THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FINAL EXAMINATIONS-2019

MEC 4402: THERMODYNAMICS II & HEAT ENGINES

INSTRUCTIONS

1. Answer Five (5) questions that is Two (2) from Section A and Three (3) from Section B.
2. Please note that Question Four (4) in Section B is Compulsory
3. State all assumptions and clearly show all analytical steps leading to your solution metrically.
4. Underline your final answer for all analytical questions.
5. Where necessary give fully labelled sketches and illustrations to support your work.
6. Comment on your final solution where appropriate.
7. Marks distribution is as indicated at the end of each question.
 SECTION A

There are three (3) questions in this section. Answer Two (2) questions only.

QUESTION 1
A. Briefly discuss the essential components of a Spark Ignition (SI) Engine with your listing
following the logical order of operation from the source of energy to the end. [7.5 Marks]
Ans--
1. Fuel Supply System: The fuel supply system is responsible for delivering the right amount of fuel to
the engine. It includes components such as the fuel tank, fuel pump, fuel filter, and fuel injectors (in
modern SI engines) or carburetor (in older SI engines).

2. Air Intake System: The air intake system is designed to supply a controlled amount of air to the
engine. It typically consists of an air filter, throttle valve, and intake manifold that distributes air to
each cylinder.

3. Combustion Chamber: The combustion chamber is where the air-fuel mixture is ignited and
combustion takes place. It is located within the cylinder of the engine and contains the piston,
cylinder head, and sometimes spark plug or glow plug (for diesel engines).

4. Ignition System: The ignition system is responsible for producing a high-voltage spark at the right
time to ignite the air-fuel mixture. It usually consists of a spark plug, ignition coil, distributor (in older
systems), and electronic control module (in modern systems).

5. Engine Block: The engine block houses all the cylinders and forms the main structural framework of
the engine. It also contains the crankshaft, which converts reciprocating motion into rotary motion.

6. Piston and Connecting Rod: The piston is a cylindrical component that moves up and down inside
the cylinder. It is connected to the crankshaft via the connecting rod, which converts the reciprocating
motion of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.

7. Crankshaft: The crankshaft is a rotating shaft that converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons
into rotational motion. It is connected to various components, such as the flywheel and drive belts, to
transfer power to other parts of the vehicle.

8. Lubrication System: The lubrication system is responsible for providing oil to various engine
components to reduce friction and wear. It includes an oil pump, oil filter, and oil passages.

9. Cooling System: The cooling system prevents the engine from overheating by dissipating excess
heat. It includes a radiator, coolant, water pump, and cooling fan.

B. Give an outline of any SI ignition system you know [7.5 Marks]

Ans--
1. Battery: The battery is the source of electrical energy that powers the ignition system.

2. Ignition Switch: The ignition switch controls the flow of electrical power from the battery to the
ignition system.

3. Ignition Coil: The ignition coil transforms the low-voltage electricity from the battery into high-
voltage electricity needed to create a spark at the spark plug.

4. Distributor (in older systems) or Electronic Control Module (ECM) (in modern systems): The
distributor (or ECM) determines the timing of the spark and sends the high-voltage electricity to the
correct spark plug.

5. Spark Plug: The spark plug creates an electrical spark in the combustion chamber to ignite the air-
fuel mixture.
6. Spark Plug Wires: The spark plug wires connect the distributor (or ECM) to the spark plugs,
delivering the high-voltage electricity.

7. Grounding System: The grounding system ensures that the electrical circuit is complete, allowing
the spark to jump at the spark plug.

8. Timing System: The timing system ensures that the spark occurs at the right moment during the
engine's compression stroke, maximizing efficiency and performance.

9. Sensors (in modern systems): Modern SI ignition systems may also include various sensors, such as
the crankshaft position sensor and camshaft position sensor, to provide precise timing control based
on engine conditions.

Overall, the SI ignition system is essential for initiating combustion in the engine and powering the
vehicle. It requires proper timing and synchronization to ensure efficient and reliable operation.

QUESTION 2
A. Explain why lubrication is required in the operation of a heat engine. Your solution must
include four (4) major functions of lubrication oil. [7.5 Marks]
Ans--
In the operation of a heat engine, such as an internal combustion engine, lubrication is crucial for
ensuring smooth and efficient functioning. Lubrication involves the use of lubricating oil to reduce
friction and wear between moving parts. The four major functions of lubrication oil are as follows:

1. Friction Reduction: Lubricating oil forms a thin film between moving parts, creating a low-friction
surface. This reduces the resistance to motion and minimizes the energy losses due to friction. By
reducing friction, the engine operates more efficiently, leading to improved fuel economy and
reduced wear.

2. Wear Protection: The lubricating oil forms a protective layer on the surfaces of engine components,
preventing direct metal-to-metal contact. This minimizes wear and extends the lifespan of critical
engine parts, such as pistons, bearings, and camshafts.

3. Heat Dissipation: In heat engines, such as internal combustion engines, significant amounts of heat
are generated due to the combustion process. Lubricating oil acts as a heat transfer medium,
absorbing and dissipating heat from the engine's hot surfaces. It carries away the excess heat to the
oil sump and aids in maintaining the engine at a suitable operating temperature.

4. Corrosion Prevention: Lubricating oil contains additives that protect engine components from
corrosion and rust. These additives neutralize harmful acids and contaminants that can build up
during the combustion process, preventing damage to vital engine parts and maintaining engine
cleanliness.

B. Discuss the need for the cooling system for an automotive engine. Include in your
solution Two (2) characteristics of an efficient cooling system. [7.5 Marks]
Ans--
The cooling system is essential in an automotive engine to regulate and control the operating
temperature. The main purpose of the cooling system is to dissipate excess heat generated during
engine operation. Two characteristics of an efficient cooling system are as follows:

1. Effective Heat Transfer: An efficient cooling system should have a high capacity for heat transfer. It
should be able to absorb heat from the engine quickly and efficiently. A well-designed cooling system
utilizes a radiator with a large surface area and cooling fins to maximize heat dissipation. Additionally,
the coolant should have excellent heat-absorbing properties to carry heat away from the engine
effectively.
2. Temperature Regulation: An efficient cooling system should maintain the engine at an optimal
operating temperature under varying conditions. It should be able to keep the engine cool during
high-load conditions, such as during heavy acceleration or climbing steep hills. Conversely, it should
also warm up the engine quickly during cold starts to reduce engine wear and improve fuel efficiency.

By maintaining the engine at the correct temperature range, the cooling system ensures the engine
operates efficiently, prevents overheating, and prolongs the engine's life. It also contributes to better
fuel economy and reduced emissions by allowing the engine to reach its optimal operating
temperature more quickly.

QUESTION 3
A. Discuss the important elements influencing the rating of an SI Engine Fuels.[7.5 Marks]
Ans--
The rating of fuels for spark ignition (SI) engines depends on several important elements, which
determine the fuel's suitability and performance in the engine. These elements include:

1. Octane Rating: The octane rating is a critical factor in SI engine fuels. It indicates the fuel's ability to
resist knocking or detonation, which is the uncontrolled combustion of the air-fuel mixture. Fuels with
higher octane ratings are less prone to knocking and allow engines to operate at higher compression
ratios and with advanced ignition timing, providing better performance.

2. Research Octane Number (RON): The RON measures the fuel's resistance to knocking under low-
speed, light-load conditions. It reflects the fuel's performance in normal driving situations and is
typically used as a marketing tool to indicate the fuel's quality.

3. Motor Octane Number (MON): The MON measures the fuel's resistance to knocking under high-
speed, high-load conditions. It is more relevant for high-performance engines or engines operating
under heavy load conditions.

4. Cetane Rating (for diesel fuels): Cetane rating is specific to compression ignition (CI) engines, not SI
engines. It measures the fuel's ignition delay and combustion quality in diesel engines. Fuels with
higher cetane ratings generally provide smoother combustion and better cold-start performance.

5. Energy Content: The energy content of the fuel, usually expressed in megajoules per liter or
megajoules per kilogram, indicates the amount of energy released during combustion. Fuels with
higher energy content result in better fuel efficiency and higher power output.

6. Volatility: The volatility of the fuel refers to its ability to vaporize and form a homogeneous air-fuel
mixture. An optimal volatility range ensures easy starting, smooth idling, and good performance
under varying operating conditions.

7. Density: Fuel density affects the amount of energy stored per unit volume. Higher-density fuels can
provide more energy per liter and may have practical implications for storage and transportation.

8. Additives: Some fuels may contain additives that improve combustion, reduce deposits, prevent
corrosion, and enhance engine performance and longevity.

B. Explain the laboratory method used to determine the fuel rating of CI Engine.[7.5 Marks]
Ans--
The laboratory method used to determine the fuel rating of compression ignition (CI) engine fuels is
the Cetane Number test. The cetane number measures the ignition quality of the fuel and its
propensity to ignite easily in a diesel engine. A higher cetane number indicates shorter ignition delays
and more efficient combustion.
The ASTM D613 standard specifies the test procedure for determining the cetane number of diesel
fuels using a standard single-cylinder engine. The steps of the laboratory method are as follows:

1. A sample of the diesel fuel is injected into the engine's precombustion chamber, along with a
reference fuel with known cetane number.

2. The engine's compression ratio, temperature, and other operating parameters are carefully
controlled.

3. The crank angle at which ignition begins is measured for both the test fuel and reference fuel.

4. The cetane number of the test fuel is calculated based on the ignition delay compared to the
reference fuel.

5. The cetane number is reported as the average of several tests to ensure accuracy.

This laboratory method allows for accurate determination of the cetane number, which is critical for
selecting fuels suitable for diesel engines and assessing their performance in terms of ignition quality
and combustion characteristics.

SECTION B

QUESTION 4: COMPULSORY
An eight-cylinder, Four-stroke engine of 9 cm bore and 8 cm stroke with a compression ratio of 7 is
tested at 4500 rpm on a dynamometer which has 54 cm arm. During a 10 minutes test the
dynamometer scale beam reading was 42 kg and the engine consumed 4.4 kg of gasoline having a
calorific value of 44000 kJ/kg. Air at 27°C and 1 bar was supplied to the carburetor at the rate of 6
kg/min. Find (i) the brake power delivered (ii) the brake mean effective pressure (iii) the brake
specific fuel consumption (iv) the brake specific air consumption (v) the brake thermal efficiency
(vi) the volumetric efficiency and (vii) the air fuel ratio.
[30 Marks]
Ans--
2πNT
bp =
60000

2 × π × 4500 × 42 × 0.54 × 9.81

= = ���. � ��
60000

bp × 60000 104.8 × 60000

bmep = =
LAnK π 4500
0.08 × × 0.092 × ×8
4 2

= 6.87 × 105 Pa = �. �� ���

4.4
× 60
bsfc = 10 = �. ��� ��/�� �
104.8

6 × 60
bsac = = �. ��� ��/�� �
104.8

�� 104.9 × 60
���ℎ = = × 100 = ��. �%
�� × �� 4.4 × 44000
10

Volume flow rate of air at intake condition

 �� �� 6 × 287 × 300
�� = = = 5.17�3 /���
� 1 × 105

� 2 � 4500
�� = � ��� = × 0.092 × 0.08 × × 8 = 9.16�3 /���
4 4 2

5.17
�� = × 100 = ��. ��%
9.16

6.0
A/F = = ��. ��
0.44

QUESTION 5
Calculate the diameter of the fuel orifice of a four stroke diesel engine which develops 25 kW per
cylinder at 2500 rpm. The specific fuel consumption using 0.3 kg/kW h fuel of 30° API. The fuel is
injected at a pressure of 150 bar over a crank travel of 25°. The pressure in the combustion chamber
���.�
is 40 bar. Coefficient of velocity is 0.875 and specific gravity is given by �. � = ���.�+°���
[20 Marks]
Ans--

25
Duration of injection = = 1.667 × 10−3 s
360 × 2500/60

141.5
S. G. = = 0.8762
131.5 + 30°

2(pinj − pcycl )
Velocity of injection, Vinj = Cd
pf

2 × (150 − 40) × 105

= 0.875 ×
876.2

= 138.65 m/s

(bsfc/60) × output
Vol. of fuel injected/cycle =
(rpm/2) × pfuel

(0.3/60) × 25
=
(2500/2) × 876.2

= 0.114 × 10−6 m3 /cycle

Volime of fuel injected/cycle

Nozzle orifice area, Af =
Inj. velocity × Inj. time

0.114 × 10−6
=
138.65 × 1.667 × 10−3

= 0.4932 × 10−6 m2

π
Area of the orifice = × d2 = 0.4932 × 10−6
4
 4 × 0.4932 × 10−6
d=
π

= 0.792 × 10−3 m = �. ��� ��

QUESTION 6
The air-standard Dual cycle has a compression ratio of 10. The pressure and temperature at the
beginning are 1 bar and 27°C respectively. The maximum pressure reached is 42 bar and the
maximum temperature is 1500°C. Determine (i) the temperature at the end of constant volume
heat addition (ii) cut-off ratio (iii) work done per kg of air and (iv) the cycle efficiency. Assume
�� = �. ��� ��/�� � and �� = �. ��� ��/�� for air. [20 Marks]

Ans--

��
=�−1=9
��

�� = 9��

Cp 1.004
γ= = = 1.4
Cv 0.717

Consider the process 1 - 2

�2
= �(�−1) = 100.4 = 2.512
�1

�2 = 2.512 × 300 = 753.6 �

�2
= �� = 101.4 = 25.12
�1

�2 = 25.12 × 105 �/�2

Consider the process 3 - 4

�3 �3 42
= = = 1.672
�2 �2 25.12

�3 = 1.672 × 753.6 = 1260� = ���°�

�4 1773
�� = = = �. ���
�3 1260

Work done/kg = Heat supplied - Heat rejected

Heat supplied/kg = Cv T3 − T2 + Cp T4 − T3

= 0.717 × 1773 − 1260 = ���. � ��

Consider the process 4 - 5

�−1 (�−1) 0.4

�4 �5 � 10
= = = = 2.191
�5 �4 �� 1.407

� 4
�5 = 2.191 = ���. � �
Heat rejected/kg = Cv T5 − T1

= 0.717 × (809.2 − 300) = 365.1 kJ

Work output/kg = 878.1 − 365.1 = ��� ��

���� ������ 513

����� = ���� �����
=
878.1

= 0.5842 = ��. ��%

QUESTION 7
The following results were obtained in a test on a gas engine:
Gas used = 0.16 m3/min at NTP
Calorific value of gas at NTP = 14 MJ/m3
Density of gas at NTP = 0.65 kg/m3
Air Used = 1.50 kg/min
Specific heat of exhaust gas = 1.0 kJ/kg K
Temperature of exhaust gas = 400°C
Room temperature = 20°C
Cooling water per minute = 6 kg
Specific heat of water = 4.18 kJ/kg K
Rise in temperature of cooling water = 30°C
ip = 12.5 kW
bp = 10.5 kW

Draw a heat balance sheet for the test on per hour basis in kJ
[20 Marks]
Ans--
Heat supplied at NTP = 0.16 × 14000 × 60 = 134400 kJ/h

Heat equivalent of bp = 10.5 × 60 × 60 = ����� ��/�

Heat lost in cooling medium = 6 × 30 × 4.18 × 60

= ����� ��/�

Mass of gas used = 0.16 × 0.65 = 0.104 kg/min

Mass of air used = 1.50 kg/min

Mass of exhaust gas = 0.104 + 1.50 = 1.604 kg/min

Heat carried away in exhaust gases = 1.604 × 1 × (400 − 20) × 60

= �����. � ��/�

Unaccounted losses = 134400 − (37800 + 45144 + 36571.2)

= �����. � ��/�

Heat input (kJ) Heat expenditure (kJ)

(per minute) (per minute)
Heat supplied by fuel 134400 1. Heat equivalent to bp 37800.00
2. Heat lost to cooling medium 45144.0
3. Heat lost in exhaust 36571.2
4. Unaccounted losses 14884.8
Total 134400.0