MODELS OF MASS COMMUNICATION

SUBMITTED TO

MA’AM KANWAL

SUBMITTED BY

KHADIJA

BS PSYCHOLOGY (2K19)

Army Burn Hall College for Girls

Abbottabad

(2023)

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 Communication Models

What are communication models?

According to Denis McQuail’s book Mass Communication Theory, “a model is a

selective representation in verbal or diagrammatic form of some aspect of the
dynamic process of mass communication.”

In other words, models of communication provide us with a visual representation

of the different aspects of a communication situation.

Since communication is a complex process, it’s often challenging to determine where

a conversation begins and ends.

How can communication models help with work communication?

Understanding communication models can help us:

• Think about our communication situations more deliberately,

• Learn from our previous experiences, and

• Better prepare for future communication situations.

8 Major communication models

There are 8 major models of communication, which can be divided into 3 categories:

1. Linear models of communication — They only look at one-way

communication. The most prominent linear models of communication are:
1. Aristotle’s communication model,
2. Lasswell’s communication model,
3. The Shannon-Weaver communication model, and
4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model.
2. Interactive models of communication — They analyze two-way
communication. These are the following:
1. The Osgood-Schramm communication model, and
2. The Westley and Maclean communication model.
3. Transactional models of communication — They illustrate two-way
communication where the message gets more complex as the communication
event progresses. These include:
1. Barnlund’s transactional communication model, and
2. Dance’s Helical communication model.

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 Linear models of communication

The linear communication model is straightforward and used mainly in marketing,

sales, and PR, in communication with customers.

What is a linear model of communication?

Linear communication models suggest that communication takes place only in one
direction.

The main elements in these models are:

• The channel,

• The sender, and

• The receiver.

Simply put, the sender transmits the message via a channel.

The channel, as the medium, changes the message into speech, writing, or animation.

The message then finally reaches the receiver, who decodes it.

We already mentioned the 3 most prominent linear models of communication, and

now it is time to analyze each one of them in more detail.

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1. Aristotle’s model of communication
The oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC, Aristotle’s model was
designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator.

What is Aristotle’s model of communication?

Aristotle’s model of communication primarily focuses on the sender (public speaker,

professor, etc.) who passes on their message to the receiver (the audience).

The sender is also the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is
passive. This makes Aristotle’s communication model a foolproof way to excel in
public speaking, seminars, and lectures.

What are the main elements of Aristotle’s communication model?

Aristotle identified 3 elements that improve communication within this model:

1. Ethos — Defines the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility,

authority, and power by being an expert in a field of their choice.
2. Pathos — Connects the speaker with the audience through different emotions
(anger, sadness, happiness, etc.)
3. Logos — Signifies logic. Namely, it is not enough for the speech to be
interesting — it needs to follow the rules of logic.

Aristotle also suggested that we look at 5 components of a communication situation to

analyze the best way to communicate:

• Speaker,

• Speech,

• Occasion,

• Target audience, and

• Effect.

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2. Lasswell’s model of communication
The next linear model on our list is Lasswell’s Model of mass communication.

What is Lasswell’s model of communication?

Lasswell’s communication model views communication as the transmission of a

message with the effect as the result.

The effect in this case is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of the
message that is caused by the elements of communication.

If any of the elements change, the effect also changes.

What are the main elements of Lasswell’s communication model?

Lasswell’s model aims to answer the following 5 questions regarding its elements:

1. Who created the message?

2. What did they say?
3. What channel did they use (TV, radio, blog)?
4. To whom did they say it?
5. What effect did it have on the receiver?

The answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model:

• Communicator,

• Message,

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 • Medium,

• Audience/Receiver, and

• Effect.

3. The Shannon-Weaver model of communication

Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver model.

Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed their
work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed
to discover which channels are most effective for communicating.

So, although they were doing research as part of their engineering endeavors, they
claimed that their theory is applicable to human communication as well.

What is the Shannon-Weaver model of communication?

The Shannon-Weaver communication model, therefore, is a mathematical

communication concept that proposes that communication is a linear, one-way
process that can be broken down into 5 key concepts.

What are the main elements of the Shannon-Weaver communication model?

The main components of this model are:

• Sender,

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 • Encoder,

• Channel,

• Decoder, and

• Receiver.

Shannon and Weaver were also the first to introduce the role of noise in the
communication process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies, John
Fiske defines noise as:

“Anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is
not intended by the source.”

The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation, misspelling an email, or

static on a radio broadcast.

Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver communication model

Since the original version didn’t include it, the principle of feedback was added to the
updated version, so the model provided a more truthful representation of human
interaction.

The concept of feedback was derived from the studies of Norbert Wiener, the so-
called father of cybernetics.

Simply put, feedback is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the sender.

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It allows the speaker to modify their performance according to the reaction of the
audience.

Maybe the most important function of feedback is the fact that it helps the receiver
feel involved in the communication process.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication

Berlo’s model of communication was first defined by David Berlo in his 1960
book The Process of Communication.

This communication model is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of
the key elements in each step.

What is Berlo’s S-M-C-R model of communication?

Simply put, Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model is a linear model of

communication that suggests communication is the transfer of information between 4
basic steps or key elements.

What are the main elements of Berlo’s Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model?

These steps are the following:

1. Source,
2. Message,
3. Channel, and
4. Receiver.

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Step #1: The source
The source or the sender carefully puts their thoughts into words and transfers the
message to the receiver.

With the help of:

• Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good

communication skills to ensure the communication will be effective. The
speaker should know when to pause, what to repeat, how to pronounce a word,
etc.

• Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even
a great speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a
lasting impression on the receiver(s).

• Knowledge — Here, knowledge does not refer to educational qualifications

but to the clarity of the information that the source wants to transfer to the
receiver.

• Social system — The source should be familiar with the social system in
which the communication process takes place. That would help the source not
to offend anyone.

• Culture — Last but not least, to achieve effective communication, the source
needs to be acquainted with the culture in which the communication encounter
is taking place. This is especially important for cross-cultural communication.

Step #2: The message

The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into words.

Here are the key factors of the message:

• Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.

• Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully

understood. That is why other elements have to be taken into account:
gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc.

• Treatment — The way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of
the importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.

• Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the
receiver will understand it correctly.

• Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do
not want your message to get distorted and misinterpreted.

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Step #3: The channel
To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the channel.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R communication model identifies all our senses are the channels that
help us communicate with one another.

Our sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us.

Through our sense of taste, we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we
are eating.

Our sense of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving.

We decide whether we like a certain perfume or not by smelling it.

By touching the water we feel whether it is too cold for a swim.

Step #4: The receiver

A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the conveyed
message.

To understand the message, the receiver should involve the same elements as the
source. They should have similar communication skills, attitudes, and knowledge, and
be acquainted with the social system and culture in which they communicate.

Interactive models of communication

Interactive models are used in internet-based and mediated communication such as

telephone conversations, letters, etc.

What is an interactive model of communication?

As more dynamic models, interactive communication models refer to two-way

communication with feedback.

However, feedback within interactive communication models is not simultaneous, but

rather slow and indirect.

What are the main elements of interactive communication models?

The main elements of these models, illustrated in the interactive communication

model diagram, include the following:

• Sender,

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 • Message,

• Receiver,

• Feedback, and

• Field of experience.

Field of experience

The field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal
history.

All of these factors influence how the sender constructs a message, as well as how the
receiver interprets it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into
communication situations.

5. The Osgood-Schramm model of communication

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications, Denis
Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear
break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.”

What is the Osgood-Schramm model of communication?

The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of communication, in which

messages go in two directions between encoding and decoding.

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As such, this model is useful for describing synchronous, interpersonal
communication, but less suitable for cases with little or no feedback.

Interestingly, in the Osgood-Schramm communication model, there is no difference

between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are equally encoding and decoding
the messages. The interpreter is the person trying to understand the message at that
moment.

What are the main principles and steps in the communication process according
to this model?

The Osgood-Schramm communication model proposes 4 main principles of

communication:

1. Communication is circular. — Individuals involved in the communication

process are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
2. Communication is equal and reciprocal. — Both parties are equally engaged
as encoders and decoders.
3. The message requires interpretation. — The information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.
4. As shown in the Osgood-Schramm communication model diagram below, this
model proposes 3 steps in the process of communication:

• Encoding,

• Decoding, and

• Interpreting.

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6. The Westley and Maclean model of communication
The next interactive communication model on our list is the Westley and Maclean
model of communication.

This communication model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.

What is the Westley and Maclean communication model?

The Westley and Maclean communication model suggests that the communication
process does not start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.

This model also takes into account the object of the orientation (background, culture,
and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of messages.

The very process of communication, according to this communication model, starts

with environmental factors that influence the speaker — the culture or society the
speaker lives in, whether the speaker is in a public or private space, etc.

What are the main elements of the Westley and Maclean communication model?

This model consists of 9 crucial components:

1. Environment (X),
2. Sensory experience (X¹),
3. Source/Sender (A),
4. The object of the orientation of the source (X²),
5. Receiver (B),
6. The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³),
7. Feedback (F),
8. Gatekeepers (C), and
9. Opinion leaders.

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 Transactional communication models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models, which first
introduce a new term for senders and receivers — communicators.

What is a transactional communication model?

Transactional communication models view communication as a transaction, meaning

that it is a cooperative process in which communicators co-create the process of
communication, thereby influencing its outcome and effectiveness.

In other words, communicators create shared meaning in a dynamic process.

In other words, communication helps us establish our realities.

These models also introduced the roles of:

• Social,

• Relational, and

• Cultural contexts.

Moreover, these models acknowledge that there are barriers to effective

communication — noise.

What are the main elements of transactional communication models?

If we take a look at the transactional communication model diagram below, we can

identify the key components of this communication model:

• Encoding,

• Decoding,

• Communicators,

• The message,

• The channel, and

• Noise.

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7. Barnlund’s transactional model of communication
Barnlund’s transactional communication model explores interpersonal, immediate-
feedback communication.

What is Barnlund’s transactional communication model?

Barnlund’s model of communication recognizes that communication is a circular

process and a multi-layered feedback system between the sender and the
receiver, both of whom can affect the message being sent.

The sender and the receiver change their places and are equally important. Feedback
from the sender is the reply for the receiver, and both communicators provide
feedback.

At the same time, both sender and receiver are responsible for the communication’s
effect and effectiveness.

What are the main elements of Barnlund’s communication model?

Barnlund’s transactional communication model diagram below illustrates the

following main components of this communication model:

• Encoding,

• Decoding,

• Communicators,

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 • The message (including the cues, environment, and noise), and

• The channel.

This model accentuates the role of cues in impacting our messages.

So, Barnlund differentiates between:

• Public cues (environmental cues),

• Private cues (person’s personal thoughts and background), and

• Behavioral cues (person’s behavior, that can be verbal and nonverbal).

8. Dance’s Helical model of communication

According to Dance’s Helical model of communication, with every cycle of

communication, we expand our circle.

Therefore, each communication encounter is different from the previous one because
communication never repeats itself.

What is Dance’s Helical communication model?

Dance’s Helical communication model views communication as a circular process

that gets more and more complex as communication progresses.

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That is why it is represented by a helical spiral in the Dance’s Helical communication
model diagram below.

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