Simple Electrical Circuit Theory UNIT 1V

INTRODUCTION

Electrical circuit theory is the starting point for a beginning student

in electrical engineering education. It is also valuable to students
specializing in other branches of the physical sciences because circuits are good
model for the study of energy systems and because of the applied mathematics,
physics and topology involved. Power, Electric machines, control, electronics,
communications and instrumentations are all based on circuit theory. Kirchhoff’s Law

for current and voltage lie at the heart of circuit analysis. It is important to learn how
to analyze circuits because those techniques makes short work of simple circuits, it

will deepens your insight into how a circuit works and you will develop your ability to
look at a schematic and see the circuit work in your mind.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish the differences between nodes, loops and mesh.

2. Apply Kirchhoff’s Law
3. Analyze and solve D.C networks by applying various laws and theorems.
 NODES, BRANCHES, LOOPS
AND
MESH OF A CIRCUIT
Node
– is a point where terminal of two or more circuit elements are
connected together.

Branch
– are connections between two nodes. It is an element such as resistor, capacitor,
source, etc. The number of branches in a circuit is equal to the number of elements

6 branches
 NODES, BRANCHES, LOOPS
AND
MESH OF A CIRCUIT
Loop
- is any closed path going through circuit elements A loop can
pass through a node only one time. It is ok if loops overlap or
contain other loops.

Mesh
- is a single closed loop series path that does not contain any other paths. There are
no loops inside a mesh.

Ia Ib

Ic

By KVL: For loop i1:

V1 – i1 (R1 + R3) – i2R3 = 0

For loop i2:

V2 – i2 (R2 + R3) – i1R3 = 0

Note: Mesh currents Ia and Ib are evaluated by simultaneous

substitutions of the equations formulated from each loop or mesh
using KVL.
Network Laws and Theorems

1. KIRCHOFF’S LAW
- applicable to AC and DC circuits

Sign Conventions for Kirchhoff’s Law:

Current towards the node, positive current.
Current away from the node, negative current.
In a voltage source , if loop enters on minus and goes out on plus, positive emf.
In a voltage source, if loop enters on plus and goes out on minus, negative emf.
In a resistance, if the loop direction is the same as the current direction, negative
resistance voltage drop.
In a resistance, if the loop direction is opposite to the current direction, positive
resistance voltage drop.
Network Laws and Theorems

2. Maxwell Mesh Method (Mesh Current Method)

- is a current that flows in a mesh.
- this method is used if a circuit has a larger number of
voltage sources and few numbers of current sources.
- applicable to planar circuit (simple and no crossover) or a loop which does not
contain any other inner loop.
- to identify the number of equations, use this formula: no. of branch – (n-1)
- best suitable for current sources

PLANAR CIRCUIT

3. Superposition Theorem
- is used when a circuit has a multiple inputs or multiple power sources and if a
circuit is made of linear elements. When Linear circuit has multiple inputs,
suppress the voltage source, replace it with a short circuit or suppress the
current source, replace it with an open circuit.
- applicable in AC and DC circuit wherein it helps construct Thevenin’s and
Norton equivalent circuit
Linear elements – ideal resistor creates a linear relationship between voltage and
current. If the voltage is voltage, the current doubles and vice versa.
- only independent sources are considered while using superposition theorem.
Dependent sources are never deactivated while using this theorem.
- Applicable to current and voltage
Network Laws and Theorems

4. Nodal Node Method

- this method is used in determining the voltage (potential
difference) between “nodes” points where elements or branches
connect) in an electrical circuit in terms of the branch currents.
- applicable when the number of principal nodes (except reference node) is less
than the number of meshes of any electrical circuit.
- mainly based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law

5. Thevenin’s Method
- is an analytical method used to change complex circuits that has one or more
voltage or current source and resistors that are arranged in parallel and series
connections into a simple equivalent circuit consisting of a single resistance in
series with a source voltage.
- this method is not as powerful as Mesh Current Analysis or Nodal Voltage
Analysis in larger networks because the use of Mesh or Nodal analysis is
usually necessary in any Thevenin’s exercise.
- Thevenin’s voltage is equal to open circuit voltage.

6. Norton’s Theorem
- states that “any two terminal linear network or circuit can be
represented with an equivalent network or circuit, which consists of a current
source in parallel with a resistor.
- similar to Thevenin’s Theorem, the Norton equivalent does not take into account
the resistance of the load but looks at the entire circuit. It simplifies all the power
sources into a single current source and all resistors into a single equivalent
resistor (in parallel with the current source).
- Nortons’ current is equal to short circuit current.
 Network Laws and Theorems

7. Millman’s Theorem
- this method is applicable only to solve the parallel branch with
one impedance or resistance connected to voltage or current source.
The voltage source can be converted into current sources by transformation of
sources.
- act’s as a very strong tool in case of simplifying the special type of complex
electrical circuit.

8. Source Transformation Method

- replacing one source by an equivalent source. A practical voltage source can be
transformed into an equivalent practical current source and similarly a practical
current source into voltage source.
- this method is a bilateral
a. Voltage source in series with a resistor is replaced by a current source in
parallel with the same resistor.
b. Current source in parallel with a resistor is replaced by a voltage source in
series with the same resistor.
- are easy to compute using Ohm’s Law.

9. Maximum Power Transfer Method

- states that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance
if it is equal in value to the Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network
supplying the power.
- this method does not satisfy the goal of maximum efficiency.

Remember!
All theorems are based on the basic rules governing the
field of electronics, namely, Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Law.
 KIRCHOFF’S LAW

Govern the conservation of charge and energy in electrical

circuits and describe the current in a node and voltage around
a loop which serves as the foundation of advanced circuit analysis

CURRENT LAW (KCL) or JUNCTION RULE

- Algebraic sum of the currents at any junction or node of an electric circuit is zero.

I1 = I 2 + I 3

- The sum of currents entering the junction are equal to the sum of currents leaving.
This implies that the current is conserved (no loss of current).

VOLTAGE LAW (KVL) or CLOSE LOOP RULE

Algebraic sum of the emf’s and the resistance voltage drops in any closed loop of an
electric circuit is zero.
 EXAMPLE :
APPLYING KIRCHHOFF’S LAW

Find the current flowing in the 40 Ω resistor, R3

Solution:
The circuit has 5 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.

Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) :

At node A : At node B:
I1 + I 2 = I 3 I3 = I 1 + I 2

Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL):

Loop 1 : Loop 2: Loop 3:

10 = R1I1 + R3I3 20 = R2I2 + R3I3 10-20 = 10I1 – 20I2
10 = 10I1 + 40I3 20 = 20I2 + 40I3 -10 = 10I1 – 20I2

From node A : I1 + I2 = I3, we can rewrite the equation as:

Equation no. 1: Equation no. 2

10 = 10I1 + 40I3 20 = 20I2 + 40I3
10 = 10I1 + 40 (I1 + I2) 20 = 20I2 + 40 (I1 + I2)

Substitute of I1 in terms of I2:

I1 = -0.143 A (negative sign means the direction of current flow initially chosen was
wrong, but never the less still valid)

Substitute of I2 in terms of I1:

I2 = 0.429 A

I3 = I 1 + I 2 E3 = I3R3
I3 = -0.143 A + 0.429 A E3 = (0.286 x 40)
I3 = 0.286 A E3 = 11.44 volts
 Network Laws and Theorems

MAXWELL’S MESH METHOD (Mesh Current Method)

Involves set of independent loop currents assigned to as many
meshes as it exist in the circuit and these currents are employed in
connection with appropriate resistances when the KVL are written.

I1 R1 R2 I2

I3
+ +
E1 Loop A R3 Loop B E2
- -
Ia Ib
Summation of voltage
Polarity sign
BY KVL:

For loop A:
E1 – V 1 – V 3 = 0
E1 – Ia (R1 + R3) – IbR3 = 0

For loop B:
E2 – V 2 – V 3 = 0
E2 – Ib (R2+ R3)– IaR3 = 0

Remember!

1. Assign mesh currents Ia, Ib to the n meshes. Current direction need to be the same
in all meshes either clockwise or anticlockwise.

2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use ohm’s law to express the voltage in terms
of the mesh currents

3. Mesh currents I1 and I2 are evaluated by simultaneous substitutions of the equations

formulated from each loop or mesh using KVL.
 Example:
Maxwell Mesh Method

Solve for the current flowing in R1, R2,R3 and voltages Va, Vb, Vc.

I1 R1=9Ω I2 R2=8Ω
Vb Vc
Va
I3
+ I=5A
E1= 90V Loop A Loop B
-
R3=6Ω
Ia Ib

BY KVL:

For loop A:
E1 – V 1 – V 3 = 0
E1 – Ia R1 – (Ia – Ib)R3 = 0
90 – 9Ia – 6(Ia – Ib) = 0
90 – 15Ia +6 Ib = 0

❶
- sign indicates only the
direction of current

Substitute Ib in ❶
 Example:
Maxwell Mesh Method

Solve for the Power being delivered to E1.

Is = 4mA

Ic
Is

R1=2KΩ R4=6KΩ

IR1
R2=4KΩ
+ +
E1= 16V Loop A Loop B E2= 8V
- -
Ia Ib

R3=8KΩ

Ic = Is = 4mA
BY KVL:

Loop A: E1 – VR1 – VR2 – VR3 = 0

16 – (Ia-Ic)(2000) – (Ia+Ib)(4000) – Ia(8000) = 0

16 – 2000Ia + (2000)(4/1000) – 4000Ia – 4000Ib – 8000Ia=0
24 – 14000Ia – 4000Ib = 0

Loop B: E2 – VR4 – VR2 = 0

8 – (Ib+Ic)(6000) – (Ia+Ib)(4000) = 0
8 – 6000Ib – (6000)(4/1000) – 4000Ia – 4000Ib = 0
-16 - 10000Ib – 4000Ia = 0

❷
 Example:
Maxwell Mesh Method

Substitute ❷ in ❶

❶ ❷
 Network Laws and Theorems

SUPERPOSITION METHOD
In a network, the current in any resistor is equal to the algebraic
sum of the currents delivered by each independent sources assuming
that each source is acting alone or independently with respect to the others.
R1 R2

I1 I2
+ +
E1 R3 E2
- -
I3

Remember!
If a source (either a current or voltage source) is acting alone, the other current
sources are open circuited while the other voltage sources are short circuited.

STEP 1 : If E1 is acting alone

R1 R2
V1

I1’ I2’
+ E1 R3
-
I3’

STEP 2: If E2 is acting alone

R1 R2
V1
I1” I2”
+ E2
R3
-
I3”
Network Laws and Theorems

SUPERPOSITION METHOD

R2

+
Req E2
-

Remember!

The currents I1’, I2’, I3’, I1”, I2”, I3” are evaluated using basic electric circuit principles
EXAMPLE:
SUPERPOSITION METHOD

Find the current flowing through 20Ω resistor.

5Ω 10Ω

+ 10Ω 20Ω 4A
E1= 20V -

STEP 1 : If voltage source is acting alone, eliminate 4A current source by open

circuit.
Use Nodal Analysis Method.
5Ω 10Ω
V1

I’

20V + 10Ω 20Ω

-

STEP 2 : If current source is acting alone, eliminate 20V voltage source by

making short circuit. Solve for the equivalent resistance.
5Ω 10Ω A
V1

10Ω 20Ω 4A

B
EXAMPLE:
SUPERPOSITION METHOD

Equivalent Resistance

I”
20Ω Is=4A

By Current Division Theorem

STEP 3: Add the two currents in step 1 and 2 to get current flowing at 20Ω.
 Network Laws and Theorems

NODAL NODE METHOD

Using this method, a circuit with “n” nodes, has a solution with only
“n-1” number of equations needed.

I1 I3 I5
a b

R1 R3 R5
I2 I4
E1 + + E2
R2 R4
- -

Common node

Remember!
Since there are three (n=3) nodes in the circuit, therefore only two equations are
needed to solve this problem

By KCL at node a: I1 = I2 + I3 By KCL at node b: I4 = I3 + I5

Node voltages Va and Vb are evaluated by simultaneous substitutions of the equations

formulated using KCL and correspondingly, currents flowing through each resistances
can be solved.
 Network Laws and Theorems

NODAL NODE METHOD

I1 I3 I5

R1 R3 R5
I2 I4
E1 + R2 R4
+ E2
- -

Common node

Steps:
1. Note all connected wire segments in the circuit. These are the nodes of nodal
analysis
2. Select one node as the ground reference. The choice does not affect the result and
is just a matter of convention. Choosing the node with most connections can simplify
the analysis.
3. Assign variable for each node whose voltage is unknown. If the voltage is already
known, it is not necessary to assign a variable.
4. For arch unknown voltage, form an equation based on Kirchhoff’s current law.
Basically, add together all currents leaving from the node and mark the sum equal
to zero.
5. If there are voltage sources between two unknown voltage, join the two nodes as a
super node. The currents of the two nodes are combined in a single equation and a
new equation for the voltages is formed.
6. Solve the system of simultaneous equations for each unknown voltage.
 EXAMPLE:
NODAL NODE METHOD

V1 500Ω V2 500Ω V3

I1 500Ω 1kΩ 500Ω I2

1 2 3
Common node

V=0

Currents and Node Voltages

V1 500Ω V2 V1

500Ω

KCL at Node 1 KCL at Node 2

V1 V2
V1 500Ω V2 500Ω V3

500Ω 1kΩ
I1
2

500Ω
V3
KCL at Node 3

500Ω I2

3
Network Laws and Theorems

THEVENIN’S METHOD
If a resistor of R ohms be connected between any two terminals
of a linear network, the resulting steady state current through the
resistor is the ratio of the potential difference Eo (between the
two points prior to the connection) and the sum of the values of the
resistance Ro (resistance between the two points) and the connected resistance
R.
R1 R2

I1 I2
+ E1 + E2
R3
- -
I3

Step 1: Open the load resistor and solve for the voltage across the open circuited
terminal.
R1 R2

I1 I2
+ E1 + + E2
Eo
- -
-
I3

Eo is computed using any methods (Kirchhoff’s, Maxwell, Nodal) of analyzing network

problems.
 Network Laws and Theorems

Step 2: Compute Ro (short circuit all independent voltage sources

And open all independent current sources.

R1 R2

+
Ro
-

Ro is computed using the basic principles of finding the total resistance of a given
circuit.

Step 3: Construct the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit and solve the resulting current.

Ro R3

I3
+ Eo
-
 EXAMPLE:
THEVENIN’S METHOD

Solve for Io.

-1A

3V + 6Ω
-
2Ω 3Ω

5Ω Io

Step 1: Open the load resistor

-1A

+
3V +
6Ω 2Ω Voc
-

5Ω -

Step 2: Find the equivalent circuit containing an independent voltage source in series
with the resistor
RTH From the original diagram:
I2Ω = -1A

Therefore:
VTH +
3Ω Voc = VTH = V2Ω=I2ΩR
- Voc = VTH = V2Ω= -1(2) = -2V
Io

Step 3: Find the equivalent resistant, RTH by short circuit the voltage source, open
circuit the current source.

6Ω 2Ω RTH

5Ω
 EXAMPLE:
THEVENIN’S METHOD

Since 6Ω is short circuited and the 5Ω is open circuited, their

current is zero, and RTH is 2Ω

OR

By Current Division Theorem (CDT):

 Network laws and theorems

NORTON’S METHOD
- this theorem is analogous to Thevenin’s theorem except that
instead of the open circuit test, this theorem uses the short circuit test and the
equivalent circuit is a parallel circuit.
- is a way to reduce a network to an equivalent circuit composed of a
single current source, parallel resistance and parallel load.

Solve for I1

R1 R2

I1
+ E1 + E2
R3
- -

Step 1: Short circuit R1 and solve the short circuit current that flows the branch.

R2

Isc
+ E1 + E2
R3
- -

Isc is computed using any methods (Kirchhoff’s, Maxwell, Nodal, etc..) of analyzing
network problems
 Network laws and theorems

Step 2: Compute Ro
Ro R2

+ E2
R3
-

Ro is computed using the basic principles of finding the total resistance of a given circuit.

Step 3: Construct the Norton’s equivalent circuit and solve for I1.

I
ISC R1

1. Find the Norton source current by removing the load resistor from the original circuit and
calculating the current through a short (wire) jumping across the open connection points
where the load resistor used to be.
2. Find the Norton resistance by removing all power sources in the original circuit (voltage
sources shorted and current sources open) and calculating total resistance between the
open connection points
3. Draw the Norton equivalent circuit, with the Norton current source in parallel with the
Norton resistance. The load resistor re-attaches between the two open points of the
equivalent circuit.
4. Analyze voltage and current for the load resistor following the rules for parallel circuits.
 EXAMPLE:
NORTON’S THEOREM

Find RN, IN, the current flowing through and load voltage across
the load resistor.
R1=2Ω R2=3Ω

+ 12V RL =1.5Ω
R3=6Ω
-

Step 1: Short 1.5 Ω load resistor

R1=2Ω R2=3Ω
A

IN=ISC
+ 12V
R3=6Ω
-

Step 2: Calculate the current short circuited IN. The 3Ω and 6Ω are then in parallel
and in series with 2Ω.

By Current Division Theorem:

 EXAMPLE:
NORTON’S THEOREM

Step 3: Open current sources, short voltage sources and open

load resistor.
R1=2Ω R2=3Ω
A

R3=6Ω

B
Step 4: Calculate the open circuit resistance (RN). The 3Ω resistor is in series with the
parallel 6Ω and 2Ω resistors.
R1=2Ω R2=3Ω
A

R3=6Ω

Step 5: Connect the RN in parallel with current source IN and re-connect the load resistor.

2A RN=4.5Ω

B
 EXAMPLE:
NORTON’S THEOREM

Step 6: Calculate the load current through and load voltage

across load resistor by Ohm’s law.
A

IL
2A RN=4.5Ω RL =1.5Ω

Load voltage across load resistor

 Network laws and theorems

MILLMAN’S METHOD
When any number of voltage sources of arbitrary generated voltage
and finite internal resistance different from zero are connected in
parallel, the resulting voltage across the parallel combination is the
ratio of the algebraic sum of the currents that each source individually delivers when
short circuited to the algebraic sum of the internal conductance.

Example: Solve for I1, I2, and I3

I1 I2 a

R1 I3 R2

R3
+ +
E1 E2
- -
b

Millman’s Equivalent Circuit:

R1 R2 Rn

+ + +
E1 E2 En
- - -
b
 EXAMPLE:
MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Find the current through load resistance where RL = 8Ω.

48V IL
8Ω
10A 24Ω RL =8Ω
12Ω
24V

Simplify the circuit. Solve the load current IL and voltage terminal VE by Ohm’s Law.

RTH IL

8Ω
+ VE
-
Network laws and theorems

SOURCE TRANSFORMATION METHOD

- is a circuit analysis technique in which we transform voltage
source in series with resistor into a current source in parallel
with the resistor and vice versa.

- this method simplifies the number of meshes in the network and

thus simplifies the number of equation needed.

Voltage source to current source

Rg
Ig Rg
+
Eg
-

Current source to voltage source

Rg
Ig Rg
+ IgRg
-

Remember!

Source Transformation is not applicable :

1. When voltage source has zero resistance
2. When current source has infinite resistance
Network laws and theorems

Example: Solve for I3

R1 R3

I3

+ E1 R2 R4 Ig
-

Step 1: Transform the voltage and current sources to their equivalents.

R3 R4

I3

Ra + IgR4
R1 R2
-

Step 2: Simplify the parallel branch and transform back the current source to an
equivalent voltage source

Ra R3 R4

I3

+ + IgR4
Loop direction -
-

Step 3: By KVL (using the given loop direction) I3 can then be solved.
EXAMPLE:
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION METHOD

Find Vo.
R1=25Ω

+ E=250V V+o R2=100Ω R3=20Ω

-
-
I=8A

Step 1: Convert 250V voltage source into 10A current source and R1 to parallel

I1=10A R1=25Ω V+o R2=100Ω R3=20Ω

I=8A -

Step 2: Combine both current source.

I1=2A R1=25Ω V+o R2=100Ω R3=20Ω

-
EXAMPLE:
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION METHOD

Step 3: Add resistance in parallel

I1=2A R1=25Ω V+o R2=100Ω R3=20Ω

-

I1=2A V+o Rt=10Ω

-
Network laws and theorems

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER METHOD

Maximum power transferred to a load resistor occurs only when
the said resistor has a value equal to the resistance (Ro) of the
network looking back from the load terminals.

This method ensure that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load
resistance when the value of the load resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the
power source.

Thevenins Equivalent Circuit: RTH = RL

RTH a

+ VTH RL
-

Remember!

The load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be equal in value
to the equivalent. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the thevenin’s
source resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be les than the
maximum.
Network laws and theorems

RTH = 25Ω
RL = variable between 0-100Ω
RTH a
VTH = 100V

Using Ohm’s Law Equation:

+ VTH RL
-

RTH = RL b

RL(Ω) Ampere (A) Power (Watts)

0 4 0

10 2.8 78

20 2.2 97

25 2 100

30 1.8 97

40 1.5 94

60 1.2 83

100 0.8 64

https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_9.html
EXAMPLE:
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER METHOD

Find the maximum power that can be delivered to the load RL.

5Ω 10Ω
a

+ 20V 10Ω RL
-
4A

b
Step 1: Open circuit R, short circuit all independent voltage sources and open all
independent current courses
5Ω 10Ω
a

10Ω Ro

5Ω 10Ω
c a

I1 I3 I2
KCL:
I1 + I 2 - I 3 = 0 + 20V 10Ω
-
4A

b
d 0V
EXAMPLE:
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER METHOD

RL = RTH = 40/3 Ω
VTH = 200/3 V
RTH a
IL = 4 A
I
Using Ohm’s Law Equation:
+ VTH RL
-

b
METHOD BEST TO USE:

Mesh Method or Nodal Node Method

Node number (N)

1. Count number of nodes in the circuit.
2. Subtract 1 for ground.
3. Subtract for each voltage source which has a connection (+ or -) to the ground.
4. Add 1 for each voltage source which has no connection to ground.

Mesh number (M)

1. Count number of meshes in the circuit.
2. Subtract 1 for each current source which is located in an outside branch of a
mesh.
3. Add 1 each current source which is located in an interior branch (shared between
two meshes.

If N < M, the node-voltage method should have less math.

If M > N, the mesh-current method should have less math.