LESSON 1: What is ETHICS?

shed light on the basic ideas, concepts, and assumptions

that underlie our moral beliefs and judgments.
 Metaethics focuses on the more fundamental question
MORALITY what morality itself is in the first place. For this reason,
- refers to the set of standards a person has about what is metaethics is also occasionally referred to as “second-
order” moral theorizing, to distinguish it from the “first-
right and wrong. order” level of normative theory.
 The topics Nature of Moral Statements to Moral
 How we judge whether an act is good or bad, whether Accountability falls under metaethics which inquires the
someone is virtuous or not, whether we ought to do this fundamental queries on morality – What is the nature of
moral claims? How is morality distinct from other
or not, depends largely on these standards. normative standards? Is morality objective or relative?
Who have moral rights? What does it mean to be morally
“As a child, each person has been taught and influenced by accountable?
 Metaethical positions respond to these questions by
his/her family, friends, and elders to accept some actions or examining the basic meanings, ideas, and connotations
behaviors as right and some as wrong.” involved in moral discourse.

 Our judgments and beliefs on these matters are 2. NORMATIVE ETHICS

influenced by the moral standards that pervade in our - Normative Ethics is more concerned with the moral
life standards to determine right from wrong conduct. It involves
 Morality pertains not just to a person’s standards, but to the formulations of moral norms or rules that can serve as
a particular society’s standards of what is right and basis of the kind of actions, institutions, and ways of life that
wrong. As a social, cultural, or religious group, people we should pursue.
share certain standards of actions and behaviors that
guide them in what way they accepts or practice.  There are theories that answer what moral standards
should govern human action:
How does ethics differ from morality? 1. Consequentialism
2. Deontology
ETHICS 3. Virtue Ethics
- is the discipline that examines the moral standards of an
individual or a society  These three aspects of an action that are often
- In a sense, ethics is a study of morality. It looks into the considered in judging an action’s moral rightness (or
soundness, reasonableness, and appropriateness of the moral wrongness):
standards a person or a society espouses. 1. Consequences
2. The rule it follows (or violates)
 One thing to accept or adopt a set of moral standards, it 3. The Character of the person performing it.
is another to reflect on and examine these standards. A
person engages in ethics when he/she reflects on the
moral standards he/she has imbibed from his/her family,
church, and friends, and asks: “Are these standards 3. APPLIED ETHICS
reasonable? Are these practices morally permissible? - The thrust of Applied Ethics is to examine the particular
Are we justified to do this or that?” issues in both the personal and social spheres that are
 Morality begins to form in childhood, which is a time matters of moral judgments.
when we usually unquestioningly and mechanically
accept what is taught to us with regard to what is right  Since Applied Ethics focuses more on the practical
and wrong. concerns of ethics, it uses philosophical methods to
 Thus, as we mature in reason, we subject our moral determine the moral permissibility of specific actions
beliefs and practices to a reflective analysis. We ought and practices. Using the conceptual tools of metaethics
to question those moral standards that we simply and normative ethics, applied ethics attempts to
acquired in the past without any critical inquiry. We analyze, clarify, and shed light on various ethical issues
need to espouse only those standards which are with the goal of guiding our moral judgment.
supported by good reason. It is here where the
enterprise of ethics comes in.  Issues in Applied Ethics:
 Ethics aims to shed light on the basic questions such as 1. Public Policy
what is right conduct, what principles should govern our 2. The Professions
moral decision-making, and what basically is a good life.
Ethics is not limited to particular moral actions and  New Specialization in Applied Ethics:
practices, but it concerns itself with the whole of moral 1. Business
ideals and behaviors. 2. Medicine
3. Environmental Policies
4. Law
5. Medi
AREAS OF ETHICS

As a branch of philosophy that examines and reflects about

morality, ethics is usually categorized into three general
subject areas: (Metaethics, Normative Ethics, Applied Ethics)

1. METAETHICS
- Metaethics (Analytic Ethics) This area looks into the nature,
meaning, scope, and foundations of moral values and
discourse.

Is X good? What is Good?

- Attitude
- Things that we use (Food)
- Killing is good

 The term “meta” means after or beyond; and, thus,

metaethics involves an abstract and detached way of
thinking philosophically about morality. It attempts to
LESSON 2: MORAL STATEMENT characteristic is exemplified in the moral rule: "Do
not do unto others what you would not have them
do unto you."
MORAL STATEMENT
 are generally thought to have a particularly
overriding importance, that is, people feel they
 assertions that express judgments about what is right, should prevail over other values. A violation of the
wrong, good, or bad in human behavior moral rule against killing or stealing is more
 fundamental component of ethical discussions
 play a central role in guiding individual and societal
important than a violation of the rules of etiquette
actions or of grammar.
 are not established by the decisions of
authoritarian bodies, nor are they solely
Why do we need to understand the nature of moral determined by appealing to consensus or
statement? tradition. While laws and legal standards are
established by the authority of the legislature,
A. Justification religious beliefs and practices are taught by the
- how moral claims can be supported Church fathers and scholars, rules of etiquette
B. Evaluation emanate from tradition and consensus.
- determine if moral statement are acceptable or
unacceptable

 It would shed light on the difference of morality

from LAW, ETIQUETTE, and RELIGION

LAW -system of rules created by authorities

ETIQUETTE -social norms and more on manners

RELIGION -system of beliefs and practices related to

faith -based on religious teachings

MORAL STATEMENT AS NORMATIVE STATEMENT

NORMATIVE STATEMENT

 Expresses an evaluation, saying that something is

good or bad, better or worse relative to some
standard or alternative
 A moral statement is often considered a
normative statement because it expresses a
judgment about what is right or wrong, good or
bad. For example, "Stealing is wrong" is a moral
statement that prescribes a standard of behavior.
 Moral statements often derive from ethical
theories or cultural values and express judgments
about specific actions or behaviors. Normative
statements establish standards or ideals for
behavior and policies, often based on moral
principles but can include other considerations.
 In summary, while all moral statements are
normative, not all normative statements are
strictly moral. Normative statements encompass a
wider array of values and principles.

MORAL STANDARDS

How can we distinguish moral standards from non-

moral standards?

 deal with matters that we think can seriously

harm or benefit human beings. The conventional
moral norms against cheating, lying, and killing
deal with actions that can gravely hurt people.
Whether human dignity is respected or degraded,
work conditions are safe or dangerous, and
products are beneficial or detrimental to our
health are matters that affect human well-being.
 have universal validity. They apply to all who are
in the relevantly similar situation. If it is morally
wrong for a person A to do act X. then it is wrong
to do X for anyone relevantly similar to P. This
LESSON 3: MORALITY AND THE OTHER NORMATIVE contradiction."
SUBJECTS “What is the maxim of my action?”

ETHICS b. The Formula of Humanity

 Ethics comes from the greek word "Ethos" which means "Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person
custom, usage, or character or in that of another, always as an end, and never as a mere
means."
 Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines what is
morally right and wrong, good and bad. It involves the  We're not mere objects that exist to be used by others.
study of principles and values that guide human  We're our own ends.
behavior and decision-making. Ethics seeks to  We're rational and autonomous.
understand and establish guidelines for how individuals  We have the ability to set our own goals, and work
and societies should act, often addressing questions of toward them.
justice, fairness, and the responsibilities we have to
others. Together, these formulations help guide moral actions by:

MORALITY I. Ensuring consistency and fairness in your actions

II. Respecting the intrinsic worth and rights of others
 Morality refers to the principles and values that guide III. Promoting a moral community where everyone’s
individuals and societies in determining what is right and freedom and dignity are respected
wrong, good and bad, or just and unjust. It encompasses
a set of beliefs and practices about how one should 3. CONSEQUENTIALISM
behave towards others, often grounded in cultural,
religious, or philosophical traditions. Morality influences  Consequentialism is an ethical theory of normative
decisions, actions, and judgments in various aspects of ethics that states the moral value of an action or
life, from personal behavior to societal laws and norms decision should be judged based on its consequences.

NORMATIVE ETHICS  Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can

be difficult, or even impossible, to know what the result
 Normative ethics is the branch of ethics concerned with of an action will be ahead of time.
establishing how people ought to act and what moral  Indeed, no one can know the future with certainty.
standards they should follow. It aims to provide a  Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to
framework for evaluating actions and guiding behavior decisions that are objectionable, even though the
based on principles of right and wrong. consequences are arguably good.
 Consequentialism is sometimes criticized because it can
NORMATIVE ETHICAL THEORIES: be difficult, or even impossible, to know what the result
of an action will be ahead of time.Indeed, no one can
1. VIRTUE ETHICS know the future with certainty.
 Also, in certain situations, consequentialism can lead to
 The word "virtue" comes from the Latin word virtus, decisions that are objectionable, even though the
which means "manliness" or "excellence." consequences are arguably good.
 Virtue ethics is a moral philosophy and theory of
normative ethics that emphasizes individuals’ character a. Primary Vesion: UTILITARIANISM
and personality traits instead of their actions.
 Aristotle proposed his theory of virtue ethics in the 4 th  Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that asserts that right
century BC, suggesting that humans should be guided and wrong are best determined by focusing on outcomes
by their character rather than external rules or of actions and choices. It is a form of consequentialism.
regulations.  UTILITARIANISM states that one should act to promote
 He argued that cultivating virtues was essential to living the greatest good/happiness for the greatest number
an ethical life and reaching a state of eudaimonia (maximizes social utility).
(human flourishing).
 Virtue ethics is agent - centered, meaning that
goodness is not in the act but in a person - we judge the
agent whether by habit and by character he is a good or
virtuous person.

2. DEONTOLOGY

 Derived from the Greek word "deon," meaning duty or

obligation.
 Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to discern
the moral course of action.
 Deontology emphasizes that individuals have moral
obligations or duties that they must follow, regardless of
the outcomes.
b. Ethical Egoism
 The most influential version of Deontology is Kantianism,
named after the German philosopher, Immanuel Kant.
 Ethical egoism holds that actions are morally right if
they promote the individual’s own best interests. It
Categorical Imperatives
asserts that people should act in a way that maximizes
- the foundation of Kantianism
their own long- term well-being.
- commands or moral laws all persons must follow, regardless
of their desires.
c. Altruism (Ethical Altruism)
Two formulations of the Categorical Imperative: (The
 Ethical altruism is the opposite of ethical egoism. It
Universalizability Principle, The Formula of Humanity)
asserts that actions are morally right if they maximize
the well-being of others, sometimes at a personal cost to
a. The Universalizability Principle
the actor. The goal is to promote the interests of others
rather than oneself.
"Act only according to that maxim which you can at the same
time will that it should become a universal law without
LESSON 4: ETHICAL RELATIVISM Ethical relativism suggests that individual moral beliefs
are merely relative to one’s culture, undermining
ETHICAL RELATIVISM personal moral agency and responsibility

Ethical Relativism is a theory that claims that there is 6. Incompatibility with Rational Inquiry
no objective moral standard of right and wrong, and
that moral values are relative to a person’s cultural or Ethical relativism dismisses over two thousand years of
individual background, or to a certain situation. rational inquiry into the basis for a moral order,
implying that moral philosophy is merely a relativistic
CULTURAL RELATIVISM exercise in social construct.

Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs,

values, and practices should be understood based on
that person's own culture, not judged against the
criteria of another.

SUBJECTIVE ETHICAL RELATIVISM

The view that moral judgments are statements of

individual preferences rather than objective facts.

THE ADVANTAGES OF ETHICAL RELATIVISM

1. Diversity of Moral Beliefs

Ethical relativism acknowledges the vast
differences in moral practices across cultures.

2. Avoiding Ethnocentrism
Prevents one culture from imposing its moral
views on another.

3. Promotes Tolerance
Ethical relativism encourages open-
mindedness and understanding of cultural
differences

THE ISSUES WITH ETHICAL RELATIVISM

1. Lack of Universal Moral Standards

Ethical relativism implies that there are no

absolute moral principles, only cultural
variations. This undermines the idea of
universal human rights and moral progress.

2. Tolerance & Criticism

If moral relativism is correct, tolerance

becomes a subjective value, and societies
may disagree on what is tolerable. This
limits our ability to criticize and improve our
own society’s values.

3. Incompatibility with Human Rights

If moral relativism is true, cultures that

deny universal human rights and treat
citizens accordingly would be morally
justified. This contradicts the United
Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human
Rights.

4. Overemphasis on Cultural Differences

Ethical relativism may exaggerate cultural differences

in moral principles, overlooking the commonalities and
variations in moral reasoning and application within
cultures.

5. Implications for Individual Moral Beliefs

LESSON 5: MORAL PERSONHOOD j. can remember its own past actions and mental
states,
 Moral Personhood is not just about being human but k. can envisage a future for itself,
about possessing the intellectual, moral, and volitional l. Has non-momentary interests,
capacities to engage in moral reasoning, make m. Is capable of rational deliberation,
autonomous decisions, and be held accountable for n. Can take moral considerations into account in
one’s actions within a moral framework. Without these choosing between possible actions,
capacities, a person cannot fully be considered a "moral o. Has traits of character that undergo change in a
person" in the sense that they can be subject to moral reasonably non-chaotic fashion,
praise or blame. p. Can interact socially with others,
q. Can communicate with others.
MORAL PERSONS
2. Mary Anne Warren
 Moral persons are individuals or entities recognized as defines a person as one that:
having moral rights and responsibilities. a. consciousness
 Rights are entitlements or freedoms that moral persons b. Reasoning
possess. c. self-motivated activity
 Duties are obligations or responsibilities that moral d. the capacity to communicate,
persons have towards others and society. e. the presence of self-concepts, and self-awareness,

MORAL AGENT CRITERIA FOR MORAL PERSONHOOD:

 A moral person acting as the doer of an act.
 Doers of morally evaluable actions; bearers of both 1. Sentience: the capacity to feel pleasure and pain
moral rights and duties; can be held morally accountable 2. Rationality: the capacity for reason and free will
for their actions. 3. Relationality: the capacity to establish relationships

MORAL PATIENT Others:

 A moral person acting as the receiver of an act. a) having life or being alive
 Receivers of morally evaluable actions; bearers, at least. b) treats all entities inhabited by spirits
of moral rights; can be held morally accountable for their
actions if bearers of moral duties as well.

a. Agentive Moral Patients Two general approaches:

- Bearers of both moral rights and duties; can be held
morally accountable for their actions. 1. Uni-criterial approach
- identifies only one functional capacity as sufficient for moral
b. Non-Agentive Moral Patients personhood;
- Bearers of moral rights only; cannot be held morally
accountable for all their actions. 2. Multi-criterial approach
- identifies several (more than one, or all) functional
 All moral persons who can be moral agents can also be capacities as sufficie,
moral patients; but not all moral patients can be moral
agents as well.

Case of the Full-fledged Person

 concerns the question whether the moral personhood

comes in degrees, which naturally arises from taking the
multi-criterial approach to moral personhood.
 The full-fledged person is believed to have moral priority
over the half-fledged one in cases where their right
conflicts.

Is the moral personhood of an entity possessing all the

morally relevant functional capacities greater than an entity
possessing just one or some of such capacities?

POTENTIAL PERSON

 A nonperson who has the potential to become a person.

 Entities that are not sentient or rational but have the
potential of developing any of such capacities.
The question is whether the potential person should enjoy the
same rights enjoyed by an actual person.

PERSONHOOD

 A functional concept is a concept sufficiently definable in

terms of possession of functional capacities, referring to
capacities to perform certain functions.

1. Michael Tooley
he defines a person as one that:
a. possesses consciousness,
b. has preferences,
c. has conscious desires,
d. has feelings,
e. can experience pleasure and pain,
f. has thoughts,
g. is self-conscious,
h. is capable of rational thought,
i. has a sense of time,
LESSON 6: MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY obligations that are usually evaluated if performed
properly.
ACCOUNTABILITY
 Duties and obligations here are for rational beings only.
 Accountability is the responsibility for one's actions, Hence, inanimate things in nature and animals cannot
based on rationality and free will. Our intellect allows us be blamed or praised for events that happen or may not
to understand the consequences of our actions, while happen because of them.
our free will enables us to choose them.
Condition for Moral Accountability
 Accountability is based on our ability to understand the
consequences of our actions (reason) and our ability to 1) Attribution conditions
choose between right and wrong (free will). Reason
helps us discern right from wrong, while free will allows The attribution conditions will help us decide on whether you
us to act accordingly. are or someone is incriminated or excused from
accountability
 Accountability is rooted in our ability to both understand
the consequences of our actions, guided by reason, and The following are the three conditions that can INCRIMINATE
to choose between right and wrong, exercising free will. an individual to be accountable for an act he or she
Reason helps us discern the moral path, while free will performed. A person is ACCOUNTABLE for an action if and
empowers us to act upon those choices only if:

 Reason guides our understanding of the potential a. Agent condition: he/she is the agent of the action.
outcomes of our actions, while free will empowers us to b. Knowledge condition: he/she knows or has the capacity
make choices between right and wrong, unyielding to to know that an action is good or bad
external pressures. Both reason and free will are c. Intentionalty condition: he/she intentionally performed
indispensable elements of accountability, working in the action.
tandem to ensure that we are responsible for our
choices. The following are the three conditions that can EXCUSE an
individual from being accountable for an act he or she
 “Accountability serves as a cornerstone of justice and performed. A person is EXCUSED from accountability if and
fairness, encouraging individuals to embrace only:
responsibility for their actions. By holding people
accountable, we can help prevent the abuse of power, a. Non-agency condition: he/she is no the agent of the
fostering a more equitable and just society.” action.
b. Ignorance condition: he/she has no knowledge or has no
RESPONSIBILITY capacity to know that an action is good or bad.
c. Involuntariness condition: he/she is not free in doing the
A broader term than accountability; it refers to the state or act or did not intend to do the action
fact of having a duty to deal with something or of having 2) Degree conditions
control over someone.
The degree conditions take into account the degree to which
There are three main forms of responsibility: (Responsibility a person is accountable or not. In ever moral action, there
as Causation, Prospective Responsibility (Duty or Obligation), may be circumstances that can either mitigate or aggravate
Retrospective Responsibility (Duty or Obligation)) the accountability of a person. Mitigating conditions lessen
the degree of accountability, while aggravating conditions
1. Responsibility as a causation increase the accountability.

 Responsibility as causation refers to being the direct a. Degree of knowledge —the more knowledgeable the
cause of something. It focuses on the fact that an action person is about the wrongness of an act the more
or event caused a specific outcome, regardless of intent accountable he/she is; the less knowledgeable the lesser
or knowledge. is the moral accountability.

 There is, however, one important difference. Inanimate b. Degree of pressure —the difficulty in life that forces
things in nature including animals are called causes one to do a wrong action. The greater the pressure, the
when they are responsible for some events in their lesser the accountability; the lesser the pressure, the
environment. Humans are called agents when they are greater the accountability.
responsible for events around them.
c. Degree of intensity (seriousness) of the injury caused
by the wrong action—the greater the intensity of the
2. Prospective Responsibility (duty or obligation) injury the greater accountability; the lesser the intensity
of the injury, the lesser the accountability.
 Responsibility is understood as duty and obligation for
others that will or may happen. These are duties and d. Degree of involvement (or participation) in a group or
obligations that are expected of us in advance. collective wrong doing—the greater the involvement, the
greater the accountability; the lesser the involvement,
 Duties and obligations are asked of rational individuals the lesser the accountabilit
only. Hence, Inanimate things of nature and animals
have no obligations to anyone at all. In this sense, things
in nature and animals are neither responsible nor
accountable.

 Humans may have prospective responsibilities but these

are relative to their situation and relation to others or to
the society. But since this responsibility is prospective or
directed to what will and may happen, there is no sense
of being accountable yet at this point.

3. Retrospective Responsibility (duty or obligation)

 Rsponsibility is understood as duty and obligation for

others that happened already. These are duties and
LESSON 8: VARIETIES OF CONSEQUENTIALISM a. Outcome-Oriented: It focuses on what happens in the
end. The most important thing is the result or
CONSEQUENTIALISM consequence of what you do, not necessarily how you
- is an ethical theory that judges whether or not something is get there.
right by what its consequences are. b. Promotes the Greater Good: It encourages actions that
benefit the most people, making it a fair and impartial
Key Idea: "The ends justify the means." approach; what’s best for as many people as possible.
c. Encourages Accountability: By focusing on the
TYPES OF CONSEQUENTIALISM outcomes, people are held responsible for the real
effects of their actions, promoting accountability in
1. UTILITARIANISM decision-making.
- Consequentialist moral theory that mainly focused on
maximizing overall good. (Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart CRITICISMS OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
Mill)
Criticism of consequentialism encompasses a range of
Types of Utilitarianism objections that highlight its potential shortcomings as an
a. Hedonistic Utilitarianism: Considers only pleasure ethical theory. There are 4 key criticism of consequentialism:
and pain as relevant consequences.
b. Preference Utilitarianism: Considers the fulfillment of 1) Impracticality of Predicting Consequences
individual preferences as the key measure of good 2) Violation of Individual Rights
consequences. 3) Excessive Moral Demands
c. Act and Rule Utilitarianism: Act utilitarianism focuses 4) Neglect of Justice and Fairnes
on individual actions, while rule utilitarianism considers
adherence to rules that promote the greatest good.

2. RULE CONSEQUENTIALISM

- An ethical theory that suggests we should follow rules that

generally lead to the best outcomes for everyone.

3. ETHICAL EGOISM

- The morally right action is the one that maximizes one’s own
self-interest.

Key idea: Ethical egoism tells you to look out for your own
needs and happiness first. It doesn’t say you should harm
others, but you don’t have to sacrifice your own well-being for
them either.

4. NEGATIVE CONSEQUENTIALISM

- Focus on minimizing bad consequences rather than

maximizing good ones.

Key idea: The main goal is to prevent or minimize harm. It is

considered better to stop something bad from happening
than to create something good.

5. ALTRUISTIC CONSEQUENTIALISM

- The right action is one that maximizes the well-being of

others, without considering the consequences for oneself.

Key idea: It prioritizes the welfare of others above personal

gain.

6. MOTIVE CONSEQUENTIALISM

- Actions are judged based on the motives that lead to them,

with the consequences of those motives being the focus of
evaluation.

Key idea: It integrates both the outcomes and the intentions

behind actions, emphasizing how certain motives can lead to
consistently good outcomes.

7. IDEAL CONSEQUENTIALISM

- Considers the promotion of a range of intrinsic goods, such

as beauty, knowledge, or friendship, beyond just happiness or
pleasure.

Key idea: It broadens the scope of what is considered

valuable and worth maximizing in the consequences of
actions.

STRENGTHS OF CONSEQUENTIALISM
LESSON 9: UTILITARIANISM that individual's welfare may be the morally
correct action.
UTILITARIANISM
Impartiality in Utilitarianism
 Is recognized as the most influential form of
consequentialism.  Aggregationism fosters impartiality in utilitarian
 Some authors inaccurately equate thought.
consequentialism with utilitarianism.  As Mill (2004) notes, individuals must remain
 Utilitarianism serves as a representative ethical neutral between their happiness and that of
theory for agent-neutral consequentialism. others.
 The welfare of all affected persons is given equal
BASIC ELEMENTS OF UTILITARIANISM consideration in evaluating total welfare.
 "Equal consideration" implies that no one’s
According to Richard Hare (2009), utilitarianism can be experiences of pleasure and pain hold special
understood through three main elements: value based on their identity.
 Consequently, agents are not in a privileged
1. Consequentialism position; if the action yielding higher welfare does
 Utilitarianism is classified as a consequentialist not benefit the agent, they have a moral
theory. It assesses the morality of an action based obligation to prioritize the morally correct choice
on its consequences. over their own welfare.

2. Welfarism DIVISIONS IN UTILITARIANISM

 Utilitarianism is a welfarist theory, as it focuses on
the consequences that impact individuals' welfare 1. HEDONISTIC UTILITARIANISM
or well-being.  Focuses on maximizing pleasure as the intrinsic
 Welfare encompasses whatever benefits good.
individuals or enhances their quality of life.  Claims that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and
 Hare (2009) defines welfare as achieving a pain is the only intrinsic bad.
desirable quality of life that a person prefers.  Represents a specific form of hedonistic
 The specific interpretation of welfare varies consequentialism.
among utilitarian proponents:  Ethical views are primarily associated with
 Experience of pleasure, beauty, or knowledge. philosophers Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
 Fulfillment of desires or the satisfaction of
preferences. Jeremy Bentham's Perspective:

3. Aggregationism  Describes the principle of utility as the guiding

 Utilitarianism is aggregationist, meaning it principle that evaluates actions based on their
considers the maximum aggregate welfare of all ability to increase or decrease happiness.
affected individuals.  Quotes from Bentham highlight that every action
 This characteristic aligns with its agent-neutral is judged by its potential to promote or oppose
stance; as Mill (2004) articulates, the standard is happiness.
the collective happiness rather than the agent’s  Introduces the concept of hedonistic calculus, a
own happiness. method for measuring the quantity of pleasure
 The morally right action is the one that maximizes produced by actions.
the total welfare of all impacted individuals.
 To assess which action maximizes welfare, the John Stuart Mill's Contribution:
following steps are taken:
a) Calculate the total pleasures generated by an  Presents the Greatest Happiness Principle, which
action for all affected individuals. states that actions are right if they promote
b) Calculate the total pains caused by the same happiness and wrong if they produce the opposite.
action.  Defines happiness as pleasure and the absence of
c) Subtract the total pains from the total pain, while unhappiness is pain and the
pleasures to determine the net welfare. deprivation of pleasure.
d) Compare the net welfare of the considered  Asserts that all desirable things are pursued either
actions. for the pleasure they provide or as means to
e) The action with the highest net total of enhance pleasure and minimize pain.
pleasures is deemed morally good.
Differences between Bentham and Mill:
Understanding Welfare in Utilitarianism
 Bentham focuses on quantitative hedonistic
 When welfare is interpreted as happiness, the utilitarianism, emphasizing the quantity of
concept aligns with the popular notion of "the pleasure, with no significant distinction between
greatest happiness for the greatest number of physical and mental pleasures.
people" (the greatest happiness principle).  For example, he does not differentiate between
 This principle may be misinterpreted as a form of the pleasure of playing a simple game and that of
majority rule, suggesting that the action reading poetry.
benefiting the majority is correct.  Mill advocates for qualitative hedonistic
 However, utilitarianism is not simply about the utilitarianism, emphasizing the quality of
number of individuals benefiting; it involves pleasures and distinguishing between higher
calculating the action that maximizes overall (intellectual) and lower (bodily) pleasures.
welfare.  For Mill, intellectual pleasures are superior to
 If one individual's welfare significantly surpasses mere physical pleasures, as exemplified by his
the combined welfare of others, then promoting
 famous assertion that it is "better to be a human  Claiming in one way that pleasure is not the
being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied." intrinsic good; instead, something else serves as
the intrinsic good.
 Claiming in another way that, while pleasure is an
intrinsic good, other things are also intrinsically
Hedonistic Calculus Criteria: good.

 Bentham's calculus consists of seven criteria to  Types of non-hedonistic utilitarianism:

evaluate pleasures: a) Exclusive non-hedonistic utilitarianism:
 This form rejects hedonism by asserting
a. Intensity: The strength of the pleasure that pleasure is not the intrinsic good,
experienced. and something else should be considered
b. Duration: The length of time the pleasure lasts. intrinsically good.
c. Certainty: The likelihood of the pleasure  Known as preference utilitarianism or
occurring. satisfaction utilitarianism.
d. Propinquity (or Remoteness): The closeness in  Influential representatives of this type
time between the action and the pleasure it include Richard Hare (1919–2002) and
generates. Peter Singer (1946–).
e. Fecundity: The chance that the pleasure will be
followed by more pleasures. b) Inclusive non-hedonistic utilitarianism:
f. Purity: The likelihood that the pleasure will not  This form rejects hedonism by
be followed by pain. acknowledging pleasure as an intrinsic
g. Extent: The number of people affected by the good but includes other intrinsic goods as
pleasure. well.
 Known as pluralistic utilitarianism or ideal
Moral Implications: utilitarianism.

 The action producing the greatest amount of c) Preference utilitarianism:

pleasure is deemed morally correct according to
Bentham.  Holds that the intrinsic good is not the
 If action X produces greater pleasure than action Y experience of pleasure but the
(based on hedonistic calculus), then action X is satisfaction of preferences (such as
morally preferable. desires or interests).
 Conversely, the action that produces the least  Assumes that the desire to experience
pain is considered morally good. pleasure and to be free from pain is itself
 When actions yield both pleasures and pains, the a preference that one may choose to
net total value of pleasure is calculated by satisfy.
subtracting the total pain value from the total  There are preferences unrelated to
pleasure value. The action with the higher net pleasure and pain; for example,
total value is the moral choice. individuals may choose to satisfy a
preference that involves foregoing
Mill's Responses to Objections: pleasure or enduring pain.
 This theory explains why people
a) First Objection: sometimes choose to suffer or endure
 Claims utilitarianism equates human pleasures hardship to satisfy certain preferences.
with animal pleasures, diminishing human value.  Preference utilitarianism asserts that an
 Mill counters by distinguishing between mental action is morally good when it maximizes
and bodily pleasures, emphasizing that rational the satisfaction of preferences for the
pleasures are of higher quality. greatest number of people and morally
bad if it does otherwise.
b) Second Objection:
 Questions the subjectivity of determining which PLURALISTIC UTILITARIANISM
pleasures are superior.
 Mill introduces the concept of competent judges,  posits that there is a plurality of intrinsic goods,
individuals who have experienced a range of meaning that there are several things considered
pleasures and can objectively assess their relative valuable or desirable in themselves, beyond just
values. pleasure.
c) Third Objection:
 Asserts that utilitarianism cannot justify acts of  Two prominent proponents of pluralistic
self-sacrifice or martyrdom. utilitarianism are: Hastings Rashdall (1858–
 Mill clarifies that utilitarianism seeks the greatest 1924), G.E. Moore (1873–1958)
happiness for the greatest number, which can 
require personal sacrifices. Self-sacrifice is morally In addition to pleasure, other intrinsic goods generally
good only if it promotes the overall happiness of recognized within pluralistic utilitarianism include:
others. a. Beauty
b. Knowledge
2. NON-HEDONISTIC UTILITARIANISM: c. Power
 Considers other intrinsic goods beyond pleasure. d. Healthy social relationships, such as
 Rejects the view that pleasure and pain are the friendship
only intrinsic good and bad, respectively.
 Follows non-hedonistic consequentialism by:  These intrinsic goods are valued for their own
sake, regardless of whether they produce pleasure
 or enjoyment. They are considered inherently  Therefore, an act may be morally right according
desirable. to Rule Utilitarianism if it follows an optimific rule,
even if the individual act does not maximize
 The central moral stance of pluralistic aggregate good directly.
utilitarianism is that an action is morally good if it
maximizes any of these intrinsic goods. Example of Differing Perspectives

 Two cases often used to illustrate the value of To illustrate the difference:
things independent of pleasure are as follows: Act Utilitarianism would justify breaking a promise if
doing so maximizes good (e.g., not paying a plumber
The Right Attitude Towards a Person in Misery: to instead donate the money to a charitable cause).
Rule Utilitarianism, however, would advocate paying
 This example highlights that, in cases where a the plumber based on the rule "honor contracts," as
person is in misery, the appropriate emotional this rule brings social stability and trust, thus
response is sorrow rather than gladness. maximizing good in the long run.
 Feeling or showing pleasure or enjoyment at
another’s suffering is clearly inappropriate and Potential Criticisms
morally undesirable.
 Moore’s Argument for the Desirability of Beauty Criticism of Act Utilitarianism:
Independent of Pleasure  Rule Utilitarians argue that Act Utilitarianism can
 G.E. Moore argues that beauty is inherently lead to impractical or morally problematic
desirable, even apart from the pleasure one might conclusions.
derive from it.  For example, in deciding not to pay the plumber,
 Moore suggests that if we could compare two an act utilitarian may prioritize maximizing
possible worlds—one filled with beautiful immediate good but disregard the importance of
landscapes and the other with ugly landscapes— honoring agreements, which could harm social
we would naturally deem the beautiful world trust and relationships.
better, even if there were no conscious beings to
appreciate it. Criticism of Rule Utilitarianism:
 This example underscores that beauty’s  Act Utilitarians criticize Rule Utilitarianism as a
desirability is not reliant on the pleasure it might form of "rule worship," where rules are followed
bring; rather, it holds value in and of itself. rigidly even when they do not lead to the best
 These examples serve to support the view in consequences.
pluralistic utilitarianism that certain intrinsic  In the "desert island promise" example, a person
goods, such as beauty and moral sensitivity, are would break a promise to a dying man to donate
valuable beyond the pleasure they may produce, the funds for medical equipment rather than a
reinforcing that pluralistic utilitarianism values a jockey club, as it would save lives, maximizing
broader spectrum of goods in determining moral good according to Act Utilitarianism.
worth.

ACT AND RULE UTILITARIANISM

 Utilitarianism is divided into two general types Consequentialist vs. Deontological Ethics
based on the application of the principle of
maximizing good: Act Utilitarianism and Rule  Consequentialism focuses on the outcomes or
Utilitarianism. consequences of actions to make moral
 This division stems from a question of whether the judgments.
utilitarian principle should be applied to:  Deontology, however, emphasizes adherence to
1. ACT UTILITARIANISM rules or duties regardless of the outcome.
 The act itself  Although Rule Utilitarianism involves rules, it is
 Act Utilitarianism focuses on individual actions. still classified as a form of consequentialism
 It evaluates each act based on whether it because the goodness of a rule is defined by its
maximizes the aggregate good or welfare. beneficial outcomes.
 According to this view: If an action maximizes
good, it is morally right. If it does not, it is morally Utilitarianism is divided into two main categories:
wrong.
 This form of utilitarianism does not consider the Hedonistic Utilitarianism: Focuses on maximizing
rules or broader principles behind an act; it only pleasure and happiness.
cares about the immediate outcome in terms of Non-Hedonistic Utilitarianism: Concentrates on
aggregate good. overall welfare, which may or may not include
pleasure.
2. RULE UTILITARIANISM Additionally, there is a division based on the nature of
 The rule governing the act the actions considered:
 Rule Utilitarianism, by contrast, evaluates actions
based on the rules they follow. Act Utilitarianism: Evaluates individual actions
 It posits that actions are morally right if they based on their consequences.
conform to optimific rules (rules that, when Rule Utilitarianism: Assesses the morality of actions
generally followed, maximize good). based on adherence to rules that typically promote
 From this perspective: A rule is morally valuable if happiness or welfare.
its adherence generally maximizes welfare, even
if a specific action might not lead to the best These two divisions can be combined to create four
outcome. distinct forms of utilitarianism:
1. ACT HEDONISTIC UTILITARIANISM:

 An action is deemed morally good if it maximizes

aggregate happiness.
 Conversely, it is considered morally bad if it does
not maximize happiness.
 This variant is often identified with classical
utilitarianism, which emphasizes the outcomes of
specific actions.

2. RULE HEDONISTIC UTILITARIANISM:

 An action is viewed as morally good if it aligns

with a rule that, when generally followed, will
maximize aggregate happiness.
 It is considered morally bad if it deviates from
such a rule.

3. ACT NON-HEDONISTIC UTILITARIANISM:

 An action is morally good if it maximizes

aggregate welfare, encompassing broader
benefits beyond mere pleasure.
 It is judged to be morally bad if it fails to achieve
this maximization of welfare.

4. RULE NON-HEDONISTIC UTILITARIANISM:

 An action is deemed morally good if it adheres to

a rule that typically maximizes aggregate welfare
when generally followed.
 It is considered morally bad if it violates such a
rule.
 In variations 3 and 4, the term "welfare" refers to
anything that benefits individuals or enhances the
quality of their lives, which may or may not
involve the experience of pleasure.

Despite the diversity within its forms, utilitarianism

maintains significant influence due to several
reasons:

a) It promotes impartiality in moral considerations.

b) It provides a practical approach to resolving
conflicts and disagreements.
c) It serves as a foundational framework for decision-
making in various fields, including economics,
business, and politics.

Utilitarianism is integral to many strategic

decision-making methods, such as:

a. Cost-Benefit Analysis
b. Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
c. Subjective Expected Utility Analysis
d. Quality-Adjusted Life Years Analysis

However, like other ethical theories, utilitarianism

faces criticisms and limitations:

 Critics argue that pursuing the maximization of

aggregate good can lead to injustices and
violations of individual rights.
 Proponents of utilitarianism address these
concerns by suggesting that concepts of justice
and rights hold instrumental or derived value.
 They argue that justice and rights are valuable
only to the extent that they contribute to the
maximization of aggregate welfare.