (Wen, 2017).
Upon entering colleges or universities, non-English majors are required to take a two-
year course called College English (CE). CE consists of two modules: reading and writ-
ing, and listening and speaking. Recent educational reforms of CE courses have shifted
from a teacher-centered approach to a student-centered one that prioritizes communica-
tive competence, autonomy, knowledge construction, and critical thinking (W. Liu,
2018). After two years’ study, students take College English Test (CET)-4 and CET-6,
China’s national standardized English tests for university students, to enhance their
opportunity for employment. Although a pass at CET-4 or CET-6 is not an exit require-
ment for graduation anymore, most college students still desire the certificates as a proof
of their English proficiency. The CETs take place twice a year, and each year approxi-
mately 20 million tertiary students register for CET-4 and CET-6, according to the
Ministry of Education’s statistics.
The teaching of CE to non-English majors is often handled by a relatively independ-
ent unit of teaching staff called College English Department or Public English Department.
CE teachers are generally regarded as instructors rather than academics, because CE
departments are typically viewed as service units rather than as academic departments;
and their teaching workload is much higher than their academic colleagues (Borg & Liu,
2013). The majority of CE teachers graduated with a postgraduate degree in Applied
Linguistics, English and American Literature, Translation Studies, or English Education.
8 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

Table 2. Participating teachers’ information.

Teacher’s name Gender Teaching Students’ Level Overseas Courses

(pseudonym) experience of English experience
(years) Proficiency (years)
Lin Male 8 Advanced 3 Reading
Nan Female 10 Basic 2 English Listening
and Speaking
Sun Female 7 Intermediate 4 Integrated English
Chen Female 21 Basic 0 Integrated English

To recruit potential participants, we sent invitations to the CE departments of 12 insti-

tutions. This initial outreach resulted in 19 university EFL teachers expressing interest in
participating on a voluntary basis. After the initial email contact, the teachers were pro-
vided with details about the expected time commitment and nature of their involvement
in the study. Of the 19 interested teachers, 10 remained committed to participating after
being informed of the requirements. To balance convenience sampling and purposeful
sampling (Creswell & Poth, 2018), we made efforts to maintain diversity among the
participants in terms of their qualifications, years of teaching experience, overseas expe-
rience, and the type of institution they worked in. This approach allowed us to identify
rich cases related to the phenomenon of interest (Patton, 2015). Eventually, four teachers
from three different institutions were selected to participate in the study. Table 2 provides
an overview of the participants’ characteristics.
All four teachers were Chinese and non-native speakers of English, teaching in differ-
ent categories of institutions. Specifically, Lin and Sun taught at T University, a national
research institution known for attracting high-achieving students. Nan taught at a promi-
nent provincial university, while Chen taught at a local institution focused on practical,
vocational education rather than theoretical academics. To ensure confidentiality, pseu-
donyms were assigned to all participating teachers.

2 Data collection
Detailed case studies provide depth, detail, and individual meaning of how Chinese uni-
versity EFL teachers’ identity positions emerged and developed in discourse and practice
(Duff, 2008; Patton, 2015; Yin, 2012). Following a multiple-case study design, we shad-
owed four focal teachers over the course of a semester. The qualitative technique of
shadowing was employed to gain an in-depth understanding of the teachers’ professional
experiences within their natural working environments, providing a rich dataset for anal-
ysis (Ferguson, 2016). The shadowing technique involved immersive observation and
interaction with each participating teacher over a period of 3–4 weeks. During this time,
the first author attended two instructional sessions (100 minutes per session) per week,
focusing on classroom observations on campus. Detailed field notes were taken for each
observation. The field notes were systematically recorded during class observations,
with attention to details such as the classroom atmosphere, students’ engagement levels,
teaching strategies employed, and any other relevant behaviors or events. These notes
Chen et al. 9

were then analysed alongside the interview scripts, using a content analysis approach to
identify and explore the interplay between the observed behaviors and the participants’
self-reported experiences and perceptions.
In addition to observation, the first author conducted semi-structured interviews with
each teacher twice during the shadowing period (see Appendix for the interivew sched-
ule). The interviews served multiple purposes: They provided a platform for the teachers
to reflect on their experiences, elaborate on observations made, and share their perspec-
tives on teaching and their professional identity. The first interview aimed to establish a
baseline understanding of the teachers’ backgrounds, experiences, and initial thoughts on
language teaching. The second interview allowed for a deeper exploration of themes that
emerged from the observations and the first interview, as well as any changes or develop-
ments that occurred over the shadowing period. Each interview lasted between 30 to
50 minutes and was audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were cross-
checked by the authors and sent back to the participants for peer checking to ensure accu-
racy. The extracts were later translated into English and checked by a university professor
who specializes in translation studies.
To enrich and triangulate the data sources, the participants were invited to share arti-
facts they considered meaningful and representative of their professional identity pro-
files. Such artifacts included student writing work samples (Sun), teaching syllabuses
(Lin, Nan, Sun), and lesson plans (Lin, Nan, Sun and Chen). The combination of shad-
owing, observation, interviewing and artifacts provided a comprehensive and multi-
dimensional dataset, enriching the analysis and contributing to a robust understanding of
the teachers’ professional lives and identities.

3 Data analysis
Qualitative content analysis, as outlined by Mayring (2022), was employed to analyse
the data from the interviews with the assistance of NVivo11 software. We adopted a top-
down, or deductive, theory-driven approach to generate themes for analysis. Initially, we
assigned gerund-based process codes to specific data segments, such as ‘experiencing
difficulty in implementing CLT’, ‘developing an I-position as a life mentor’, and ‘recon-
ciling with the undesirables and focusing on the positives’. The process coding, which
focuses on behavior and actions, stimulates more evocative, analytical memo writing and
suggests a brief narrative trajectory of action for analysis (Saldaña, 2016). Subsequently,
we categorized these codes into more abstract terms or concept codes aligned with DST,
which were oriented toward the research questions. For example, concept codes/themes
such as ‘challenge (or tension/dilemma)’, ‘meta-position’, ‘promoter position’, and
‘identity outcome’ were identified. In writing the analytic memos to facilitate the analy-
sis, challenges/tensions/dilemmas were further broken down to categories according to
Windschitl (2002) and summarized from three dimensions: The students, the curriculum,
and the institutional and departmental context. Furthermore, we visualized each partici-
pating teacher’s position repertoire and the interconnections between these positions by
creating dialogic self diagrams. This visual representation aided in understanding the
complexity and dynamics of each teacher’s professional identity. Finally, a cross-case
analysis was conducted by comparing and contrasting the dialogic identity profiles,
 10

Table 3. Sample codes and data excerpts.

Sample Data excerpts Codes Concept codes Analytic memos

To be honest, I mostly teach in the style of high school Experiencing difficulty Challenge/ I as a CLT practitioner
teachers rather than university professors, as the latter style in implementing CLT, Pedagogical dilemma, being a cognitively
doesn’t work well for me. It’s hard to engage the students regressing to traditional student dimension embraced I-position vs.
and keep the class going. I’ve also tried group learning, but teacher-centered I-as-a-traditional-language
getting four students to work together is nearly impossible; instruction teacher (a rejected,
they struggle to initiate discussions. So, I stick to a more disowned but enacted
traditional teaching approach, for the most part. (Chen, I-position)
Interview 1)
I’m not sure if it’s a good thing or not, but I like to talk to Developing an I-position Promoter, position/ I-as-a-life-mentor
my students about life experiences and building character. as a life mentor positioning becomes a dominant
It seems like the students enjoy it. I spend about 10 minutes strategies position, brings positive
in each class doing this, sometimes even up to half an hour. emotions, and supports
For example, I get them thinking about how behavior relates self-development as a
to morality and how to handle relationships. Some students promoter position.
really get into these discussions. I also bring up topics like
family relationships, and the students seem pretty interested
in listening (Chen, Interview 1)
The students have reignited my passion for teaching, and Reconciling with the Identity outcome This promoter position
every day I am more excited about the chance to engage undesirables and focusing supports Chen’s identity
and communicate with them. While achieving specific on the positives development by creating
learning outcomes is not my primary focus, I am no longer coherence, continuity
discouraged by setbacks in their progress or learning and emotional stability
outcomes. Of course, I still feel frustrated at times, but of the self.
overall, my enthusiasm for teaching remains strong, thanks to
my students. (Chen, Interview 2)
Language Teaching Research 00(0)
Chen et al. 11

Table 4. Teachers’ challenges and positioning strategies/experiences.

Teacher Challenges Windschitl’s (2002) Positioning strategies/

categories experiences
Lin Students lacking motivation; Pedagogical Dilemma Promoter position,
unfavorable institutional Cultural Dilemma, meta-position,
context, CE being constantly Political Dilemma coalitions of positions,
demoted; lack of resources; third position
constrained by the textbook.
Sun Students’ diminishing Cultural Dilemma Cacophonous
motivation; lack of Conceptual Dilemma positioning
professional knowledge, Political Dilemma
in particular pedagogical
content knowledge; lack of
support from the department
or experienced teachers.
Nan Big class; not enough time to Pedagogical Dilemma Promoter position,
cover the content. coalitions of positions
Chen Students’ low language Pedagogical Dilemma Coalescing conflicting
proficiency; gaps between positions; promoter
individual learners; big class position
size.

diagrams, and analytic memos of the four participants. Table 3 presents the coding pro-
cess with sample excerpts from the data.

IV Findings
In what follows, we report findings in a case format in accordance with the research
methodology (Creswell & Poth, 2018). For each participating teacher, we first outline
the challenges as perceived by the individual teacher, and then report their positioning
experiences and strategies in negotiating subsequent identity conflicts. Table 4 presents
synopses of the four cases.

1 Lin’s challenges
The students constitute an important dimension in the teaching endeavor. Students’ atti-
tudes, motivations, voices, and their actions are in a dialogic interaction with the teach-
ers’. At the time of research Lin worked in a top national university, and the students he
worked with were advanced learners who had already attained a good level of language
proficiency upon entering the university. Students were observed to participate actively
in the classroom activities and demonstrate good behaviors. The students’ language skills
created conditions supporting communicative language teaching, but what Lin was con-
cerned about was students’ decreasing motivation for English learning, which he believed
was associated with the external institutional context.
12 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

According to Lin, T University was planning to cut the credit hours for CE in half, and
students would only be required to take CE in their freshman year. Lin believed that this
change would convey to the students that English was less significant than their major
courses. Lin perceived the sociopolitical context for CE was not all positive and support-
ing, for example, the institutional atmosphere which undervalued CE.

In China, where there is a prevalent under-appreciation of English education in universities,

teachers often feel powerless, as English is not students’ major subjects. Many students
prioritize direct economic benefits, which makes their major subjects more important to them.
Consequently, it becomes challenging to engage students in English classes. (Lin-INT-1)

Another pedagogical dilemma Lin had to confront was the adopted textbook. Textbooks
composed in a traditional format certainly posed a significant challenge for teachers if
they insisted on teaching communicatively. Lin described the textbook as follows:

The textbook contains only reading texts followed by comprehension questions. The students
don’t do the reading beforehand so they come to class unprepared. If I let them read in class, we
don’t have much time left for activities. If I follow the textbook, there’s nothing interesting or
stimulating to engage the students. It will become a very dreary cycle of reading and answering
comprehension questions and checking their answers. (Lin-INT-1)

2 Lin’s positioning
a Third position: I as both teaching traditionally and communicatively. To address the peda-
gogical challenge, Lin selectively assimilated both pedagogical orientations to create a
third position of integration. To freshen the traditional instructional mode with a com-
municative thrust, he transformed solitary individual reading into a book club scenario,
providing students with opportunity to talk about what they had read, and engaged them
in authentic communication. Lin’s integrative pedagogical approach illustrated a recon-
ciliation of two conflicting identities into a third position. He was seen performing the
traditional presentation–practice–production model (i.e. presenting to the whole class
and checking students’ answers), as well as highly interactive and communication-
focused teaching activities, such as initiating an open discussion with students and hav-
ing students read short stories for meaning and enjoyment. Developing a third position
helped Lin to mitigate the tension and conflict between traditional vs. communicative
dichotomy, and such a position exerted a unifying influence on Lin’s sense of self. This
third position also manifested his agency to teach creatively as he was engaged in the
process of positioning through appropriation of some elements of both pedagogical
approaches and rejection of others (Hermans & Hermans-Konopka, 2010). Lin shared a
teaching episode to illustrate the effectiveness of his approach.

I enriched the material by adding more information and sharing my life experience. I compared
the Chinese menus and Western menus, and narrated my own experience of eating at an
Australian restaurant when I had no idea how to order. I made fun of myself, and students all
laughed about it. (Lin-INT-1)
Chen et al. 13

b Meta-position and promoter position: I as a source of inspiration. A meta-position, an

observing ego or meta-cognition, leads to an evaluation of the reviewed positions and
reaches an overarching view from which specific positions are considered in their inter-
connections (Hermans & Hermans-Konopka, 2010). In reviewing his pedagogical beliefs
and practice, Lin voiced a meta-position, recognizing that I as an inspirational teacher
– who tirelessly inspire and motivate students for the learning of English – being domi-
nant in the organization of his position repertoire.

My approach to language teaching is probably more about encouragement and motivation. This
is how I energize the classroom . . . it’s about fostering motivation and encouraging them to
work hard on English. Of course, the primary goal is to make them interested in English, and
then through various examples, I tell them about the benefits of learning English and what they
can gain from it. Students are more likely to engage with the subject if they see the benefits of
it. (Lin-INT-1)

Throughout teaching, when the occasion arose, he would share life anecdotes in an
attempt to influence students in a positive way. By doing this, Lin became what he called
himself an inspirational teacher, and the meta-position and promoter position collapsed
into one which widens the horizons of the self, builds coherence in self, and provides
impetus for self-development (Hermans & Hermans-Konopka, 2010). Taking this posi-
tion enabled Lin to teach beyond the textbook or the English language and focus on
educating the whole person, which brings him ‘transcendental’ experience and a sense of
fulfillment as a university EFL teacher. Lin commented this I-position as follows:

I conducted an anonymous survey, and I was pleased to find that much of the feedback was
positive. There were no negative comments or criticisms. While there were a few with a slightly
indifferent attitude or no particular feeling, many students offered praise, with some even
referring to me as a ‘master of positive energy’. This makes me feel the significance of being a
teacher . . . This is the meaning of being a teacher. (Lin-INT-2)

3 Nan’s challenges
The students in Nan’s class had been placed at the basic level when they first entered the
university. After being with Nan for over a year by the time the study took place, Nan had
built rapport and a close relationship with the students. She remembered almost all of the
students’ names and knew their seating preferences. Nan did not feel students’ language
proficiency was an obstacle in carrying out her teaching. This issue had been well com-
pensated for by her knowledge of the students.
Nan believed that the priority of the Speaking and Listening class was to provide
students with the opportunity to speak, to interact with English. However, she expressed
that the reality of the classroom setting made this goal difficult to achieve.

The primary challenge is the large class size. Often, students wish to express themselves but
lack the opportunity, and there isn’t enough time for them to speak. I teach classes with a
minimum of 40 students, and have to cover one unit over two sessions due to the tight teaching
14 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

schedule. Moreover, a significant portion of the class involves listening, which further consumes
time. (Nan-INT-1)

The textbook selected for the Listening and Speaking module of CE in S University was
published by a renowned publisher, known for its expertise in producing high-quality
language learning materials. Organized thematically around real-life topics, the textbook
aimed to enhance communicative competence through pair or group activities. However,
Nan encountered challenges in content selection due to time constraints. Balancing the
requirement to cover the prescribed content with facilitating student-centered activities
posed difficult decisions for Nan in terms of prioritizing activities.

4 Nan’s positioning
a Coalition of positions. In the Listening and Speaking class, Nan switched between
multiple I-positions which collaborated to form a coalition. For most of the time, she
acted as an organizer and a learning facilitator. She strove to engage students in the learn-
ing process by arranging different kinds of activities. For instance, in a review activity,
students were asked to work in pairs and make up dialogues using the words and expres-
sions covered in the observed unit. Nan also explained the language points, useful
expressions and elaborated on when and where these expressions were used. She took an
I-position as a motivator for learning, while being strict with students and checking their
homework to make sure they had accomplished what was expected. To assure student
involvement, she rewarded students’ participation by giving them bonus points. In the
observed lessons, most students were attentive to the lesson and were active participants
in class activities.
Most importantly, she considered herself as a friend to her students and was con-
vinced this I-position supported her instruction and interaction with the students.

When I first started teaching, I was more enthusiastic and often invited students to my home for
meals. The interaction was not just about English; it was more about peer-to-peer communication.
Because of this interaction, students performed very well in class. They felt that they couldn’t
slack off in class because I was their friend. That’s how it was back then. My students had a
preference for listening and speaking classes over reading and writing classes. Their level of
affection for teachers varied greatly. This is what the students told me. If it was a class with the
Reading and Writing teacher, they would sit at the back, some wouldn’t listen, some would
sleep, and some would even skip the class. (Nan-INT-2)

b Promoter position: I as a learning guide and facilitator. Nan’s identity pivoted on her
reflection on her foreign language learning experiences. Particularly, her successful
learning experience of French was instrumental to the development of her internally
persuasive discourses regarding language learning and teaching. Nan’s beliefs focusing
on the function of English were held with strong conviction, whereas the Chinese tradi-
tional approaches to language teaching were thought to be rigid, inflexible and ineffec-
tive to prepare students for the demands of the increasingly international context. Nan
elaborated on the goals and objectives of her teaching:
Chen et al. 15

In the Listening and Speaking classes, the emphasis is not heavily exam-oriented. Therefore, I
aim to concentrate on language usage in diverse real-life scenarios within the cultural context.
My goal is to cultivate student interest that extends beyond the classroom to their extracurricular
activities. The objective of the class is to equip students with the ability to apply the language
beyond the classroom setting, making the class engaging and enjoyable, and encouraging
continued learning outside of class. (Nan-INT-2)

As this excerpt shows, Nan took a promoter position, I as a learning guide and facilita-
tor, from which a range of other positions, that is, a traditional language teacher, a friend,
and a class manager, were considered. Promoter positions can emerge in the internal
domain of the self. These positions refer to the internalized beliefs and values that people
have about themselves (Hermans & Gieser, 2011). In Nan’s case, a promoter position
made it possible for her to see the linkages between positions as part of her personal
learning history or the collective history of her and her students. Among the available
positions, Nan prioritized the position of I as a learning guide and facilitator whose
main responsibility lay in providing guidance, resources, and opportunities as opposed to
teaching the specifics of language knowledge.

5 Sun’s challenges
The first challenge Sun encountered in her teaching career, which influenced her deci-
sion-making in planning and implementation, was the students’ characteristics and learn-
ing styles. Sun had taught students from different programs of study, and she found their
levels of English abilities varied significantly, and such characteristics may change from
year to year. For example, when Sun used English in class, students majoring in manage-
ment had no difficulty following her, but students of computer science were not able to
comprehend well. The fact that they were less competent in English, Sun found, was also
attributable to students’ previous learning experiences.

I was playing this vocabulary game with my students, and I noticed something interesting.
They were good at recognizing words in writing, but they struggled when it came to spoken
words. So I asked them about their previous language learning experiences and they told me
that in high school, they only focused on reading and writing because that’s what was tested in
the entrance exams. They never really practiced listening comprehension, which explained
their difficulty in understanding spoken English. (Sun-INT-1)

Besides deaf English, she noticed that students had an ingrained attachment to rote learn-
ing of vocabulary. A common practice of vocabulary study was to go through the glos-
sary at the back of textbook to memorize the spelling and pronunciation of each word.
This practice was developed through years of schooling from primary school up to high
school, and students had already taken it for granted.

Initially, I took a holistic approach and focused on text comprehension, with no specific
attention given to vocabulary or grammar. However, I soon realized that many students were
relying heavily on the glossary to learn new words. Without explicit instruction and guidance
from me, these words remained unfamiliar and foreign to them, as if they had never been
16 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

introduced in class. As a result, I shifted my focus to include more vocabulary instruction,

recognizing its importance in helping students develop a deeper understanding and appreciation
of the texts they were studying. (Sun-INT-1)

Another significant challenge emerged from Sun’s narratives was lack of consistency in
curricular focus. Sun recalled in her first year of teaching, that there was an emphasis on
speaking and listening skills in alignment with the national College English Curriculum
Requirement, and speaking and listening were separated from reading and writing. Later,
nobody ever mentioned such an emphasis and the course book was replaced by Integrated
English and it kept changing every year. Sun complained that she had never repeated her
teaching plans and each semester meant a new round of planning for her. At the time of
study, Sun was teaching Integrated English. The challenge was to figure out a way to
integrate different skills into the teaching of the textbook.
Sun received no teacher training and she had not taken any courses on language teach-
ing methods. Lack of professional knowledge was one of the major obstacles throughout
her teaching career.

Initially, I struggled with teaching the course. Although I observed my peers’ classes, I found it
challenging to implement the techniques when I taught, and it was quite exhausting. Lesson
planning was time-consuming, as I aimed for a balance of interest and informativeness, which
proved difficult. While I desired to deviate from the textbook, I hesitated to do so entirely. I didn’t
want to solely focus on exams or high stakes tests but relying solely on the textbook felt monotonous.
As a result, preparing a lesson felt more draining than writing a thesis. (Sun-INT-1)

6 Sun’s positioning
a Sun’s identity struggle. Sun’s pedagogical beliefs were aligned with communicative
language teaching (CLT), which prioritizes language function and context. However, she
was challenged by conflicting discourses that hindered her ability to teach communica-
tively. For instance, as shown in previous excerpts, Sun initially neglected to allocate
specific time for vocabulary instruction, assuming that students could learn new words
independently. However, when she discovered that her students struggled with vocabu-
lary recognition, she adjusted her approach by dedicating more time to teaching vocabu-
lary strategies and leading students in their application. While this adjustment helped
address her students’ needs, it also diverted valuable class time away from communica-
tive tasks, thereby altering the nature of her CLT-oriented pedagogy.
Similar to her situation in shifting positions between two pedagogical approaches,
Sun was also struggling to manage and coordinate the multiple I-positions in her teach-
ing practice. There seemed to be a discrepancy between her conceptions of the teacher’s
role and students’ expectations. While Sun conceived of the CE teacher as a learning
facilitator who provided students guidance and direction, the students, who were fresh
graduates from high school, appeared to favor the teacher-dominated, textbook-based
approach. Still, at this point, Sun and her students did not see eye to eye regarding the
teaching of vocabulary and writing skills. Although Sun felt strongly about teaching the
process of writing, her students seemed to be attached to the traditional way of writing
instruction which involved reciting exemplars in preparation for high-stakes tests. It was
Chen et al. 17

very likely that Sun would continue to struggle and search for a way of positioning her-
self given competing demands and divergent pedagogical discourses until she was able
to develop a promoter position resulting in a more coherent and stable self.

b Cacophonous positioning. As suggested in the previous excerpts and the excerpt below,
Sun was experiencing uncertainties and tensions arising from the interaction between
various external and internal positions. On the one hand, her beliefs that students should
be taught to use the language in context were held with strong conviction. On the other
hand, she was struggling with combating the opposing discourses represented in stu-
dents’ learning styles and the ingrained CE teaching traditions.

Students often ask teachers about the CET-4 and CET-6. Yesterday, I suddenly found myself at
a loss for how to respond. I mentioned that an argumentative essay should be written according
to the format I’ve taught, but for CET-4 and CET-6, one paragraph may need to discuss the
advantages or disadvantages, while another paragraph focuses on strategies to address the
defects. No need to construct arguments. I had to tell them If that’s the norm, then they should
write it that way for CETs. Scenarios like this caught me in a dilemma, and honestly, it’s very
frustrating. (Sun-INT-1)

For Sun, the process of developing a coherent pedagogic self was a struggle and involved
making compromises and reconciling her own conceptions of teaching with traditional
methods. Sun was overwhelmed by the simultaneous but competing discourses so her
I-positions fluctuated along the continuum between communicative and traditional ori-
entations. She had difficulties in harmonizing the multiple voices and struggled to man-
age her position repertoire when experiencing ‘a cacophonous self’ (Lysaker & Lysaker,
2012, p. 210).
Despite such conceptual and pedagogical dilemmas, she was willing to enact her
agency through active engagement with her situation to work her own way out of the
dilemma. Engaged in self-directed learning, Sun expanded her teaching repertoire and
her continuous reflection and evaluation of her own practice (i.e. meta-positioning) con-
tributed to her professional growth. The following excerpt illustrates how she developed
her own approach for CE.

I wasn’t trained to teach English but reflecting on my own English learning process from
middle school to university, I had been puzzled by the fact that teachers never seemed to tell me
how to effectively learn English. So now, I want to clearly explain to students how to learn
English, such as how to improve speaking, how to write, and how to learn vocabulary. Every
time we adopt a new textbook, I jump online during holidays to see how other teachers teach,
including teachers from specialized language schools, which I find very helpful. (Sun-INT-2)

7 Chen’s challenges
Chen faced a significant challenge due to the large class size she encountered. Typically,
her CE class consisted of around 60 students, with the highest number reaching 112. The
large number of students brought about various learning preferences and skill levels to
which Chen found particularly difficult to accommodate.
18 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

Back in 2005, I was determined to use only English in the classroom. Some students were
excited because they felt that the CE class was different from their previous English lessons in
secondary school, where the teacher used minimal English. However, most students, especially
those with lower proficiency, found it challenging to keep up and gradually lost interest in
learning English. After two years, the students who embraced the English-only approach made
significant progress, while the other group, who gave up, fell far behind. (Chen-INT-1)

She now would use approximately half English and half Chinese to accommodate the
varying levels of English language abilities. She would also urge all students to try hard
to follow:

I tell them If you strive to catch up, your English will improve; if you give up, you lose the last
opportunity, and your English will stay at your high school level or even go backwards.
(Chen-INT-1)

Apart from the challenge of managing a large class size, Chen found it difficult to engage
students in the learning process.

I noticed that when the content was challenging and presented in English, some students
would lose interest in the class. Even when I explained basic grammar concepts in Chinese,
some students still showed disinterest. This left me puzzled and unsure of how to proceed.
(Chen-INT-1)

8 Chen’s positioning
a The coalescing of traditionalism and CLT. Pedagogically, Chen found she was in a
quandary in attempting to position herself as a tertiary EFL teacher. Although she cogni-
tively and verbally endorsed CLT, in practice she failed to make it work with her stu-
dents. She expressed that she honestly felt her teaching approach remained traditional,
much like that of a high school English teacher. She explained that CLT was not appli-
cable for her students as the students’ limited language proficiency inhibited the imple-
mentation of CLT. She shared her dilemma:

To be honest, I mostly teach in the style of high school teachers rather than university professors,
as the latter style doesn’t work well for me. It’s hard to engage the students and keep the class
going. I’ve also tried group learning, but getting four students to work together is nearly
impossible; they struggle to initiate discussions. So, I stick to a more traditional teaching
approach, for the most part. (Chen-INT-1)

Thus, Chen was struggling to align herself with the promoted communicative student-
centered pedagogy. Her coping strategy was to hold both in two separate cognitive com-
partments: CLT as ideal conceptions and traditionalism as working conceptions. By
fusing two opposing I-positions, Chen was able to mitigate her emotional tension stem-
ming from this identity conflict.

b Promoter position: I as a life mentor. The conflict between I as a traditional CE teacher

and I as a communicative CE teacher was frustrating and unfulfilling. Gradually Chen
Chen et al. 19

learned to contain her negative emotions and developed a promoter position to organize
and give direction to her conflicting I-positions. Chen repeatedly mentioned that her
teaching was not restricted to what was scripted in the textbook. She saw herself as a
mentor and then a language teacher. Chen reaped a strong sense of fulfillment when she
shared life experiences with her students on a variety of topics, such as how to develop
social skills and interpersonal relationships, and she liked to teach lessons with morals.
She was interested in knowing about students’ lives and offering suggestions to help
them solve life problems.

I have a special thing I do in my classes apart from just teaching from the textbook. I’m not sure
if it’s a good thing or not, but I like to talk to my students about life experiences and building
character. It seems like the students enjoy it. I spend about 10 minutes in each class doing this,
sometimes even up to half an hour. For example, I get them thinking about how behavior relates
to morality and how to handle relationships. Some students really get into these discussions. I
also bring up topics like family relationships, and the students seem pretty interested in
listening. (Chen-INT-1)

By making these improvised talks and discussions an important piece of her pedagogy,
Chen created a unique bond between herself and the students, and this had helped to
channel the tensions that resulted from pedagogical conflicts and enabled her to take
comfort in teaching. Chen described her positive shift in mentality brought by this pro-
moter position as follows:

The students have reignited my passion for teaching, and every day I am more excited about the
chance to engage and communicate with them. While achieving specific learning outcomes is
not my primary focus, I am no longer discouraged by setbacks in their progress or learning
outcomes. Of course, I still feel frustrated at times, but overall, my enthusiasm for teaching
remains strong, thanks to my students. (Chen-INT-2)

V Discussion
This section interprets the findings from a DST perspective to address the research ques-
tions. It highlights how the recognition of multiple and fluid teacher identities, repre-
sented by various I-positions, aids in understanding teachers’ identity development in
conflicting contexts. Additionally, it emphasizes the role of promoter positions, coali-
tions of positions, and meta-positions as centering movements of the dialogic self in
contributing to the unity, coherence, and continuity of a teacher identity. To answer
research question 1, The challenges faced by Chinese university English teachers in
implementing communicative, student-centered instruction are summarized in Table 4.
These challenges mainly stem from students, teaching materials, and the institutional
context. Similar challenges have been reported in other EFL contexts, such as Japan and
Iran (Aoyama, 2023; Eslamdoost et al., 2019). Such challenges also resonate with the
categorization of dilemmas identified by Windschitl (2002) and Ramey and Stevens
(2023) in studies into how school teachers adapted to the role of facilitator in general
education classrooms. In light of Windschitl’s (2002) four types of dilemmas, the Chinese
university EFL teachers in the present study primarily experienced pedagogical, cultural
20 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

and political dilemmas. Specifically, they faced pedagogical dilemmas due to the con-
flicting demands of implementing communicative, student-centered instruction while
also adhering to traditional teaching methods. They grappled with finding a balance
between promoting CLT principles and meeting the expectations of students, institu-
tions, and the broader educational context. Cultural dilemmas involved tensions emerg-
ing between students and teachers as they each adapted to their new roles in CLT and
student-centered instruction. Political dilemmas were evident in the institutional context
and the broader educational policies. Chinese university EFL teachers encountered chal-
lenges arising from the lower status attributed to the CE course within the institutions
and the lack of support for their professional development. These dilemmas were rooted
in the political landscape of education, where the emphasis on high-stakes examinations
and traditional teaching methods often overshadowed the need for innovative and stu-
dent-centered approaches (D. Liu, 2015; W. Liu, 2018).
One place where our work makes a contribution is in illuminating the inner dynamics
of teacher identity by answering research question 2. Within the framework of DST,
several concepts related to position repertoires are discussed.
First, the notion of a meta-position, introduced by Hermans and Hermans-Konopka
(2010), offers new insights. The meta-position involves stepping outside one’s current or
multiple positions to observe and reflect upon them. Previous studies suggest that adopt-
ing a meta-position can provide teachers with valuable insights into the organization and
interrelationships of different positions. This meta-level perspective can help teachers
better understand the challenges involved in undertaking specific teaching tasks, such as
problem-based learning and navigating their professional identity (Assen et al., 2018;
Henry & Mollstedt, 2022). Similarly, in the current study, the interview process prompted
the participating teachers to reflect on their various positions as university language
teachers. This reflection enabled them to gain a meta-position, allowing them to see the
multiple I-positions they occupy and realize the relative dominance of these sub-posi-
tions. Adopting this meta-level perspective allowed the teachers to gain a more compre-
hensive understanding of the problems they face and develop a long-term perspective on
how to address them (Ruohotie-Lyhty & Moate, 2015).
Second, developing a third position is a useful positioning strategy. When there are
conflicting positions, semiotic mediation can lead to the creation of a conciliatory third
position that integrates the opposing identities (Hermans, 2001). For example, in the cur-
rent study, Lin successfully merged traditional teaching methods with interactive, com-
munication-focused activities, reconciling the tension between the different approaches
and creating a coherent pedagogy. The development of a third position as a coping mech-
anism to address contradiction or disequilibrium in identity construction is also present
in the study by Zhu and Chen (2022) with pre-service EFL teachers. In Zhu and Chen’s
study, the pre-service teachers’ prior beliefs about teaching were in tension with what
was promoted during their practicum. By constructing a third position, they were able to
resolve this tension and integrate the conflicting identities.
Third, promoter positions are essential for bringing order and temporal coherence to
the self. Like the student teacher Anna in Henry and Mollstedt’s (2022) study, Chen
develops a promoter position as a life mentor, integrating existing positions and contrib-
uting to a democratic organization of the self. This integration allows for adaptive
Chen et al. 21

combinations and coalitions, facilitating the future growth of the self and serving as a
guiding force for the overall self-system (Hermans, 2019; Monereo & Hermans, 2023).
Fourth, coalitions of positions are crucial in the organization of position repertoires. Lin
and Nan have developed coalitions that supported and reinforced their dominant positions,
contributing to the continuity and unity of their selves. Lin’s position repertoire included
various roles, such as presenter, learning guide, controller of teaching activities, and co-
communicator, forming a coalition that supported his dominant position as an inspirational
English teacher. Likewise, Nan’s coalitions of positions, including cultural transmitter,
behavior manager, and friend/interlocutor, contributed to her overarching position as a
learning facilitator and the development of her unique teaching style. This finding aligns
with previous work that has shown teachers hold multiple positions (see Farrell, 2011; Wette
& Barkhuizen, 2009). What sets this study apart is the detailed illustration of how adaptive
coalitions of sub-positions facilitate the construction of pedagogical selves in specific edu-
cational contexts. By examining Lin and Nan’s cases, this research extends current knowl-
edge by providing concrete examples of how these coalitions operate in practice, reinforcing
dominant teaching positions and contributing to professional identity formation.
Lastly, the current study demonstrates that teachers are active agents in shaping their
own professional identities and practices, resonating with previous work in exploring how
teachers navigate conflicts, tensions and struggles through reconstructing professional
identities (Aokayama, 2021; Moradkhani & Ebadijalal; 2024; Nguyen, 2017; Tsui, 2007).
These findings support a nuanced understanding of teacher agency as a dynamic process
of doing, rather than a fixed attribute or capacity (Biesta et al., 2015). Teacher agency is
particularly evident through cacophonous positioning, which occurs when distinct social
discourses representing different ideological systems create a lack of coherence within the
self. Both Sun and Chen experienced cacophonous positioning, with their communicative
and traditional teacher selves vying for dominance in their position repertoires. Sun, in
particular, was overwhelmed by a multitude of competing discourses, including her per-
sonal beliefs, students’ preferences and learning beliefs, and institutional curriculum and
norms. As a result, her I-positions fluctuated between communicative and traditional ori-
entations. However, she actively engaged with her situation to resolve these tensions,
demonstrating her agency. Through self-directed learning, Sun expanded her teaching
repertoire. Her continuous reflection and evaluation of her own practice contributed to her
professional growth. Consistent with previous research (e.g. Kayi-Aydar, 2015; Ruohotie-
Lyhty, 2018; Tao & Gao, 2017), agency was found to be instrumental in renegotiating
identity to restore a coherent and stable self. Collectively, the participating teachers’ expe-
riences of leveraging individual I-position repertoires have shown that agency is more
than a property or ability teachers possess; it is something they enact and achieve (Priestley
et al., 2015). More precisely, agency refers to how individuals engage with their specific
temporal and relational contexts for action, rather than being an inherent characteristic of
the individuals themselves (Biesta et al., 2015; Reeves, 2022).

VI Conclusions and implications

This multiple-case study examined four Chinese university language teachers’ individual
working contexts and their positioning strategies in response to the challenges stemming
22 Language Teaching Research 00(0)

from the students, the curriculum, and individual institutional milieus. The conceptual tools
offered by DST, such as meta-positions, third positions, and promoter positions, shed light
on the intricate inner workings of teacher identity and how language teachers navigate ten-
sions, contradictions, and the interplay between external discourses and their personal
beliefs and experiences. Moreover, the recognition of the role of agency in resolving
cacophonous positioning and the significance of coalitions of positions in supporting the
continuity and unity of LTI offers particularly valuable insights. These theoretical advance-
ments have important practical implications for language teacher development programs,
mentoring initiatives, and collaborative environments that aim to support teachers in con-
structing and maintaining a strong, integrated professional identity.
First, language teacher development programs should encourage the cultivation of
meta-positions, which allow teachers to have ‘a helicopter view’ (Hermans, 2013, p. 86)
of their own positioning and identity development. The meta-position provides a vantage
point from which the teacher can reconcile and integrate the differing I-positions in a
thoughtful, considered manner. This capacity to occupy a meta-position is crucial, as it
enables the teacher to navigate the complexities of their identity and avoid becoming
overly identified with or entrenched in any single I-position. It facilitates a more holistic,
integrated sense of self, even as the teacher encounters shifting demands and contexts
within their work. Second, teacher development programs should facilitate the creation
of ‘third positions’ that can help teachers reconcile conflicting approaches and integrate
diverse pedagogical elements into a coherent teaching style. These third positions allow
teachers to transcend binary or oppositional thinking and find innovative ways to com-
bine and leverage different instructional methods and perspectives. Third, promoting the
development of ‘promoter positions’ should be a key focus in teacher education and
professional development, as these positions serve a ‘compass function’ for the self with
an openness to the future (Hermans, 2019, p. 37). They help teachers navigate tensions,
form ‘adaptive combinations and coalitions’ (Meijers & Hermans, 2018, p. 12), and fos-
ter the necessary coherence and continuity in their evolving professional identities.
While promoter positions support continuity by building on the past, they also facilitate
innovation by offering a vision of the future. In this way, they create a balance between
stability and change (Hermans, 2013, 2019).
Additionally, it is suggested that teacher training or professional development pro-
grams need to be designed to address the issues and challenges specific to teachers’
immediate working environments. For instance, teachers working in national key univer-
sities and regional state universities are confronted with qualitatively different challenges
in terms of students, curriculum, or institutional context. Professional development pro-
grams should be tailored to institutions’ cultures and needs to be relevant and effective.
Giving teachers the opportunity to raise their context-specific questions and discuss with
colleagues and experts will help them develop solutions with maximum context-appro-
priateness and feasibility. For those without former training in language pedagogy, like
Sun, the departments should provide opportunities for peer collaboration and mentoring,
building a community of CE teachers for continuing professional development.
Lastly, this study is not without limitations. The study used a small, purposefully
selected sample. This makes it difficult to claim their representativeness of teachers in
general, and the generalizability of the findings to other contexts is also limited. Future
Chen et al. 23

research should consider incorporating larger and more diverse samples of in-service
teachers, thereby offering a more comprehensive understanding and broader applicabil-
ity of the findings.

Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/
or publication of this article: This work was supported by a Doctoral Research Fund from Weifang
University, China, under the title of ‘Co-construction of language teacher identity and professional
development’ (grant number 2022BS45).

ORCID iDs
Shan Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9083-1718
Lawrence Jun Zhang https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1025-1746

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Appendix A
Interview schedule
Initial interview questions
1. What course do you teach (e.g. English Reading and Writing, English Listening
and Speaking, or Integrated English)?
2. Can you describe how you teach it? What is your focus (e.g. grammar, vocabu-
lary, comprehension, oral reading fluency, or else)? What do you think is the most
important aspect of developing foreign language proficiency?
3. What problems or difficulties you have encountered and how you resolved them?
4. What roles do you play in teaching the class and in relation to your students?

Post-observation / Second interview questions

1. When I observed your teaching practices, I noticed that . . . Can you tell me
what/why. . .?
2. In our previous meeting, you mentioned you were struggling with . . . did you
have the same issue in this observed session, how did you handle it?