IDENTIFICATION OF STEEL PROFILES & PRODUCTION OF STEEL

Name Profile Identification Uses

building, infrastructure, mining, and
transportation, manufacturing.
Angled Iron Steel
 structural steel products for both beams and
columns. Building Structures, bridges etc
I Beam Section
 supporting the floor, purlins for supporting the
roof trusses, studs for framing the walls,
Channel Steel supporting members for ceiling assemblies,
bracing, etc.
Section

Solid & Hollow Manufacturing, columns, shafts, and similar

Structural Steel structural elements.
Sections
T-Steel Section

Plates/sheets Automotive, shipbuilding, construction, home

appliances.
Rebar Provides Support to Structures, High Ductility;
Impact-Resistant; Easy Assembly

Chequer plates Flooring

Expanded mesh wire Security, safeguarding, protection
Aluminium Extrusions Frames for lightweight structure
POWDER METALLURGY
1. INTRODUCTION

Powder metallurgy is used for manufacturing products or articles from powdered metals by placing these
powders in molds and are compacting the same using heavy compressive force. In casting the metal is
heated above its melting point and poured into a die and allowed to cool. The part is then
machined to accuracy required dimensions.

Typical examples of such article or products are grinding wheels, filament wire, magnets, welding rods,
tungsten carbide cutting tools, self-lubricating bearings electrical contacts and turbines blades having high
temperature strength.

Powder metallurgy process

Figure 1: Powder metallurgy process

The manufacture of parts by powder metallurgy process involves the manufacture of powders,
blending, compacting, profiteering, sintering and several secondary operations such as
sizing, coining, machining, impregnation, infiltration, plating, and heat treatment. The
compressed articles are then heated to temperatures much below their melting points to bind the
particles together and improve their strength and other properties. Few non-metallic materials can
also be added to the metallic powders to provide adequate bond or impart some the needed
properties. The products made through this process are very costly on account of the high cost
of metal powders as well as of the dies used. The powders of almost all metals and a large
quantity of alloys, and nonmetals may be used. The application of powder metallurgy process is
economically feasible only for high mass production. Parts made by powder metallurgy process
exhibit properties, which cannot be produced by conventional methods. Simple shaped parts can
be made to size with high precision without waste, and completely or almost ready for installation.
 2. POWDER METALLURGY PROCESS STEPS

The powder metallurgy process consists of the following basic steps:

2.1 Formation of metallic powders.

The most used powders are copper-base and iron-base materials. But titanium, chromium, nickel,
and stainless-steel metal powders are also used. Raw materials => Powder; Powders can be
pure elements, pre-alloyed powders
The commonly used powder making processes are
Atomization; Chemical reduction; Electrolytic process; Crushing; Milling; Condensation of metal
vapors and Hydride and carbonyl processes.

2.2 Mixing or blending of the metallic powders in required proportions.

After the formation of metallic powders, proper mixing or blending of powders is the first step in
the forming of powder metal parts. The mixing is being carried out either wet or dry using an
efficient mixer to produce a homogeneous mixture.
The performance of powder metallurgical parts is totally dependent upon the characteristics of
metal powders. Most important characteristics of metal powders are powder particle size, size
distribution, particle shape, purity, chemical composition, flow characteristics and particle
microstructure.

2.3 Compressing and compacting the powders into desired shapes and sizes in
form of articles.

Compacting is the technique of converting loose powder in to compact accurately defined shape
and size. This is carried out at room temperature in a die on press machine. The press used for
compacting may be either mechanically or hydraulically operated. The die consists of a cavity of
the shape of the desired part. Metal powder is poured in the die cavity and pressure is applied
using punches, which usually work from the top and bottom of the die as shown in Fig 2.
Dies are usually made of high-grade steel, but sometimes carbide dies are used for long
production runs. In compacting process, the pressure applied should be uniform and applied
simultaneously from above and below. The pressure applied should be high enough to produce
cold welding of the powder. Cold welding imparts a green strength, which holds the parts together
and allows them to be handled. The metal parts obtained after compacting are not strong and
dense. To improve these properties, the parts should be sintered.

Figure 2: Powder metallurgy die setup

 2.4 Sintering the compacted articles in a controlled furnace atmosphere.

Sintering is the process of heating of compacted products in a furnace to below the melting point
of at least one of the major constituents under a controlled atmosphere. The sintering temperature
and time vary with the following factors:
Type of metal powder; Compressive load used, and Strength requirements of the finished parts.
In the sintering furnace, the metal parts are gradually heated and soaked at the required
temperature. During this gradually heating process, powders bond themselves into coherent
bodies. Sintering results in strengthening of fragile green compacts produced by the pressing
operation. It also increases electrical conductivity, density and ductility of the powder metal parts.

2.5 Subjecting the sintered articles to secondary processing.

Some powder metal parts may be used in the sintered condition while in some other cases
additional secondary operations must be performed to get the desired surface finish, close
tolerance, etc.
The secondary operations may include:
 Annealing.
 Repressing for greater density or closer dimensional control.
 Machining.
 Polishing.
 Rolling, forging, or drawing.
 Surface treatments to protect against corrosion.
 In some cases, infiltration is needed to provide increased strength, hardness, density
obtainable by straight sintering.
 The procedures for plating powdered metal parts are quite different from those used
for wrought or cast metal parts. In powdered metal parts, porosity must be eliminated
before the part is plated. After the porosity has been eliminated regular plating
procedures can be used.

3. ADVANTAGES OF POWDER METALLURGY

1. The processes of powder metallurgy are quite and clean.

2. Articles of any intricate or complicated shape can be manufactured.
3. The dimensional accuracy and surface finish obtainable are much better for many
applications and hence machining can be eliminated.
4. Unlike casting, press forming machining, no material is being wasted as scrap and
the process makes utilizes full raw material
5. Hard to process materials such as diamond can be converted into usable
components and tools through this process.
6. High production rates can be easily achieved.
7. The phase diagram constraints, which do not allow an alloy formation between
mutually insoluble constituents in liquid state, such as in case of copper and lead
are removed in this process and mixtures of such metal powders can be easily
processed and shaped through this process.
8. This process facilitates production of many such parts, which cannot be produced
through other methods, such as sintered carbides and self-lubricating bearings.
9. The process enables an effective control over several properties such as purity,
density, porosity, particle size, etc., in the parts produced through this process.
 10. The components produced by this process are highly pure and bears longer life.
11. It enables production of parts from such alloys, which possess poor cast ability.
12. It is possible to ensure uniformity of composition, since exact proportions of
constituent metal powders can be used.
13. The preparation and processing of powdered iron and nonferrous parts made in
this way exhibit good properties, which cannot be produced in any other way.
14. Simple shaped parts can be made to size with 100-micron accuracy without
waste.
15. Porous parts can be produced that could not be made in any other way.
16. Parts with wide variations in compositions and materials can be produced.
17. Structure and properties can be controlled more closely than in other fabricating
processes.
18. Highly qualified or skilled labor is not required. in powder metallurgy process
19. Super-hard cutting tool bits, which are impossible to produce by other
manufacturing processes can be easily manufactured using this process.
20. Components shapes obtained possess excellent reproducibility.
Control of grain size, relatively much uniform structure and defect such voids and
blowholes in structure can be eliminated.

4. LIMITATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY

1. Powder metallurgy process is not economical for small-scale production.

2. The cost of tool and die of powder metallurgical set-up is relatively high
3. The size of products as compared to casting is limited because of the requirement
of large presses and expensive tools which would be required for compacting.
4. Metal powders are expensive and, in some cases, difficult to store without some
deterioration.
5. Intricate or complex shapes produced by casting cannot be made by powder
metallurgy because metallic powders lack the ability to flow to the extent of molten
metals.
6. Articles made by powder metallurgy in most cases do not have as good physical
properties as wrought or cast parts.
7. It may be difficult sometimes to obtain alloy powders.
8. Parts pressed from the top tend to be less dense at the bottom.
9. A completely deep structure cannot be produced through this process.
10. The process is not found economical for small-scale production.
11. It is not easy to convert brass, bronze, and several steels into powdered form.

5. APPLICATIONS OF POWDER METALLURGY

The powder metallurgy process has provided a practical solution to the problem of
producing refractory metals, which have now become the basis of making heat-
resistant materials and cutting tools of extreme hardness. Another very important
and useful item of the products made from powdered metals is porous self-
lubricating bearing. In short, modern technology is inconceivable without powder
metallurgy products, the various fields of application of which expand every year.
Some of the powder metal products are given as under.

1. Porous products such as bearings and filters.

2. Tungsten carbide, gauges, wire drawing dies, wire-guides, stamping and blanking
tools, stones, hammers, rock drilling bits, etc.
 3. Various machine parts are produced from tungsten powder. Highly heat and
wear resistant cutting tools from tungsten carbide powders with titanium carbide,
powders are used for and die manufacturing.
4. Refractory parts such as components made from tungsten, tantalum and
molybdenum are used in electric bulbs, radio valves, oscillator valves, X-ray
tubes in the form of filament, cathode, anode, control grids, electric contact points
etc.
5. Products of complex shapes that require considerable machining when made by
other processes namely toothed components such as gears.
6. Components used in automotive part assembly such as electrical contacts,
crankshaft drive or camshaft sprocket, piston rings and rocker shaft brackets,
door, mechanisms, connecting rods and brake linings, clutch facings, welding
rods, etc.
7. Products where the combined properties of two metals or metals and non-metals
are desired such as non-porous bearings, electric motor brushes, etc.
8. Porous metal bearings made which are later impregnated with lubricants. Copper
and graphite powders are used for manufacturing automobile parts and brushes.
9. The combinations of metals and ceramics, which are bonded by similar process
as metal powders, are called cermets. They combine in them useful properties of
high refractoriness of ceramics and toughness of metals. They are produced in
two forms namely oxides based, and carbide based.

6. Powder metallurgy products.

FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS MATERIALS

1. Ferrous metals
Ferrous metals are iron base metals which include all variety of pig iron, cast iron, wrought iron
and steel. The ferrous metals are those which have iron as their main constituents. The ferrous
metals commonly used in engineering practice are cast iron, wrought iron, steel and alloy steels.
1.1 Production of steel from iron ore to usable products:

1.2 Main Types of Iron

1. Pig iron is crude iron as first obtained from a smelting furnace, in the form of long
blocks.
Grey pig iron (Grades 1, 2 and 3) contains about 3% carbon in free form (i.e., graphite
form) and about 1% carbon in combined form. This is a soft type of pig iron.
White pig iron (Grades 4) is hard and strong. It contains almost all the carbon in the
combined form.
Mottled pig iron (Grade 5) and it is a type of pig iron is in between the grey and white
variety. It has an average hardness and molted appearance. The free and combined
forms of carbon are in almost equal proportion in mottled pig iron.

2. Cast iron is an alloy of iron (re-melting pig iron) that contains 2 to 4 percent carbon,
along with varying amounts of silicon and manganese and traces of impurities such as
sulfur and phosphorus. It is made by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace.

 White cast iron

 Gray cast iron
 Malleable cast iron
 Ductile cast iron
 Meehanite cast iron
 Alloy cast iron
3. Wrought iron is the considered as purest iron which possesses at least 99.5% iron.
Wrought iron is produced from pig iron by re-melting it in the puddling furnace or air
furnace or reverberatory furnace.
4. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content maximum up to 1.7%. Steel
can have impurities like silicon, sulphur, manganese and phosphorus.

(A) Plain carbon steels: Plain carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. It has
good machineability and malleability. It is different from cast iron as regards the
percentage of carbon. It contains carbon from 0.06 to 1.5% whereas cast iron
possesses carbon from 1.8 to 4.2%.
• Dead Carbon steels
• Low Carbon steels
• Medium Carbon steels
• High Carbon steels

(B) Alloy steels: For improving the properties of ordinary steel, certain alloying
elements are added in it in sufficient amounts. The most common alloying
elements added to steel are chromium, nickel, manganese, silicon, vanadium,
molybdenum, tungsten, phosphorus, copper, that the titanium, zirconium, cobalt,
columbium, and aluminium.
• High speed steel
• Stainless steel

Effect of elements on steel

1.3 Steel elements on periodic table:

5. Free cutting steel: The important features of free cutting steels are their high
machinability and high-quality surface finish after finishing. These properties are due
to higher sulphur and phosphorus.

1.4 Heat Treatment of steel:

The process of heat treatment involves heating of solid metals to specified (re-crystalisation)
temperatures holding them at that temperature and then cooling them at suitable rates in order to
enable the metals to acquire the desired properties to the required extents. All this take place
because of the changes in size, form, nature, and the distribution of different constituents in the
micro-structure of these metals. Aluminium is the only non-ferrous metal which can be effectively
heat treated.

Recrystallized metal structure

All heat treatment processes, therefore, comprise the following stages of components:

1.5 Purpose of Heat Treatment

Metals and alloys are heat treated to achieve one or more of the following objectives:

1. To relieve internal stresses set up during other operations like casting, welding, hot and
cold working, etc.

2. To improve mechanical properties like hardness, toughness, strength, ductility, etc.

3. To improve machinability

4. To change the internal structure to improve their resistance to heat, wear, and corrosion.

5. To effect a change in their grain size.

6. To soften them to make suitable for operations like cold rolling and wire drawing.

7. To improve their electrical and magnetic properties.

8. To make their structure homogenous to remove coring and segregation.

9. To drive out trapped gases.

To understand the complete mechanism of heat treatment it is essential to know the internal
structure, phase transformation, etc. fully. However, a brief review is given:

1.6 Classification of Heat Treatment Processes

Various heat treatment processes can be classified as follows:

Annealing; Normalizing; Hardening; Tempering; Case hardening; Surface hardening and

Diffusion coating.

Annealing

Annealing is indeed one of the most important heat treatment processes. The internal structure
of the metal gets stabilized through this process. This heat treatment is given to the metal to
achieve one on more of the following objectives:

1. To refine the grains and provide homogenous structure.

2. To relieve internal stresses set up during earlier operations.

3. To soften the metal and, thus, improve its machinability.

4. To effect changes in some mechanical, electrical, and magnetic properties.

5. To prepare steel for further treatment or processing.

6. To drive out gases trapped during casting.

7. To produce desired macro structure.

Different type of annealing processes can be classified as follows:

 Full annealing; Process annealing; Spheroidise annealing; Diffusion annealing and
Isothermal annealing.

Full annealing

The main objectives of this type of annealing are to soften the metal, relieve its stresses and refine
its grain structure. It is also known as high temperature annealing. In this process complete phase
recrystallisation takes place and, therefore, all imperfections of the previous structure are wiped
out. This involves heating of steel to a temperature about 30o to 50oabove the higher critical point
for hypoeutectoid steels, and by the same amount above the lower critical point for hyperuectoid
steels, holding it at that temperature for sufficient time to allow the internal changes to take place
and then cooling slowly. The steel gets softened by this process, together with an appreciable
amount of increase in its ductility and toughness.

Annealing temperatures for carbon steels

Cooling is done by allowing approximately 3 to 4 minutes time at elevated temperatures per mm

thickness of the largest section. High temperature cooling is usually done in the furnace itself by
lowering of temperature at the rate of 10 to 30o C below the lower critical temperature. The
specimen is then air cooled down to the room temperature. This process makes a course pear
lytic structure which is quite soft and ductile. An alternate method of cooling after soaking is to
embed the metal in a non-conducting material like sand, lime, mica, ash, etc.

Process annealing

The purpose of process annealing is to remove the ill effects of cold working and often the metal
so that its ductility is restored, and it can be again plastically deformed or put to service without
any danger of its failure due to fracture. It is also known a slow temperature annealing or sub-
critical annealing or commercial annealing. The process is extremely useful for mild steels and
low carbon steels and is cheaper and quicker than full annealing. Also, less scale is produced
during this process. The main output of this process is increased ductility and plasticity, improved
shock resistance, reduced hardness, improved machinability, and removal of internal stresses.
During cold working operations like cold-rolling, wire drawing, a metal gets severely strain-
hardened. Due to this, the metal is heated to a temperature, generally in the range of 550oC to
650oC, held there for enough time to allow recrystallisation of cold worked metal and, thus,
softening to take place and then cooled at a slower rate (normally in air).

Spheroidise annealing
The main purpose of spheroidise annealing is to produce a structure of steel which consists of
globules or well dispersed spheroids of cementite in ferrite matrix. Following are the main methods
through which the above objective can be obtained:

1. High carbon steels: Heating the steel to a temperature slightly above the lower critical
point (say between 730oC to 770oC, depending upon the carbon percentage), holding it at
that temperature for sufficient time and then cooling it in the furnace to a temperature
600oCto 550oC, followed by slowly cooling it down to room temperature instill air.

2. Tool steels and high-alloy steels: Heating to a temperature of 750oC to 800oC, or even
higher, holding at that temperature for several hours and then cooling slowly.

Diffusion annealing

The purpose of diffusion annealing is to remove the heterogeneity in the chemical composition of
steel ingots and heavy castings. This process is mainly used before applying full annealing to
steel castings. In this process, the metal is heated to a temperature between 1100oC to 1200oC,
where diffusion occurs, and grains are homogenized. The metal piece being treated is held at the
diffusion temperature for a short time to allow complete diffusion and then cooled down to between
800oC to 850oC by keeping it inside the shut off furnace for a period of about 6 to 8 hours. Then
it is removed from the furnace and cooled in air down to the room temperature. Then full annealing
is performed.

Isothermal annealing

The isothermal annealing consists of heating steel to austenite state and then cooling it down to
a temperature of about 630oC to 680oCat a relatively faster rate. It is followed by holding it at this
constant temperature (i.e., isothermal) for some time and then cooling it down to the room
temperature at a rapid rate. During the isothermal holding full decomposition to pearlite structure
takes place and that is why the process is known as isothermal annealing. Because of the two
rapid cooling the total annealing time is considerably reduced.

Normalizing

The normalizing process is like annealing in sequence but vary in the heating temperature range,
holding time and the rate of cooling. Heating temperature of steel is 40oC to 50oCabove the higher
critical point, held at that temperature for a relatively very short period (about 15 min.) and then
cooled down to room temperature in still air. This heat treatment is commonly used as the final
heat treatment for such articles which are supposed to be subjected to higher stress during
operation. Due to this treatment internal stress caused during previous operations are removed,
internal structure is refined to fine grains and mechanical properties of steel are improved. This
process also improves the impact strength, yield point and ultimate tensile strength of steels. As
compared to the annealed steels of the same composition the normalized steels will be less
ductile but stronger and harder. For improvement of the mechanical properties normalizing
process should be preferred and to attain better machinability, softening and greater removal of
internal stress annealing process should be employed.

Hardening

This process is widely applied to all cutting tools, all machine parts made from alloy steels, dies
and some selected machine parts subjected to heavy duty work. In hardening process steel is
heated to a temperature within the hardening range, which is 30oC to 50oC above the higher
critical point for hypoeutectoid steels and by the same amount above the lower critical point for
hypoeutectoid steels, holding it at that temperature for sufficient time to allow it to attain austenitic
structure and cooled rapidly by quenching in a suitable medium like water, oil or salt both.

In the process of hardening the steel is developed in such controlled conditions, by rapid
quenching, that the transformation is disallowed at the lower critical point and by doing so we
force the change to take place at a much lower temperature. By rapid cooling the time allowed to
the metal is too short and hence transformation is not able to occur at the lower critical
temperature.

Tempering

A hardened steel piece, due to martensitic structure, is extremely hard and brittle, due to which it
is found unsuitable for most practical purposes. So, a subsequent treatment is required to obtain
a desired degree of toughness at the cost of some strength and hardness to make it suitable for
use. It is especially true in case of the tools. This is exactly what is mainly aimed at through
tempering of steel. This process enables transformation of some martensite into ferrite and
cementite. The exact amount of martensite transformed into ferrite plus cementite will depend
upon the temperature to which the metal is reheated, and the time allowed for the transformation.

The process involves reheating the hardened steel to a temperature below the lower critical
temperature, holding it at that temperature for sufficient time and then cooling it slowly down to
the room temperature.

When the hardened steel is reheated to a temperature between 100oC to 200oCsome of the
interstitial carbon is precipitated out from martensite to form a carbide called epsilon carbide. This
leads to the restoration of BCC structure in the matrix. Further heating to between 200oC
400oCenables the structure to transform to ferrite plus cementite. Further heating to between
400oC and 550oC leads to the nucleation and growth of a new ferrite structure, rendering the metal
weaker but more ductile. If steel is heated above 550oC the cementite becomes spheroidised,
and if heating is continued even beyond the structure will revert to the stable martensite. As such,
if a good impact strength is desired reheating should not extend beyond 300o to 350oC. The
section thickness of the components being treated also have a decisive effect on the results.
Heavy components and thicker sections required longer tempering times then the lighter and
thinner ones.

1.7 Types of tempering

Based on the ranges of temperatures to which the components are reheated for tempering, the
tempering procedures are classified as follows:

1. Low temperature tempering

This treatment results in reduction of internal stresses and improvement in toughness and ductility
without any appreciable loss in hardness. The heating range for this type of tempering is from
150oC to 250oC. The different colors appearing on the surface of the metal are indicative of the
approximate temperature attained by it. Carbon tool steels, low alloy tool steels, case carburized
and surface hardened parts, measuring tools, etc. are tempered by this method. Approximate
temperatures, corresponding colors, and the tools for whose tempering they are used are given
in following table.
 Approximate tempering temperatures and temper colors for tools

2. Medium temperature tempering

This process involves reheating the component to a temperature range between 350oCto 450oC,
holding at that temperature for sufficient time and then cooling it to room temperature. This method
of tempering is used to increase the toughness of steel but reduces the hardness. It also increases
the ductility and decreases the strength. It is mainly used for articles where a high yield strength,
coupled with toughness, is a major requirement and subjected to impact loading, like coils and
springs, hammers, chisels, etc.

3. High temperature tempering

The process involves reheating the hardened steel to a temperature between 500oC to 650 o,
holding it there for a certain time and then cooling it down to the room temperature. This process
enables the steel attaining high ductility while retaining enough hardness. This provides a micro-
structure which carries a useful combination of good strength and toughness with complete
elimination of internal stresses e.g., Crankshafts, connecting rods and gears

1.8 Tempering bath

Mainly following three types of tempering baths are used for tempering of steel parts and cutting
tools:

Lead bath: Lead or lead alloy bath may be used for tempering steel parts. The parts are
preheated and then immersed in the bath, which is already heated to the tempering temperature.
Once the parts reach the tempering temperature they are taken out and cooled to attain the
required temper.

Oil bath: Oil baths can be employed for various temperature ranges. Mineral oils are commonly
used for these baths. Light oil baths are used for temperatures up to 230 oC only. Heavy oil baths
can be used for heating range from 343 oC to 370 oC. For oil heating the bath temperature is first
raised to the required tempering range and then partially heated component is immersed in it. If
the temperature of the bath falls below the required level both the bath and the immersed
component can be heated together to the tempering temperature. After the component has
reached the required temperature it is removed and immersed in a tank of caustic soda, followed
by quenching in a hot water bath.

Salt bath: Salt baths, carrying liquid nitrates or nitrates plus nitrites, are used for higher
temperatures. The salts used for these baths are generally chlorides and fluorides. These baths
are very widely used for tempering of high-speed steels. They can be used for temperature range
up to 540 oC to 600 oC. From efficiency and economy points of view salt bath cannot be used
below 173o.

NON-FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain significant quantity of iron or iron as base
metal. These metals possess low strength at high temperatures, generally suffer from hot
shortness and have more shrinkage than ferrous metals. They are utilized in industry due to
following advantages:

 High corrosion resistance

 Easy to fabricate, i.e., machining, casting, welding, forging and rolling
 Possess very good thermal and electrical conductivity
 Attractive color and low density

The various non-metals used in industry are copper, aluminium, tin, lead, zinc, and nickel, etc.,
and their alloys.

1 Copper

The crude form of copper extracted from its ores through series of processes contains 68% purity
known as Blister copper. By electrolytic refining process, highly pure (99.9%) copper which is
remelted and casted into suitable shapes. Copper is a corrosion resistant metal of an attractive
reddish-brown color.

Properties and Uses:

1. High Thermal Conductivity: Used in heat exchangers, heating vessels and

appliances, etc.
2. High Electrical Conductivity: Used as electrical conductor in various shapes and
forms for various applications.
3. Good Corrosion Resistance: Used for providing coating on steel prior to nickel and
chromium plating
4. High Ductility: Can be easily cold worked, folded and spun. Requires annealing after
cold working as it loses its ductility.

2. Aluminium

Aluminium is white metal which is produced by electrical processes from clayey mineral known
as bauxite. However, this aluminium ore bauxite is available in India in plenty and we have a
thriving aluminium industry.

Properties and Uses:

(1) Like copper it is also corrosion resistant.

(2) It is very good conductor of heat and electricity although not as good as copper.
(3) Possesses high ductility and light weight so widely utilized in aircraft industry.
(4) Needs frequent annealing if cold worked since it becomes hard after cold working.
(5) In view of its ductility and malleability it has replaced copper in electrical transmission
and appliances to some extent.
(6) It is used in manufacturing of household utensils including pressure cookers.
3 Lead
Lead is the heaviest of the common metal. Lead is extracted from its ore known as galena. It is
bluish grey in colour and dull lusture which goes very dull on exposure to air.

Properties and Uses:

(1) Its specific gravity is 7.1 and melting point is 360°C.

(2) It is resistant to corrosion and many chemicals do not react with it (even acids).
(3) It is soft, heavy and malleable, can be easily worked and shaped.
(4) Lead is utilized as alloying element in producing solders and plumber’s solders.
(5) It is alloyed with brass as well as steel to improve their machinability.
(6) It is utilized in manufacturing of water pipes, coating for electrical cables, acid tanks
and roof covering etc.

4 Tin

It is a brilliant white metal with yellowish tinge. Melting point of tin is 240°C.

Properties and Uses:

(1) Tin is malleable and ductile, it can be rolled into very thin sheets.
(2) It is used for tinning of copper and brass utensils and copper wire before its
conversion into cables.
(3) It is useful as a protective coating for iron and steel since it does corrode in dry or
wet atmosphere.
(4) It is utilized for making important alloys such as fine solder and moisture proof
packing with thin tin sheets.

5 Zinc
The chief ores of zinc are blende (ZnS) and calamine (ZnCO3). Zinc is a fairly heavy, bluish-white
metal principally utilized in view of its low cost, corrosion resistance and
alloying characteristics. Melting point of zinc is 420°C and it boils at 940°C.

Properties and Uses:

(1) High corrosion resistance: Widely used as protective coating on iron and steel.
Coating may be provided by dip galvanizing or electroplating.
(2) High fluidity and low melting point: Most suitable metal for pressure die casting
generally in the form of alloy.
(3) When rolled into sheets, zinc is utilized for roof covering and for providing a damp
proof non-corrosive lining to containers.
(4) The galvanized wires, nails, etc. are produced by galvanizing technique and zinc is
also used in manufacture of brasses.
6 Nickel
About at least 85% of all nickel production is obtained from sulphide ores.

Properties and Uses:

1. Pure nickel is tough, silver coloured metal, harder than copper having some but less
ductility but of about same strength.
2. It is plated on steel to provide a corrosion resistance surface or layer.
3. Widely used as an alloying element with steel. Higher proportions are
advantageously added in the production of steel such as monel or in conel.
4. It possesses good resistance to both acids and alkalis regarding corrosion so widely
utilized in food processing equipment.

7 Magnesium
Principal ores of magnesium are magnesite, carnallite and dolomite. Magnesium is extracted by
electrolytic process.

Properties and Uses:

(1) It is the lightest of all metals weighing around two-thirds of aluminium.

(2) The tensile strength of cast metal is the same as that of ordinary cast aluminium,
i.e., 90 MPa.
(3) The tensile strength of rolled annealed magnesium is same as that of good quality
cast iron.
(4) Magnesium can be easily formed, drawn forged and machined with high accuracy.
(5) In powdered form it is likely to burn, in that situation adequate fire protection
measures should be strictly observed.
(6) Its castings are pressure tight and achieve good surface finish. Magnesium castings
include motor car gearbox, differential housing and portable tools.

8 Vanadium
It occurs in conjunction with iron pyrite, free sulphur and carbonaceous matter.

Properties and Uses:

(1) It is silvery white in colour.

(2) Its specific gravity is 5.67.
(3) Its melting point is 1710°C.
(4) When heated to a suitable temperature it can be hammered into any shape or drawn
into wires.
(5) It is used in manufacture of alloy steels.
(6) Vanadium forms non-ferrous alloys of copper and aluminium from which excellent
castings can be produced.
9 Antimony
Chief ore of antimony is stibnite. To a small extent, antimony is obtained as a by-product in refining
of other metals such as lead, copper silver and zinc.

Properties and Uses:

(1) It is silvery white, hard, highly crystalline and so brittle that it may be readily
powdered.
(2) Its specific gravity is 6.63 and melting point is 630°C.
(3) It is generally used as an alloying element with most of heavy metals.
(4) Lead, tin and copper are the metals which are most commonly alloyed with
antimony.

10 Cadmium
It is obtained commercially as a by-product in the metallurgy of zinc and to some extent of lead.

Properties and Uses:

(1) White metal with bluish tinge, capable of taking a high polish.
(2) Its specific gravity is 8.67 and melts at 321°C.
(3) It is slightly harder than tin but softer than zinc.
(4) It is malleable and ductile and can be readily rolled and drawn into
wires.

It is chiefly utilized in antifriction alloys for bearings. It is also used as rust proof coating for iron
and steel. Components of automobiles and refrigerator such as nuts, bolts and trimmings, locks
and wire products are plated with it.

ALLOYS OF COPPER

Copper alloys are among the best conductors of heat and electricity and they have good corrosion
resistance. The common types of copper alloys are brasses and bronzes. The various alloys of
copper are discussed as follows:

1 Brass
All brasses are basically alloys of copper and zinc. Commercially there are two main varieties of
brasses:

(1) Alfa brass: Contains upto 36% Zn and rest copper for cold working.
(2) Alfa-Betabrass: Contains 36 to 45% Zn and remainder is copper for hot
working. The tensile strength and ductility of brass both increase with
increase in content of Zn upto 30% zinc. With further increase in zinc content
beyond 30%, the tensile strength continues to increase upto 45% of Zn, but
 ductility of brasses drops significantly. β-phase is less ductile than α-phase
but it is harder and stronger.
Thus, there are various types of brasses depending upon proportion of copper and zinc.
Fundamentally brass is a binary alloy of copper with as much as 50% zinc. Various
classes of brasses such as cartridge brass, Muntzmetal leaded brass, Admirality brass,
naval brass and nickel brass depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc plus third
alloying metal are available for various uses. Suitable type of brasses can undergo the
processes of casting, hot forging, cold forging, cold rolling into sheets, drawing into wires
and extrusion for obtaining requisite special cross-section bars. The melting point of brass
varies according to its composition but most of the brasses in the common range liquefy
between temperatures of 840°C to 960°C. By adding small quantities of other elements,
the properties of brass may be greatly affected. For example, addition of 1 to 2% zinc
improves the machinability of brass. Brass has a greater strength than that of copper but
has a lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Brasses possess very good corrosion
resistance and can be easily soldered. Brasses are used in hydraulic fittings, pump linings,
utensils, bearings and bushes, etc.

2 Bronze
The alloy of copper and tin are usually termed bronzes. The useful range of composition is
75 to 95% copper and remainder tin. In general, it possesses superior mechanical properties and
corrosion resistance to brass. The alloy can be easily cold rolled into wire, rods and sheets. With
increase in tin content, the strength of this alloy and its corrosion resistance increases. It is then
known as hot working bronze. Bronze is generally utilized in hydraulic fittings, bearings, bushes,
utensils, sheets, rods and many other stamped and drawn products.
The generally used bronzes are as follows:

(3) Phosphor bronze: When bronze contains phosphorus, it is known as

phosphor bronze. Phosphorus present in such alloy increases the strength,
ductility and soundness of castings. Various compositions of this alloy are
available for different applications. The composition of the alloy varies
according to whether it is to be forged, wrought or cast. A common type of
phosphor bronze has the following composition as per Indian standards.
Copper = 93.6%, tin = 9%, and phosphorus = 0.1 to 0.3%.
The alloy possesses good wearing qualities and high elasticity. The alloy is
resistant to salt water corrosion.
Cast phosphor bronze is utilized for production of bearings and gears. Bearings of
bronze contain 10% tin and small addition of lead. This is also used in making
gears, nuts, for machine lead screws, springs, pump parts, linings and many other
such applications.

(4) Gun metal: Gun metal contains 2% zinc, 10% tin and 88% copper. It is a very
famous composition. Sometimes very small amount of lead is also added to
improve castability and machinability. The presence of zinc improve its fluidity.
This bronze is used for bearing bushes, glands, pump valves and boiler fittings,
etc.
(5) Silicon bronze: Silicon bronze has an average composition of 3 per cent
silicon, 1 per cent manganese and rest copper. It possesses good general
corrosion resistance of copper with higher strength and toughness. It can be
cast rolled, stamped, forged and pressed either hot or cold and can be welded
 by all the usual methods. Silicon bronze is widely utilized for parts of boilers,
tanks, stoves or where high strength as well as corrosion resistance is required.

(6) Bell metal: This alloy contains 20 to 21% tin and rest copper. It is hard and
resistant to surface wear. It can be readily cast, is generally utilized for casting
bells, gongs and utensils, etc.
(7) Manganese Bronze: It is an alloy of copper, zinc and manganese. It contains
55 to 60% copper, 40% zinc, with 3.5% manganese. This alloy is highly
resistant to corrosion. It is stronger and harder than phosphor bronze. It has
poor response to cold working but can be easily hot worked.
It is generally utilized for producing bushes, plungers, feed pumps and rods, etc.
Worm gears are frequently made of manganese bronze.
(8) Muntz Metal: The composition of this alloy is 60 per cent copper and 40 per
cent zinc. Sometimes a small quantity of lead is also added. This alloy is
stronger, harder and more ductile than normal brass. While hot working
between 700°C to 750, it responds excellently for process but does not
respond to cold working.

This alloy is utilized for a wide variety of small components of machines, bolts, rods,
tubes, electrical equipment as well as ordinance works. It is widely employed in
producing such articles which are required to resist wear.

3 Alloys of Aluminium
Aluminium may be alloyed with one or more alloying elements such as copper, manganese,
magnesium, silicon and nickel. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements converts the
soft and weak aluminium into hard and strong metal, while it retains its light weight. The main
alloys of aluminium are: Duralumin, Y-alloy, Magnalium and Hindalium which are discussed as
follows:

1. Duralumin: A famous alloy of aluminium containing 4% copper, 0.5% manganese, 0.5%

magnesium and a trace of iron with remainder as aluminium is known as duralumin. It
possesses high strength comparable with mild steel and low specific gravity. However, its
corrosion resistance is much lower as compared with pure aluminium. The strength of this
alloy increases significantly when heat treated and allowed to age for 3 to 4 weeks it will
be hardened. The phenomenon is termed age hardening. To improve upon the corrosion
resistance of it, a thin film of aluminium is rolled on the duralumin sheets. These sheets
are known as Alclad by trade name and are widely used in aircraft industry.
It is widely utilized in wrought conditions for forging, stamping, bars, tubes, and rivets. It
can be worked in hot condition at 500°C. However, after forging and annealing it could
also be cold worked. Due to light weight and high strength this alloy may be used in
automobile industry.

2. Y-Alloy: It is also known as copper-aluminium alloy. The addition of copper to pure

aluminium improves its strength and machinability. Y-alloy contains 93% aluminium, 2%
copper, 1% nickel and magnesium. This alloy is heat treated as well as age hardened just
like duralumin. A heat treatment of Y-alloy castings, consisting of quenching in boiling
water from 510°C and then aging for 5 days develops very good mechanical
characteristics in them. Since Y-alloy has better strength at elevated temperature than
 duralumin therefore it is much used in aircraft cylinder heads and piston. It is also used in
strip and sheet form.

3. Magnalium: It is produced by melting the aluminium 2 to 10% magnesium in a vacuum

and then cooling it in vacuum or under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres. About
1.75% copper is also added to it. Due to its light weight and good mechanical
characteristics, it is mainly used for aircraft and automobile components.
4. Hindalium: It is an alloy of aluminium and magnesium with small quantity of chromium. It
is manufactured as rolled product in 16 gauge mainly used in manufacture of anodized
utensils.

4 Alloys of Nickel
a. German silver: The composition of this alloy is 60% Cu, 30% Ni and 10% zinc. It
displays silvery appearance and is very ductile and malleable. It is utilized for
electrical contacts, casting of high-quality valves, taps and costume jewelry. It is
also used in producing electrical wires.
b. Monel metal: It contains 68% Ni, 30% Cu, 1% iron and remainder small additions
of Mn and other elements. It is corrosion resistant and possesses good mechanical
properties and maintains them at elevated temperatures.
c. Nichrome: It is an alloy of nickel and chromium which is utilized as heat resistant
electrical wire in electrical appliances such as furnaces, geysers and electric iron,
etc.
d. Inconel and incolony: These alloys principally contain, Ni, Cr, Fe, Mo, Ti and very
small proportions of carbon. These are used as high temperature alloys. Inconel
does not respond to heat treatment.

5 Bearing Materials
A bearing material should possess the following characteristics:

1. It should possess enough compressive strength to provide adequate load carrying

capacity.
2. It should possess good plasticity to negate small variations in alignment and fitting.
3. Its wear resistance should be adequate to maintain a specified fit.
4. The coefficient of friction of the bearing material should be low to avoid excessive heating.

Some significant bearing metals are as follows:

Babbitt’s metal: It is utilized for production of heavy-duty bearings. It is white in color containing
88% tin, 8% antimony and 4% copper. It is a soft material with a low coefficient of friction.
Summary of non-ferrous metals