Introduction to Internet of Things (IoT)

Course Code: BETCK105H

MODULE -1
Basics of Networking & Emergence of IoT

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 Chapter 1: Basics of networking
Definition: Computer networking refers to the linking of computers and communication network
devices (also referred to as hosts), which interconnect through a network that can exchange data & share
resourceswith each other.

Figure 1: Simple computer network

Basic components of computer networks: The main network components are:
➢ Computer (clients, servers)
➢ Channels (wired or wireless)
➢ Interface or connecting devices (Router, Switch, etc)
➢ Software (Protocols, System Software, Application Software, etc.)

Figure 2: Basic components of computer network

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Importance of Computer networks: Today’s world relies heavily on data and networking, which allows
forthe instant availability of information from anywhere on the earth at any moment. Presently world
depends on data and information-centric operations, everything right from agriculture to military
operations relies heavily on information. The main contributions of networks might make in economic
productivity, healthcare, education, quality of life etc.
The main features/advantages of computer networks are
➢ Cost-effective resource sharing.
➢ Fast and reliable way of sharing information and resources.
➢ Streamline communication
➢ Provides secured and authorized data storage.
➢ Provides remote access to data. etc.

Network Types: Computer networks are classified according to various parameters. They are
a) Type of connection.
b) Physical topology.
c) Reach of the network.
Type of Connection: There are two types of connection used. They are
1. Point-to-point
2. Point-to-multipoint.

Point-to-point: This type is used to establish direct connections between two devices, for example, a
remotecontrol for an AC or TV. The connected channel is dedicated to it only. These networks were
designed to work over duplex links and are functional for both synchronous as well as asynchronous
systems. These types of connected networks usage for specific applications.

Figure 2: Network connection type: Point to Point

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2. Point-to-Multipoint: In this connection type, more than two computers (hosts) share the same link as
shown in figure 3. It finds popular use in wireless networks. Multiple access technology like frequency
division multiple access (FDMA), Time division multiple access (TDMA) are used to share the channel
bymany hosts simultaneously. This connection finds popular use in enabling communication between
massivenumbers of connected devices.

Figure 3: Network connection type: Point to multipoint

Physical topology: Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. Network topologies are often represented as a graph of the network.
Computernetworks can have the following four broad topologies: Star, Mesh, Bus, and Ring.
(i) Star: In a star topology,
➢ Every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub.
➢ Direct communication cannot be possible between the devices; they can only do so
through thecentral controller.
➢ The hub acts as the network traffic exchange.
➢ Only one link per host as shown in the figure below

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Advantages:
➢ Star topology is simple and easier to install.
➢ Easy fault detection because the link is often easily identified.
➢ Centralized network management, so safe to use.
➢ Itis very reliable — if one cable or device fails then all the others will still
➢ work, and not have a big effect on the network performance.
➢ Itis high-performing as no data collisions can occur
Disadvantages:
➢ Requires more cables than a linear bus, hence expensive.
➢ If the hub fails, the whole network fails.

(ii) Mesh: In a mesh topology,

➢ Every host is connected to every other host using a dedicated link.
➢ This implies that for n devices in a mesh, there are a total of n(n-1)/2 dedicated full
duplex linksbetween the hosts.
➢ Every node features a point-to-point connection to the opposite node. (see fig 5)
➢ The connections within the mesh are often wired or wireless.

Advantages:
➢ More robustness and resilience of the system.
➢ It reduced data load on a single host.
➢ It provides high privacy and security.
➢ Failure during a single device won’t break the network.
➢ Adding new devices won't disrupt data transmissions.
Disadvantages:
➢ More complex and costly topology.
➢ Installation is more difficult in the mesh.

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 ➢ Mesh networks are used very selectively, such as in backbone networks.
➢ Power requirement is higher as all the nodes remain active all the time.
➢ High challenging of maintenance.

(iii) Bus: In bus topology.

➢ Follows the point-to-multipoint connection.
➢ A backbone cable/ bus serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts.
➢ The hosts are connected to the main bus employing drop lines or taps.

Advantages:
➢ Installation is very easy and cheap to expand.
➢ Supports multiple peripherals
➢ Independent work by each device
➢ No hubs or switches are required
Disadvantages:
➢ Difficulty in fault localization within the network.
➢ Size limitations- additional devices slow the network
➢ Limited security options
➢ Less reliable topology.

(iv) Ring: In a ring topology,

➢ Network configuration where device connections create a circular data path.
➢ Works on the principle of a dedicated point-to-point connection.
➢ The repetition of this system forms a ring.
➢ Several repeaters are used for ring topology with a large number of nodes to send data and
prevent dataloss in the network.

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Advantages:
➢ It is cheap to install and expand.
➢ Fault identification is quite straightforward.
➢ Here data flows in one direction will reduce the chance of packet collisions.
➢ Equal access to resources.
Disadvantages:
➢ High probability of a single point of failure.
➢ If even one repeater fails, the whole network goes down.
➢ Difficult to troubleshoot the ring.

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(C) Network reachability: Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on
networkreachability:
1. Personal Area Networks (PAN)
2. Local Area Networks (LAN)
3. Wide Area Networks (WAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

Personal Area Networks (PAN): It is the computer network that connects computers/devices within
the range of a person. It provides a network range within a person’s range typically range of 10 meters.
Examples of PANs may be connected wireless headphones, wireless speakers, printers, laptops,
smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and entertainment devices like speakers, video game
consoles, etc (see fig. 7)

Local Area Networks (LAN): It is a collection of hosts linked to a single network through wired or
wireless connections. LANs are restricted to buildings, organizations, or campuses. LANs cover a range
limited to a few kilometers and are privately owned.

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Commonly used network components in a LAN are servers, hubs, routers, switches, terminals, and
computers. Typically, the data speed of LANs ranges from 10Mbps to 1000 Mbps.

Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): It connects various organizations or buildings within a given
geographic location or city as shown in figure 8.
➢ It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or different cities. An
exampleof a MAN is an Internet service provider (ISP) supplying Internet connectivity to various
organizationswithin a city.
➢ MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in
terms ofMbps.
➢ Typical networking devices/components in MANs are modems and cables.

Wide Area Networks (WAN): It is a collection of local-area networks (LANs) or other networks that
communicate with one another.
➢ WAN is a computer network that extends diverse geographic locations. However, they are
restricted within the boundaries of a state or country. The data rate of WANs is in the order of a
fraction of LAN’sdata rate.
➢ Typically, WANs connecting two LANs or MANs may use public switched telephone
networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based links. Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have
more errors and noise during transmission and are very costly to maintain.
➢ The fault tolerance of WANs is also generally low and moderate speed.

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Layered Network Models: A model is a systematic description of an object or phenomenon that shares
important characteristics. The model is often smaller than
the object it represents.
The network model is a database model conceived as a flexible way of representing objects and their
relationships. In the layered architecture of the Network Model, one whole network process is divided
intosmall tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to process
the task only. Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional layered network models are
1. OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model
2. Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model:

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It is a 7-layer standardized model. This model was developed by ISO (International Standard
Organization). Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. It is a
conceptual framework that partitions any networked communication device into SEVEN layers of
abstraction, each performing distinct tasks based
on the underlying technology and internal structure of the hosts. These seven layers, from bottom-up,
are as follows: (figure 1.3)

1. Physical Layer:
➢ This is a media layer and is also referred to as layer 1 of the OSI model.
➢ This layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and
mechanicaloperations of the host.
➢ It defines the hardware, cabling wiring, signal generation, signal
transfer,voltages, the layout of cables, physical port layout, etc.
➢ This layer is responsible for the topological layout of the network
(star, mesh,bus, or ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex,) and
speed of bit rate.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a “bit”.

2. Data Link Layer:

➢ This layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and
termination of theconnection between two hosts (devices).
➢ This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto the line.
➢ Perform error detection and correction during communication
between two ormore connected hosts.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a “frame”.
➢ This layer is further into TWO sub-layers

a. Medium access control (MAC) Layer: It is responsible for access control and permissions
forconnecting networked devices.

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 b. Logical link control (LLC) Layer: It is responsible for error checking, flow control, and
framesynchronization.

3. Network Layer:
➢ This layer is responsible for address assignment and routing data
to various devices connected to different networks through logical
paths.
➢ These logical paths may pass through other intermediate hosts
(nodes) beforereaching the actual destination host.
➢ The primary tasks of this layer include addressing, sequencing
of packets,congestion control, error handling, and Internetworking.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a “Packet”.

4. Transport Layer:
➢ This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.
➢ Perform error recovery and flow control with acknowledgments for data transfer.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a “datagram”.

5. Session Layer:
➢ This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. Ex. video conference.
➢ It is responsible for establishing, controlling, and terminating communication
between networkedhosts.

6. Presentation Layer:
➢ It is mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption tasks.
➢ Provide syntactic compatibility of the data maintained across the network. This layer is
also referredto as the syntax layer.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as “data”.

7. Application Layer:
➢ This layer is responsible for providing an interface to the application user.
➢ Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file transfer protocol), e-mails, and other such
operations areinitiated from this layer.
➢ This layer encompasses protocols that directly interact with the user.

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 ➢ This layer deals with user authentication, identification of communication hosts, quality
of service,and privacy.
➢ The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as “data”.

The above Table 1.2 Summarizes the OSI Layers & Their Features where PDU stands for the protocol
dataunit.

Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP: Transmission Control Protocol / Internet protocol)

➢ It is a four-layer model. It is derived from the OSI reference model. The TCP/IP model is
created to allow communication over long distances possible between two devices. TCP/IP is
the international standard for internet communication.
➢ The Internet protocol suite is a conceptual framework that provides levels of abstraction for
ease of understanding and development of communication and networked systems on the
Internet. The protocol suite comprises the following 04 layers:

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 1. Link Layer
➢ It is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model. It is also Known as the network interface
layer.
➢ This layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the
OSI referencemodel.
➢ It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
➢ This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices
on the samenetwork.
➢ According to its design principles, the link layer is independent of the medium in use,
frame format,and network access, enabling it to be used with a wide range of technologies such
as the Ethernet,wireless LAN etc.

2. Internet Layer:
➢ An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model. An internet layer is also known as
the network layer. It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassemblyand assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking operations.
➢ The protocols associated with this layer are
➢ Internet Protocol (IP)
➢ Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
➢ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
➢ Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP).

3. Transport Layer:
➢ The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, segmentation, flow control, and error
control of data that is being sent over the network.
➢ The two main protocols of this layer are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) to take care of connection-oriented or connectionless services
respectively between two or more hosts or networked devices.

4. Application Layer:
➢ An application layer is a topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.
➢ This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying layers and
➢ defines the protocols for the transfer of data.
➢ The core protocols associated with this layer are
➢ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

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 ➢ File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
➢ Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
➢ Domain Name System (DNS)
➢ Routing Information Protocol (RIP Etc.
A networked communication between two hosts following the TCP/IP model is shown in the Figure
1.4below

Comparison / Difference between OSI and TCP/IP model

OSI TCP/
IP
7-Layers Model 4-Layers Model
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection TCP refers to Transmission Control Protocol
OSI developed a model & then Protocol TCP/IP Developed protocols then model
It is a Generalized Network model It is a Network Specific model
OSI Less reliable TCP/IP is more reliable
OSI has strict Boundaries. TCP/IP does not have very strict Boundaries
OSI follows Vertical approach TCP/IP follows Horizontal approach
OSI uses Different sessions & presentation layers TCP/IP uses both session & Presentation layer in
the
application layer itself

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 In the OSI model, Transport Layer provides The Transport Layer in TCP/IP does not
provides
assurance delivery of packets
assurance delivery of packets
Connectionless & Connection-oriented services are The TCP/IP model network layer only provides
provided by the network layer in the OSI model Connectionless services

Protocols are better covered & easy to replace with Protocols cannot be replaced easily in TCP/IP
model
the technology change

Chapter 2: Emergence of IoT

Definition of IoT: The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects or "things" embedded
with electronics, software, sensors, and network connectivity, which enables these objects to collect and
exchange data. The vision of IoT: to make the Physical Object intelligent, Smart & Behave alive The
Basic Elements of loT: Major components of IoT system are
➢ Things or Device Thing
➢ Low-power embedded systems
➢ Sensors & Gateway
➢ Cloud computing
➢ Network connection & Analytics.
➢ User Interface. Gateway Analytics

Smart devices: A device is said to be smart, then it has computing and communication capabilities that
can constantly connect to networks.
Hyper-connected Devices: Hyperconnectivity means devices remain constantly connected to networks
and streams of information

➢ Overview of IoT: The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to the
popular paradigm of the IoT. The present-day Internet allows massively heterogeneous traffic through
it. This network traffic consists of images, videos, music, speech, text, numbers, binary codes,
machine status,

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banking messages, data from sensors and actuators, healthcare data, data from vehicles, home
automationsystem status and controls messages, military communications, and many more. According
to statistics, thetotal number of connected devices globally is estimated to be around 25 billion.
➢ At present networking trends, and connected devices have rapidly increased in numbers resulting in
the number of devices exceeding the number of humans on earth by multiple times.

➢ If all technologies and domains are moving toward smart management of systems, the number of
sensor/actuator-based systems is rapidly increasing. with time, the need for location-independent access
tomonitored and controlled systems keeps on rising. This rise in number leads to a further rise in the
number of Internet-connected devices. (Reference: Estimated birth of IoT By CISCO IBGS).

➢ The original Internet intended for sending simple messages is now connected with all sorts of
“Things”. These things can be legacy devices, modern-day computers, sensors, actuators, household
appliances, toys,clothes, shoes, vehicles, cameras, and so on.

Figure 4.2: The three characteristic features of anytime, anywhere, and anything highlight the robustness
and dynamic nature of IoT

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➢ IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything (as shown in Figure 4.2) network of Internet-connected
physicaldevices or systems capable of sensing an environment and affecting the sensed environment
intelligently. This is generally achieved using low-power and low-form-factor embedded processors
onboard the “things” connected to the Internet

IoT systems can be characterized by the following features

➢ Connectivity
➢ Massively scalable and Efficient
➢ Intelligence and Identity
➢ Dynamic and Self-Adapting
➢ No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
➢ Safety & Self-configuring
➢ The massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and
➢ non-IP devices.
➢ Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.

IoT is speculated to have achieved faster and higher technology acceptance as compared to electricity
andtelephony.

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These speculations are not ill-placed as evident from the various statistics shown in Figures 4.3 and 4.4

Evolution of IoT
The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems by achieving easy integration to daily
lives,popular public acceptance, and massive benefits by using connected solutions can be considered
as the founding solutions for the development of IoT. Figure 4.6 shows the sequence of technological
advancements for shaping the IoT as it is today. These sequence of technical developments toward the
emergence of IoT are described in brief:

ATM (Automated Teller

Machines):
➢ ATM are cash distribution machines, which are linked to a user’s bank account. ATMs
dispense
cash upon verification of the identity of a user and their account through a specially coded card.
➢The central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even when
banks were closed beyond their regular work hours. These ATMs were ubiquitous money
dispensers. The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in 1974.

Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform. The Web became
operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it has been massively responsible for the many
revolutionsin the field of computing and communication.

Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in early 2000.
Thesepower meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power grid. They enabled remote
monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and eased the process of billing and power allocation from
grids.

Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at connected home-
automationsystems. Present-day digital locks are so robust that smartphones can be used to control
them. Operations such as locking and unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new members in
the access lists, can be easily performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.

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Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives to alert
them of medical emergencies and take preventive measures. The devices may be simple wearable
appliances, monitoring just the heart rate and pulse of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices
and monitors in hospitals. The connected nature of these systems makes the availability of medical
records and test results much faster, cheaper, and convenient for both patients as well as hospital
authorities.

Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other vehicles, or
evenwith sensors and actuators contained within it. These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert
owners about system failures.

Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation systems.
The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst themselves enables unified and synchronized
operations and information dissemination. Some of the facilities which may benefit are parking,
transportation, and others.

Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each, they can be used in
numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate. For example, smart dust can be
sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to diagnose problems in the human body.

Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution lines, and
manage factory floors all on their own. The reduction in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or
un- optimized processes is drastically reduced.

UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public domain solutions tasked with
applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset
management, and other tasks.

IoT spans various domains and applications and IoT is being used in vivid and diverse areas such as
➢ Smart parking, smartphone detection, traffic congestion, smart lighting
➢ Waste management, smart roads, structural health, urban noise maps
➢ River floods, water flow, silos stock calculation, water leakages,
➢ Radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access control
➢ Snow level monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air pollution
➢ Smart grid, tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field

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 communications) payments, intelligent shopping applications,
➢ Landslide and avalanche prevention, early detection of earthquakes, supply chain control,
smartproduct management, and others.

Technological interdependencies of IoT with other domains and

networkingparadigms.

1. M2M (Machine to Machine) communication

2. CPS (Cyber Physical System)
3. Internet of the environment (loE)
4. Internet of People (loP)
5. Industry 4.0.

M2M (Machine to Machine) communication:

➢ The M2M paradigm signifies a system of connected machines and devices, which can talk
amongstthemselves without human intervention.
➢ The communication between the machines can be for updates on machine status
(stocks, health, power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of the
systems and the environment, and others.

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CPS (Cyber Physical System):
➢ The CPS is a closed control loop system for sensing, processing, and
actuationusing a feedback mechanism.
➢ CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the
feedbackcontrol loop.
➢ Humans have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level
operationsare automated.

IoE (Internet of Environment):

➢ The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the ill effects of the
permeationof Internet-based technologies on the environment
➢ The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming, sustainable and
energy- efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems and processes, and others. In brief,
any aspectof IoT that concerns and affects the environment falls under the purview of IoE.

IoP (Internet of people):

➢ IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize
online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining the confidentiality and
privacy of its user’s data.
➢ A famous site for IoP states that as the introduction of Bitcoin has severely limited the power of banks
andgovernments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power of corporations, governments, and their spy
agencies.

Industry 4.0:
➢ Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution of digitization in the
manufacturingindustry.
➢ This paradigm strongly puts forward the concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one
anotherwithout much human involvement.
➢ The digitization and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and workforce
management,optimization of production time and resources, and better upkeep and lifetimes of
industrial systems.

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 IoT versus M2M
IoT M2M
Abbreviation - Internet of Things Abbreviation - Machine to Machine
Communication
Devices are necessary to rely on the Internet Devices and communication are not dependent
on the Internet.

The Internet of Things is the main M2M is a Subdomain of IoT

domain framework
IoT is Information and service-centric M2M is communication and device- centric.
The connection type is a point to multipoint & vice versa The connection type is a point to point
Many users can connect at a time over the Internet Communicate with a single machine at a time
System Involves the usage of both Hardware &Software. Mostly hardware-based technology
It has more devices scalability A limited number of devices' scalability
It uses IP-based protocols It uses either proprietary or non-IP- based
protocols
It supports Open type APIs (Application programming It does not support open-type APIs
interfaces)
Business type: B2C (Business to Customers) and B2B Business type: Only B2B (Business to Business)
is Used

IoT versus CPS

IoT CPS
Abbreviation -Internet of Things Abbreviation - Cyber-Physical Systems
IoT does not compulsorily need a feedback system CPS uses a feedback system.
In IoT systems, Cyber components are absent. In the CPS system, Cyber components are
present.
Here focused on how physical objects can be connected to Here both the cyber part and the physical
the internet. part work together
It is purely automation; no human assistance is required. Sensor, actuators work in the feedback loop in
the human intervention

IoT is a package of sensing, control, actuation, and CPC is a package of sensing, control,
applications actuation, and feedback
It comprises the things that are unique IDs and are It seamlessly integrates computation,
connected to the internet networking, and physical process.
The Internet of Things is the main domain framework CPS is a Subdomain of IoT.

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 IoT versus WoT

IoT WoT
Abbreviation -Internet of Things Abbreviation - Web of Things
IoT gives better value to the developers From the developer’s point of view, WoT
empowers access and authority over IoT assets and
applications.
Every IoT devices have a different protocol A single protocol is used for multiple/various
IoT devices.

Devices can be connected to any form of internet WoT is made to handle and use the internet
potential of loT

Programming is difficult because of the multiple Programming is easy so it doesn’t have

multiple protocols.
protocols
All the protocols and standards are private and cannot be WoT can be accessed freely by anyone, anytime.
accessed publicly
IoT is tied in with making a system of items, things, WoT attempts to coordinate IoT components to
the Web.
individuals, frameworks, and applications.
The scope of IoT applications is much broader; IoT also WoT can be thought of as an application layer-
includes non-IP-based systems that are not accessible based that added over the network layer.
through the web.
It deals with actuators, sensors, computation, and It deals with web servers and
communication Interfaces. Digitally Augmented objects Protocols. WoT is made up of
make IoT applications that are made for Io
Devices.

Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies. The figure below can divide
theIoT paradigm into FOUR planes: (figure 4.3)
(1) Services plane
(2) Local connectivity plane
(3) Global connectivity plane
(4) Processing plane

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The service plane: It is composed of two parts:
a. Things or devices: The things may be wearable, computers, smartphones, household appliances,
smart glasses, factory machinery, vending machines, vehicles, robotics, etc.
b. Low-power connectivity: The low-power and low-range connectivity is used to connect the
things in local implementation. Commonly use such as WiFi, Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LOWPAN,
LoRA, DASH, Insteon, and others. The range of these connectivity technologies is severely
restricted; they areresponsible for the connectivity between the things of the loT and the nearest hub
or gateway to access the Internet.

Local connectivity: It is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple local IoT deployments.
This distribution may be based on the physical placement of the things, based on the application
domains,

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or even based on providers of services. Services such as address management, device management,
security, sleep schedule, and others fall within the scope of this plan. The local connectivity plane falls
under the purview of IoT management as it directly deals with strategies to use/reuse addresses based
on things and applications.
Global connectivity: This Plane plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense by allowing
for worldwide implementations and connectivity between things, users, controllers, and applications.
This plane also falls under the purview of loT management as it decides how and when to store data,
when to process it, when to forward it, and in which form to forward it. The Web, data centers, remote
servers, Cloud, and others make up this plane.
The processing plane can be considered a top-up of the basic IoT networking framework. The
continuousrise in the usefulness and penetration of IoT in various application areas such as industries,
transportation,healthcare, and others is the result of this plane. The members in this plane are IoT tools.
The various sub- domains of this plane include intelligence, data conversion, learning cognition,
algorithms, visualization, and analysis of various computing paradigms such as “big data”, “machine
learning”, and others, which fall within the scope of this domain.
IoT Networking Components
IoT networking components are broad categories into SIX types
(1) loT node
(2) loT router
(3) loT LAN
(4) IoT WAN
(5) loT gateway
(6) loT proxy.

(i) IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of these devices are typically
made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio. The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN
directly or using a common gateway for that LAN.

(ii) IoT Router: An IoT router is a networking equipment that the routing of packets between various
entitiesin the IoT network, it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network.

(iii) IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity like within a
building or an organization. Typically consist of short-range connectivity technologies. IoT LANs may
ormay not be connected to the Internet.

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(iv) IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments such as LANs. They
are typically organizationally and geographically wide, with the operational range lying between a few
kilometers to hundreds of kilometers.

(v) IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.
Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs. Their primary task is to forward packets between
LANs and WANs.

(vi) IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and perform application
layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities. Typically, application layer proxies are a means of
providing security to the network entities under it.

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