ECE 3317

Applied Electromagnetic Waves

Prof. David R. Jackson
Fall 2022

Notes 21
Introduction to Antennas

1
 Introduction to Antennas
Antennas
An antenna is a device that is used to transmit and/or
receive an electromagnetic wave.

Note: The antenna itself can always transmit or receive, but it

may be used for only one of these functions in an application.

Examples:

 Cell-phone antenna (transmit and receive)

 TV antenna in your home (receive only)
 Wireless LAN antenna (transmit and receive)
 FM radio antenna (receive only)
 Satellite dish antenna (receive only)
 AM radio broadcast tower (transmit only)
 GPS position location unit (receive only)
 GPS satellite (transmit only)

2
 Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Antennas are often used for a variety of reasons:
 For communication over long distances, to have lower loss (see
next slide)
 Where waveguiding systems (e.g., transmission lines such as
coaxial cable or fiber optic cable) are impractical or inconvenient
 When it is desired to communicate with many users at once

Coax

Fiber optic cable

Antenna Twisted pair (CAT 5 cable) 3

 Comparison of Waveguiding Systems with Wireless Systems

Wireless systems using antennas will always be better (lower

loss) than wired (waveguiding) systems for large distances.

Power loss from antenna broadcast: 1/ r 2 (always better for very large r)

Power loss from waveguiding system: e −2α r

Antenna

r
A B

Waveguiding system

4
Comparison of Waveguiding Systems with Wireless Systems (cont.)

Comparison of Two Functions

1
1

0.1 e −2 α r

0.01 α = 0.1 [ np/m ]

f ( x)
−3
1× 10
g( x)

−4
1× 10

1 / r2
−5
1× 10

0.000001
−6
1× 10
3 4
1 10 100 1× 10 1× 10
1 x 10000
r [meters]
5
Comparison of Waveguiding Systems with Wireless Systems (cont.)

Attenuation in dB 1 GHz

RG59 Single Mode Two Dipoles 34m Dish+Dipole

Distance Coax Fiber Wireless Wireless
1m 0.4 0.0003 28.2 -
10 m 4 0.003 48.2 -
100 m 40 0.03 68.2 -
1 km 400 0.3 88.2 39.3
10 km 4000 3 108.2 59.3
100 km - 30 128.2 79.3
1000 km - 300 148.2 99.3
10,000 km - 3000 168.2 119.3
100,000 km - - 188.2 139.3
1,000,000 km - - 208.2 159.3
10,000,000 km - - 228.2 179.3
100,000,000 km - - 248.2 199.3
6
 Properties of Antennas

Main properties of antennas:

 Radiation pattern
 Beamwidth and Directivity (how directional the beam is)
 Sidelobe level
 Efficiency (power radiated relative to total input power)
 Polarization (linear, CP)
 Input Impedance
 Bandwidth (the useable frequency range)

7
 Types of Antennas
Reflector (Dish) Antenna

Ideally, the dish is parabolic in shape.

 Very high bandwidth

 Medium to high directivity (directivity is determined by the size)
 Linear or CP polarization (depending on how it is fed)
 Works by focusing the incoming wave to a collection (feed) point
8
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Dipole Wire Antenna

l ≈ λ0 / 2
(resonant)
Current

 Very simple At resonance : Z= in 73 [ Ω ]

 Moderate bandwidth
 Low directivity
 Omnidirectional in azimuth
 Most commonly fed by a twin-lead transmission line
 Linear polarization ( Eθ , assuming wire is along z axis)
 The antenna is resonant when the length is about one-half free-space wavelength

9
 Types of Antennas (cont.)

Dipole Wire Antenna (cont.)

The bow-tie antenna has

flared dipole arms, which
increases the bandwidth.

10
 Types of Antennas (cont.)

Folded Dipole Antenna

The folded dipole is a variation of the dipole antenna. It has an input

impedance that is 4 times higher than that of the regular dipole antenna.

Compatible with TV twin lead

Z in 292 [ Ω ]
At resonance :=

Z 0 300 [ Ω ]
=

11
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Monopole Wire Antenna

h h ≈ λ0 / 4

: Z in 36.5 [ Ω ]
At resonance = Feeding coax

This is a variation of the dipole, using a ground plane instead of a second wire.

 Similar properties as the dipole

 Mainly used when the antenna is mounted on a conducting object or platform
 Usually fed with a coaxial cable feed

12
Types of Antennas (cont.)
Monopole Wire Antenna (cont.)

13
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Yagi Antenna

Driven element

Prof. Yagi

This is a variation of the dipole, using multiples wires (with one “reflector” and
one or more “directors”.

 Low bandwidth
 Moderate to high directivity
 Commonly used as a UHF TV antenna
14
 Types of Antennas (cont.)

Yagi Antenna (cont.)

UHF Yagi

UHF Yagi UHF Yagi VHF Log-periodic

15
Types of Antennas (cont.)
Yagi of CP Elements

Two
perpendicular
dipoles fed
90o out of
phase.

 Used for circular polarization

16
 Types of Antennas (cont.)

Log-Periodic Antenna

Beam

This consists of multiple dipole antennas of varying lengths, connected together.

Note:
 High bandwidth
The input impedance,
 Moderate directivity plotted vs. the log of the
 Commonly used as a VHF TV antenna frequency, is periodic.

17
Types of Antennas (cont.)

Log Periodic Antenna (cont.)

18
 Types of Antennas (cont.)

Typical Outdoor TV Antenna

UHF Yagi

VHF Log-periodic

19
 Types of Antennas (cont.)

Helical Antennas

 Often used for circular polarization GPS satellite

Note: Circular polarization (CP) is often used is satellite communications.

20
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Horn Antenna

It acts like a “loudspeaker” for electromagnetic waves.

 High bandwidth
 Moderate directivity
 Commonly used at microwave frequencies and above
 Often used as a feed for a reflector antenna

21
Types of Antennas (cont.)
Horn Antenna (cont.)

Arno A. Penzias and Robert

W. Wilson used a large horn
antenna to detect microwave
signals from the “big bang”
(Nobel Prize, 1978).
22
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Horn Antenna (cont.)

This is a variety called the “hoghorn” antenna (a combination of horn+reflector).

23
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Microstrip (Patch) Antenna
y

W Current 1 λ0
L ≈ λd / 2 =
x 2 εr
L
h εr

It consists of a printed “patch” of metal that is on top of a grounded dielectric substrate.

 Acts as a radiating resonant cavity

 Low bandwidth
 Low directivity (unless used in an array)
 Low-profile (h can be made very small, at the expense of bandwidth)
 Can be made by etching
 Easily fed by microstrip line or coaxial cable
 Can be made conformable (mounted on a curved surface)
 Commonly used at microwave frequencies and above
24
Types of Antennas (cont.)
Microstrip (Patch) Antenna (cont.)

25
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Dielectric Resonator Antenna (DRA)

The dielectric resonator

antenna was invented by our
very own Prof. Long!
εr

Cylindrical DRA

It consists of a dielectric material (such as ceramic)

on top of a grounded dielectric substrate.

 Acts as a resonating dielectric object

 Moderate to large bandwidth
 Low directivity (unless used in an array)
 Commonly used at microwave frequencies and above
26
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Dielectric Resonator Antenna (cont.)

GPS antenna

27
 Types of Antennas (cont.)
Leaky-Wave Antenna

y Slot

2
π 
β = k02 −   < k0
a
Air
x
Rectangular waveguide

The slot allows the wave to radiate (“leak”) from the slot.
28
 Antenna Radiation
We consider here the radiation from an antenna.

S = Poynting vector
z
r ( r ,θ , φ )
r

+- y “far field”
r →∞
x
 e − jk0r  F
E ( r,θ , φ ) =   E (θ , φ )
 r 

 The far-field radiation acts like a plane wave going in the radial direction.
 The shape of the pattern in the far field is only a function of (θ, φ).
29
 Antenna Radiation (cont.)

How far do we have to go to be in the far field?

Sphere of minimum diameter

D that encloses the antenna. r ( r ,θ , φ )

2D 2
+- r>
λ0
In the far field:
 e − jk0r  F
E ( r,θ , φ ) =   E (θ , φ )
 r 

A derivation is given in the Antenna Engineering book:

C. A. Balanis, Antenna Engineering, 4th Ed., 2016, Wiley.
30
 Antenna Radiation (cont.)

The far-field has the following form: E θˆ Eθ + φˆ Eφ

=
H θˆ H θ + φˆ H φ
=
z
H
S Eθ
= η0 TMz
y Hφ
E
x z

S Eφ
y = −η0 TEz
E Hθ
H
x

Depending on the type of antenna, either or both polarizations may be

radiated (e.g., a vertical wire antenna radiates only TMz polarization (Eθ)).
31
 Antenna Radiation (cont.)

The far-field Poynting vector is now calculated:

1
S
= E× H*
2
1 ˆ Eθ
( ) ( )
*
= θ Eθ + φˆ Eφ × θˆ Hθ + φˆ Hφ = η0
2 Hφ
1
= rˆ ( Eθ H φ* − Eφ Hθ* ) Eφ
2 = −η0
 * Hθ
 Eφ  
*
1  Eθ 
rˆ  Eθ   + Eφ   
2   η0   η0  
 
 E 2 E 2
1  θ φ

= ˆr +
2  η0 η0 
 
32
 Antenna Radiation (cont.)

Hence we have

= (
S rˆ Eθ + Eφ
2 2
)  1 

2η
 0


or

 E2
S = rˆ  
 2η0 
 

Note:
In the far field, the Poynting vector is pure real (no reactive power flow).

33
 Radiation Pattern

Assume we are in the far field:

 e − jk0r  F
E ( r,θ , φ ) =   E (θ , φ )
 r 

E F (θ , φ ) ≡ Normalized far - field electric field

In dB:
Normalized 3-D antenna pattern

 E F (θ , φ ) 
dB (θ , φ ) = 20log10  F 
 E (θ m , φm ) 
 

(θ m , φm ) = direction of maximum radiation

34
 Radiation Pattern (cont.)

The far-field pattern is often shown vs. the angle θ (for a fixed angle
φ0) in polar coordinates. This is called an “elevation cut”.
 E F (θ , φ0 ) 
dB (θ , φ ) = 20 log10  F 
 E (θ m , φ0 ) 
 
An “elevation cut” z
(The pattern is illustrated for a θ
30° 30°
vertical dipole antenna.)
φ= φ=
0 0
z 60° 60°

0 dB
-10 dB
θ m = 90o
-20 dB
Note:
-30 dB For the vertical
120° 120°
wire antenna the
pattern is
independent of φ.
150° 150°
35
 Radiated Power
The Poynting vector in the far field is

 E F (θ , φ ) 2  1
S ( r, θ , φ ) = rˆ    
 2η0   r2 
 

The total power radiated is then given by

2π π  E F (θ , φ ) 2 
2π π
Prad ∫0 ∫0
= ( S ⋅ ˆ
r ) r 2
∫0 ∫0  2η0  sin θ dθ dφ
sin θ dθ dφ =
 

Hence we have
2π π
1 2
∫ ∫ E (θ ,φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
F
Prad =
2η0 0 0
36
 Directivity
The directivity of the antenna in the directions (θ, φ) is defined as

Sr (θ , φ )
D (θ , φ ) ≡ r→∞
Prad / ( 4π r 2
)
The directivity in a particular direction is the ratio of the power density radiated in
that direction to the power density that would be radiated in that direction if the
antenna were an isotropic radiator (i.e., one that radiates equally in all directions).

In dB,

DdB (θ , φ ) = 10log10 D (θ , φ )

Note:
The directivity is sometimes referred to as the
“directivity with respect to an isotropic radiator”.
37
 Directivity (cont.)
The directivity of the antenna in the directions (θ, φ) is
Sr (θ , φ )
D (θ , φ ) ≡ r→∞
Prad / ( 4π r 2
)
Use the following far-field equations:
 E F (θ , φ ) 2 
Sr ( r ,θ , φ ) =   1 
 2η0   r 2 
 
2π π
1 2
∫ ∫ E (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
F
Prad =
2η0 0 0

We then have:
2
4π E F
(θ , φ )
D (θ , φ ) = 2π π
2
∫ ∫ E (θ , φ ) sin θ dθ dφ
F

0 0
38
 Directivity (cont.)

z z
θ θ
30° 30° 30° 30°

60° 60° 60° 60°

0 0
dB dB
-9 -6 -3 -9 -6 -3

120° 120° 120° 120°

150° 150° 150° 150°

Antenna with moderate directivity Antenna with high directivity

(e.g., dipole) (e.g., horn or dish)

39
 Directivity (cont.)

Resonant half-wavelength dipole:

D = 1.643 θm = π / 2

D D=
= max D (π / 2, φ0 )

z
z
h θ
30° 30°
Dipole

l = 2h 60° 60°

Feed
y 0
dB
-9 -6 -3

x 120° 120°

−h
150° 150°
40
 Beamwidth
The beamwidth measures how narrow the beam is.
(The narrower the beamwidth, the higher the directivity).

HPBW = half-power beamwidth

Half-power points:
The power density is down by a factor of 1/2.
The field is down by a factor of 1/√2 = 0.707.
In dB, we are down by 3 dB.

Note:
A smaller beamwidth usually means
a higher directivity.

41
 Sidelobes
The sidelobe level measures how strong the sidelobes are.

In this example the sidelobe level is about -12 dB.

Main beam
Sidelobe level

Sidelobes

−12 dB

42
 Gain and Efficiency

The radiation efficiency of an antenna is defined as

Prad Prad = power radiated by antenna

er ≡
Pin Pin = power input to antenna

The gain of an antenna in the directions (θ, φ) is defined as

G (θ , φ ) ≡ er D (θ , φ )

In dB, we have

GdB (θ , φ ) = 10log10 G (θ , φ )

43
 Gain and Efficiency (cont.)
The gain tells us how strong the radiated power density is in a
certain direction, for a given amount of input power.

Recall that
Sr (θ , φ )
D (θ , φ ) ≡ r→∞
Prad / ( 4π r 2
)
Therefore, in the far field:

Sr (θ , φ ) =  Prad / ( 4π r 2 ) D (θ , φ )

 Prad 
Sr (θ , φ ) =  er Pin / ( 4π r 2 ) D (θ , φ ) e
 r ≡ 
 P in 

Sr (θ , φ ) =  Pin / ( 4π r 2 ) G (θ , φ )
44
 Transmit Antenna

The antenna acts like a load impedance during transmit.

Z=
in Rin + jX in

At resonance, the input reactance Xin is zero (the desired situation).

Example: Z=
in 73 [ Ω ] for resonant half - wavelength dipole

45
 Receive Antenna
The Thévenin equivalent circuit of a wire antenna being used as
a receive antenna is shown below.

Pdinc = incident power density  W/m 2 

+
E inc VTh
- ZTh = Z in
Z=
in 73 [ Ω ] ( resonant half - wavelength dipole )
Z Th
inc 2
E
P
d
inc
=  W/m 2 
2η0 +
VTh -

46
 Receive Antenna

Sometimes the “effective length” is used to calculate the Thévenin

received voltage for a wire antenna.

lˆ
The “effective area” of an antenna is a more
general way to characterize any receive antenna
(discussed next).

E inc
+
-
VTh VTh
= (E inc
)
⋅ lˆ leff

VTh +
Resonant dipole antenna (l = λ0/2): -
2
leff = l  
π  47
 Receive Antenna (cont.)

At resonance:

Dipole: Z in ≈ 73 [ Ω ] L ≈ λ0 / 2
Current

Z in ≈ 36.5 [ Ω ]
h h ≈ λ0 / 4
Monopole:
Feeding coax

Z Th

VTh +
-
ZTh = Z in

48
 Receive Antenna (cont.)

The effective area determines the power received for any antenna.

Assume an optimum conjugate-matched load:

Z Th PL = power absorbed by load

+ Note:
VTh - ZL = Z *
Th If we know PL, we can use this to
calculate |VTh| if we wish.

PL = Aeff Pdinc

Aeff = effective area of antenna

Pdinc = power density of incident wave  W/m 2 
49
 Receive Antenna (cont.)

We have the following general formula*:

 λ02 
Aeff = G  
 4π 

G = gain of antenna in the direction of the incident signal

This assumes that the incoming signal is polarized in the optimum direction.

*A derivation is given in the Antenna Engineering book:

C. A. Balanis, Antenna Engineering, 4th Ed., 2016, Wiley.

50
 Receive Antenna (cont.)

Effective area of a lossless resonant half-wave dipole antenna:

Assume that the incident electric field is aligned along the wire and θ = 90o.

 λ02   λ 2
0 
=  4π  D  4π  ( G
Aeff G= = ( no losses, er 1) )
D=
   
θ  λ02 
= 1.643   ( D D=
= max 1.643)
+
VTh  4π 
-
 ( 2l ) 2 
= 1.643   ( l = λ0 / 2 )
E inc  4π 
l  
Hence
Note:
Aeff = 0.523 l 2 The dipole will receive more power at a
lower frequency (larger l), assuming the
same incident power density.
51
 Wireless Communication Example
(Two Dipoles)
Example

Find the received power in the wireless system shown below, assuming
that the receiver is connected to an optimum conjugate-matched load.

z f =1 [ GHz ] (λ 0 = 29.979 [ cm ] )

Resonant Pin = 10 [ W ]
dipole antenna Resonant dipole antenna
r = 1 [ km ]
Pin [ W ] Transmit Pdinc  W/m 2  Receive

θ = 90o r θ = 90o x
*
Z=
L Z=Th 73 [Ω]
Prad = Pin

Assume lossless antennas (G = D =1.643, Prad = Pin) 52

 Wireless Communication Example (cont.)

PL = Aeff Pdinc
Gain of receive antenna Gain of transmit antenna
Recall:
 λ02  Pin
2 (
=Aeff 1.643
=   , Pd
inc
1.643)
 4π  4π r

Hence
 λ02   Pin 
2 (
PL = 1.643   1.643) 
 4π   4π r 

The result is

PL 1.54 × 10−8 [W]

=
53
 Dish Antenna
Effective area of dish (reflector) antenna

In the maximum gain direction:

Aeff = Aphy eap er Now it is the effective area that we know, and
from this we can calculate the gain.
Aphy = physical area of dish
eap = aperture efficiency
er = radiation efficiency

We then know the gain:

 4π 
G = Aeff  2 
 λ0 

The aperture efficiency is usually less than 1 (less than 100%).

54
 Wireless Communication Example
(Dish and CubeSat Antenna)
Example

A microstrip antenna with a gain of 8 (9.03 dB) on a Cubesat transmits with

an input power of 1 [W] at 10.0 [GHz] from an distance of 50,000,000 [km]
(near Mars).

How much power will be received by the NASA Deep Space Network dish on
Earth (at Goldstone, CA), which has a diameter of 70 [m]? Assume an
aperture efficiency of 0.75 (75%). Assume no losses in the receive antenna
system (er = 1.0).

Express answer in Watts and in dBm (dB relative to a milliwatt).

 Prec 
Note : Prec
dBm
≡ 10 log10  
 0.001 [W] 

55
 Wireless Communication Example (cont.)

Example (cont.) Parameters:

r 5.0 ×1010 [ m ]
=
inc inc
Prec P=
= d Aeff Pd Aphy eap
Aphy = π ( 70 / 2 )  m 2 
2

eap = 0.75 (1.0 )

inc  Pin 
P d = G
2  trans
 4π r  Pin = 1 [ W ]
Gtrans = 8
Prec = 1.014 −19 [ W ]
Note:
dBm
Prec = −151.3  4π 
Gdish Aeff  =
= 2 
4.036 ×107 ( 76.06 dB )
 λ0 
(But we don’t need this for the calculation.)

56