Four Basic
Concepts
Sets, Functions, Relations, Binary Operations
Engr. Eldrick M. Fonollera
Relations
● A relation between two sets is any pairing of elements from one
set with elements of another set. An ordered pair is represented as
(INPUT, OUTPUT).
● Formally, if we have two sets A and B, a relation from A to B is a
subset of the Cartesian product AxB.
● Let A={1,2} and B={x,y}. Then, R={(1,x),(2,y),(2,x)} is a relation
from A to B.
Practical Examples of Relations
● Each student (input) is linked to a specific grade (output) such as in a
class, we might have a relation like {(Alice, A), (Bob, B), (Charlie, A)}.
● The cost of filling a car's fuel tank is related to the amount of fuel
purchased. This can be represented as {(10 liters, $20), (20 liters,
$40)}, where the cost is directly proportional to the amount of fuel.
● Family relationships such as parent-child or siblings are also relations.
For instance, {(John, Mike), (Sarah, Anna)} where each pair shows the
parent-child relationship.
Functions
● A function is a specific type of relation with a rule that assigns each
element in one set (domain) to exactly one element in another set
(range). For a relation to be a function, no element in the domain
can be associated with more than one element in the range.
● Example: Let A={1,2,3} and B={4,5,6}. A function from A to B could
be f={(1,4),(2,5),(3,6)}
All functions are relations but all relations are not functions.
Mapping Diagram
one-to-one mapping many-to-one mapping
Relations or Functions?
Consider this that converts temperatures from Celsius to
Fahrenheit using the formula f(x)=1.8x+32, where x= is the
temperature in Celsius.
Relations or Functions?
Consider a function that converts temperatures from Celsius to
Fahrenheit using the formula f(x)=1.8x+32, where x= is the
temperature in Celsius.
ANSWER: Yes, this is a function because each input temperature in Celsius has one
unique corresponding Fahrenheit value.
Relations or Functions?
Imagine a scenario where students are paired with their favorite
subjects: Student A likes Math and Science. Student B likes
English. Student C likes Science and Art.
Relations or Functions?
Imagine a scenario where students are paired with their favorite
subjects: Student A likes Math and Science. Student B likes
English. Student C likes Science and Art.
ANSWER: No, this is just a relation. Some students (like Student A) have more than
one favorite subject, meaning they are linked to multiple outputs.
Relations or Functions?
Suppose each employee at a company is assigned a unique ID
number: Employee X has ID 101. Employee Y has ID 102.
Employee Z has ID 103.
Relations or Functions?
Suppose each employee at a company is assigned a unique ID
number: Employee X has ID 101. Employee Y has ID 102.
Employee Z has ID 103.
ANSWER: Yes, this is a function. Each employee is assigned exactly one unique ID
number, fulfilling the requirement that each input has only one output.
Relations or Functions?
Relations or Functions?
ANSWER: The mapping is called one-to-many relation.One-to-many relations are
NOT functions.
Relations or Functions?
Relations or Functions?
ANSWER: The vertical line test can be used to
determine whether a graph represents a function. If we
can draw any vertical line that intersects a graph more
than once, then the graph does not define a function.
Thus, this is NOT a function.
Use the vertical line test to identify functions
Relations or Functions?
Relations or Functions?
ANSWER: Yes, this is a function. This creates a linear graph
Relations or Functions?
Relations or Functions?
ANSWER: Yes, this is a function. This creates a parabolic graph
Evaluating Functions
Evaluating Functions
Mathematical Reasoning
Mathematical reasoning is the process
of using logical thinking and structured
analysis to draw conclusions, make
predictions, and solve problems based on
given information and established
mathematical principles.
Types of Mathematical Reasoning
● Inductive reasoning is characterized by drawing a general conclusion
(making a conjecture) from repeated observations of specific examples.
The conjecture may or may not be true.
● A conjecture is an educated guess based upon repeated observations of
a particular process or pattern.
● In testing a conjecture obtained by inductive reasoning, it takes only one
example that does not work in order to prove the conjecture false. Such
an example is called a counterexample.
Example Problems
Every number that is a multiple of 10 is divisible by 4
True or False?
Example Problems
Every number that is a multiple of 10 is divisible by 4
True or False?
ANSWER: False
Example Problems
Every number that is a multiple of 10 is divisible by 4
True or False?
ANSWER: False. Because 110 is multiple of 10 but not
divisible by 4. An example of counterexample.
Example Problems
For all numbers of x
True or False?
Example Problems
For all numbers of x
True or False?
ANSWER: False. Let x be 1 and the answer is equals to 1
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 23
ANSWER: 27
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21
ANSWER: 34
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
1, 2, 4, 8, 16
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
1, 2, 4, 8, 16
ANSWER: 32
Example Problems
Consider the list of equations in the margin. Use the list to
predict the next multiplication fact in the list.
37 × 3 = 111
37 × 6 = 222
37 × 9 = 333
37 × 12 = 444
Example Problems
Consider the list of equations in the margin. Use the list to
predict the next multiplication fact in the list.
37 × 3 = 111
37 × 6 = 222
37 × 9 = 333
37 × 12 = 444
ANSWER: 37 × 15 = 555
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
2, 9, 16, 23, 30
Example Problems
Use inductive reasoning to determine the probable next number
in each list below.
2, 9, 16, 23, 30
ANSWER: 7
Inductive reasoning provides a powerful method of
drawing conclusions, but it is also important to
realize that there is no assurance that the observed
conjecture will always be true.
For this reason, mathematicians are reluctant to
accept a conjecture as an absolute truth until it is
formally proved using methods of deductive
reasoning.
Types of Mathematical Reasoning
● Deductive reasoning is characterized by applying general
principles to specific examples.
● There are three major types of deductive reasoning we can
use to test deductions: syllogism, modus ponens, and
modus tollens.
Syllogism
Syllogism is probably the most simple of the 3 types of deductive
reasoning. In simplest terms syllogism states that if A=B and B=C,
then A=C. It takes two separate clauses and connects them
together.
A more creative example would be: a puma is a cat, cats are
mammals, therefore pumas are mammals.
Modus Ponens
A modus ponens is when a deduction is
presented as a conditional statement,
proven by subsequent clauses: the
antecedent and consequent.
For example: Every player on the Boston
Celtics is between the ages of 21 and 31.
Jayson Tatum is on the Boston Celtics,
therefore he must be between 21 and 31.
Modus Tollens
A modus tollens is the opposite of
a modus ponens. Whereas the
latter affirms a conditional
statement, the former refutes it.
For example: The freezing point of
water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit. It’s
hotter than 32 degrees Fahrenheit,
so water will not freeze.
Example Problems
Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded.
Premise 2: All whales are mammals.
Based on these premises, what can we conclude about
whales?
Example Problems
Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded.
Premise 2: All whales are mammals.
Based on these premises, what can we conclude about
whales?
ANSWER: Syllogism. Whales are warm-blooded.
Example Problems
Premise 1: If it rains, the ground will be wet.
Premise 2: It is raining.
What can we conclude based on these premises?
Example Problems
Premise 1: If it rains, the ground will be wet.
Premise 2: It is raining.
What can we conclude based on these premises?
ANSWER: By modus ponens, we can conclude that the
ground will be wet.
Example Problems
Premise 1: If a plant receives sunlight, it will grow.
Premise 2: The plant did not grow.
What can we conclude about the plant receiving sunlight?
Example Problems
Premise 1: If a plant receives sunlight, it will grow.
Premise 2: The plant did not grow.
What can we conclude about the plant receiving sunlight?
ANSWER: By modus tollens, we can conclude that the
plant did not receive sunlight.
Example Problems
Refer to the figure given
and identify which of the
following statements are
correct.
Example Problems
Refer to the figure given
and identify which of the
following statements are
correct.
ANSWER: Statements 1, 2,
and 4 are correct
statements
Example Problems
● As per given data, ∠x is present on both
Line A and Line B. That is, it is a
corresponding angle. Since it is on the same
side of the transversal line C, Line A is
parallel to Line B. Statement 1 is true.
● ∠x and ∠y and form a pair of alternate
angles. Hence ∠x = ∠y. Statement 2 is
true.
● If ∠x = ∠y, the only way for Statement 3 to
be correct is when ∠x = 90°. Since that is
not the case in the given figure Statement 3
is false.
● ∠x and ∠z form a linear pair. Their sum
always equals 180⁰. Therefore,∠x + ∠z =
180°. Statement 4 is true.
