Class 12 Biology

Chapter 15. Biodiversity and Conservation

Biodiversity: the variety and variability of life forms present on earth is term as biodiversity. It
includes microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa), fungi, plants and animals. diversity in the biosphere
exist not only in at species levelbut at all levels of biological organisation from macromolecules
within the cell to biomes.The term 'biodiversity' (coined by Thomas Lovejoy) was popularised by
Edward Wilson, a sociobiologist. According to him, biological diversity exists at three levels which
include:

1. Genetic diversity:it is the measure of the number and types of genes as well
chromosomes
present within the same species.Eg: medicinal plant Rauwolfia vomitoria growing in different regions
of Himalayas have different potency and concentration of active chemical. The number of genes is
small in smaller organisms and is higher in more evolved one. E.g., bacteriophage has 100
genes
whereas Homo sapiens has around 30,000 genes.

2. Species diversity: it refers to total number of species in an ecosystem. The more the
number,
richer is the ecosystem. E.g., Western Ghats with 252 species of amphibians has greater diversity
than Eastern Ghats with only 25 species.

3. Ecosystem diversity: it refers to variety of various ecosystems due to diversity of niches, trophic
levels and ecological processes like nutrient recycling, food webs, energy flowetc. E.g., different
types of ecosystems in India such as deserts, rain forests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands etc.
How many species are there on earth and India?
Species diversity of earth:
IUCN, 2004 report shows that there are slightly more than 1.5 million plants and animal species
known to us. But taxonomist placed the number between 1.7-1.8 million with 10,25,000 species of
insects, 2,70,000 higher plants, 53,239 vertebrates, 72000 fungi etc. Robert May has placed the
global diversity as 7 million based on rate of species discovery. Also, many taxonomic groups and
Species inventories are more complete in temperate then in tropics regions.Based on the current
species inventories, earth's biodiversity comprises of more than 70% animals and 22% plants.
Among animals, arthropods are the most abundant making 70% of the total animals' species (which
means 7 outof every 10animals are arthropods).Fungiare more abundant than the vertebrates.
This estimation, however, does not include prokaryotes as conventional taxonomic methods are not
suitable for identifying microbial species and many of them are not culturable in the laboratory
conditions. But if one use biochemical or molecular criteria to estimate them, their diversity alone
may be more than million.
Species diversity of India:Though India has just 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports a rich
species diversity i.e., 8.1%., making it one of the mega biodiversity countries. India has >45000 plants
species and animals twice as many as plants. It is believed that only 22% of total species so far
recorded. If we apply May's estimation to India's biodiversity it is believed that>1 lakh plant species
and >3 lakhs animal species are yet to be discovered and described.
Patterns of biodiversity distribution: biodiversity is not is uniform throughout the world. The
distribution is dependent on different gradients such as latitude, altitude, geography, topography
etc.

1. Latitudinalgradients: -refers to increase in species richness that occurs from the poles to the
tropics for variety of terrestrial and marine life forms. This is because tropical regions have
favourable conditions for growth throughout the year. Tropics with latitudinal range of 23.50Nto
23.505, harbour more species than Temperate or Polar areas. Colombia located near the equator has
1400 bird's species whereas Greenland at 710N only has 56 species. India with its larger portion
towards Tropical latitudes has more than 1200 bird species. Forest in Tropical region like Ecuador,
has 10 times more vascular plant species compare to Temperate Forest of same
size.Amazon which
is located in South America has the greatest biodiversity with 40,000 plant species, 3000 fishes,
1300
birds, 427 mammals and amphibians, 378 reptiles and 1,25,000 invertebrate's species and many
species waiting to be discovered.

Factors that influence great diversity in Tropics: according to ecologists and evolutionary biologists
following are the factors for greater biodiversity in the Tropics:

a. Unlike temperate regions that are subjected to frequent glaciation in the past, tropical latitudes
have remained undisturbed for millions of years, thus, had enough time for speciation (undergo
changes evolving into a new kind).

b. Tropical environments are less seasonal, more constant and predictable. This led Tropics to have
greater Species diversity.

c. Availability of light-: more solar energy is available in the tropical region which favour higher
productivity thus, favour greater species diversity.

2.Species- Area relationship: Geographer, Alexander Von Humboldt while exploring the South
American jungles during his research study observed that species richness increases with increase in
the area of exploration but up to only a certain limit. Infact, he found out that the relation between
species richness and area for angiosperms, birds, bats, fishes etc., turned out to be a rectangular
hyperbola. It can be expressed as an equation on the log scale.
Log S= log C+Z log A

Where,S= sp. Richness; C= Yintercept;

Z= slope of line (regression coefficient) and A= Area

Ecologists have discovered that the value of Zis similar irrespective of the taxonomic groups within a
geographical region. For instance, the value of Z lies between 0.1 to 0.2 for plants in Britain, birds in
California or molluscs in New York.

Importance of species diversity to ecosystem:Ecologists believed that Stability of ecosystem is

dependent on the diversity of species in acommunity- the more the number of species, more stable
is the community. Astable ecosystem must:

1. Not showtoo much variation in productivity from year to year. David Tillman's longterm
ecosystem experiments on outdoor plots showed that- plots with more species showed less year-to
year variation in total biomass.It was reportedthat increased diversity contributed to higher
productivity.
2. It must be resistant/resilient to occasional disturbances. Increase biodiversity provides resilience
to the ecosystem against occasional natural or man-made disturbances and invasion by alien
species.

3. Biodiversity maintains good health of the ecosystem through various check and controls and also
negative and positive feedbacks. Rich biodiversity is not only essential for ecosystem health but for
the very survival of human race on this planet.
(Rivet popper hypothesis- refer text book)

Causes of biodiversity loss: the ability of wildlife to survive depends on the capacity of the
particular species to withstand the adverse environmental factors, availability of food and
conditions for reproduction. Some of the major causes of biodiversity lost is discussed below:

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation: this is the most important cause ofplantsandanimals'
extinction.With increase in human population, more land has been cleared for agriculture,
housing, transport, industries, dams, bridges and irigation canals. This has led to cutting down of
trees, burning forest, ploughing grassland, filing wetlands. These activities cause destruction of
natural habitats. Forinstance, habitat loss by different wild species from Tropical rain forest.
TheAmazon Forest, the ecosystem with richest biodiversity, popularly known as the "lungs of the
planet",which once covered 14% of the total land area nowis hardly made up only6%. It has lost
most ofits species diversity due to conversion of forest land into agricultural land for soybean
cultivation andgrasslands for raising beef cattle. Habitat of many wild species are also degraded due
to pollution caused byautomobiles and cleanliness drive. Large habitats are often broken up into
smaller fragments by human activities which affect mammals such as elephants, bears etc., and birds
which require larger territories leading to decline in their population. Forest fires due to certain
human activities or by chance can also lead to loss of habitat.

2. Over exploitation: man has been dependent on nature for food and shelter. But when this need
turned into greed, it leads to over-exploitation of natural resources.Merciless hunting of individuals
of selected group for food or recreation or other benefits is overexploitation. Some animals which
are extinct due to such activity are Dodos, Steller's Sea Cow, Passenger Pigeon, Tasmanian tigers,
Woolly Mammoths etc. illegal trade in endangered species or their body parts has led to the
disappearance of whale, elephants, tigers, lions, rhinoceros, snakes, crocodiles etc. overexploitation
of plants of scientific and medicinalvalue has caused their disappearance. E.g., Nepenthes, Drosera,
Gnetum and Psilotunm are often collected for teaching and laboratory work have become rare.
Medicinal plants like Podophylum, Aconitum, Rauwolfia, Atropa etc. are disappearing.

3.Alien species invasions:any species that is introduced into a geographical area or locality or in an
ecosystem accidentally or deliberately from the outside is called exotic or alien species. some of
these species when introduced to a new habitat turn invasive and threatened the existence of many
native species. One such example is theintroduction of Nile Perch into Lake Victoria in East Africa
which led to the extinction of more than 200 species of Cichlid fish in the lake.Other examples
include invasive weed species such carrot grass (Parthenium), Lantana and water hyacinth
(Eichhornia). Lantana camara which was introduced in Indiaas hedge plant has covered lands meant
for pasture, cultivated fields, wastelands and forests. Water hyacinth, Alternathera etc., clog lakes,
rivers and streams increase water loss by transpiration. Parthenium which entered India by chance
has replaced several herbs. Recently introduced African catfish,Clarias gariepinus, for aquaculture is
posing threat to the indigenous catfishes of our country.

4.Co-extinction: when extinction of a species take place, the plants and animals obliquely
associated to that species also get extinct. Eg: when a host fish gets extinct, its parasites also meet
the same fate. Another example is the plant- polinator association which co-evolved with one
another; extinction of one species will invariably lead to the extinction of another.

Consequences of biodiversity loss: The biodiversity of our planet is declining rapidly and it is who
are largely responsible for this. Loss of biodiversity leads to extinction of species. In 2004, the IUCN
Red list has documented the extinction of 338 vertebrate species, 359 invertebrate species and 87
plant species. Recent extinction includes the dodo bird (Mauritius), Steller's Sea cow (Russia), Gaugga
(Africa), Thylacine (Australia) and 3 subspecies of tiger (Bali, Javan, Caspian).In the last 20 years the
earth has lost 27 species due to extinction.Extinction of organisms is not random. It has been
observed that some appeared to be more vulnerable to extinction. E.g..: amphibians. At present
15,500 species are on the threat of extinction worldwide- 12% birds, 23% mammals, 32%
amphibians and 31% gymnosperms.

In fact, fossil record shows that 5 mass extinction of species have taken place in the past and the
earth is on the process of 6th episode of massextinction which is occurring 100 to 1000 times much
faster than the previous ones and is due to increase anthropogenic activities. There is a fear that if
this trend continues,the entire life forms might be totally wiped out from the face of the earth. If
biodiversity loss continues, there willbe decline in plant production, lowered resistance to
environmental perturbationsuch as drought, flood, erosion etc. andincrease variability in certain
ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use and pest and disease cycles.
Why conserve biodiversity?
There are many reasons as to why we should conserve biodiversity. They are grouped mainly into 3
categories:

1. Narrow Utilitarian argument: it argues that biodiversity has to be conserved as man derived
countless of benefits from the nature. These benefits include food, firewood, fibres, construction
material, industrial products and medicine. Man obtained food from livestock, forestry and fish.
other products like fur, skin,musk, leather, lac, honey etc., are also obtained from wild animals. 75%
of human population depend on plants for medicine. More than 25% of the drugs sold in the market
worldwide are derived from the plants and 25,000 plants species are used for traditional medicine. It
is believed that many more medicinal plants are waiting to be discovered from the tropical rain
forest. With increasing resources put into bioprospecting, nations endowed with rich biodiversity
can expect to reap enormous benefits.

(Bioprospecting: refers to exploring molecular, genetic and species level diversity for products of
economic importance.)

2. Broadly utilitarian argument: it is concerned with ecosystem services that are provided by the
nature such as oxygen, climate regulation, pollination, nutrient cycling, soil protection, aquifers and
flood control, biological pest control and ecotourism.

i. Oxygen: Atmosphericoxygen is replenished by photosynthesis. The Amazon Forest is estimated to

contribute 20% of the total globaloxygen in the atmosphere.

ii. Pollination is another service provided by the ecosystem through pollinators such as bees,
bumblebees, birds and bats.

iii. Forest and oceans regulate climate.

iv. Nutrient cycling:Soil microorganisms release inorganic compounds from dead organic matter into
the environment which is used again by the plants.

v. biological pest control: In nature, pest arse control by the natural predators.
v. Ecotourism: Biodiversity also provide aesthetic and attraction value. It provides recreation to the
people of all walks of life. 'Bird watching', is a popular hobby among foreigners. Going for a walk or
trekking into the torest, visiting zoos, sanctuaries and parks provide thrilling experiences to people oT
all the ages.

3. The ethical argument: this argument relates to what we owe to the millions of plant, animal and
microbe species with whom we share the planet.Man shares biosphere with plants, microbes and
other animals. They have evolved just as man has evolved. Aspecies may not have any direct
economic value, it does have an intrinsic value. Therefore, it becomes our moral and ethicalduty not
to destroy them but preserve.

How do we conserve biodiversity?

The rich biodiversitycan be conserved by practicing the following conservation methods:

1. In situ conservation:it is also known as 'on site conservation'. Here, plants and animals are
protected in their natural habitat. for maximum protection of wildlife, conservationists identify
regions with high level of endemism and declare them as biodiversity hotspots. At present we have
34 biodiversity hotspots around the world out of which 3 are in India- Western Ghats and Sri Lanka,
the Himalayaand Indo-Burma and Sundaland (including Nicobar Islands). Although hotspots cover
less than 2% of the earth's landarea, species diversity is very high and if strictly protected can
prevent mass extinctions almost by 30%.India itself hosts unique and biodiversity-rich regions which
are legally protected as biosphere reserves, national parks and sanctuaries. At present India has 66
National parks, 421 Sanctuaries and 14 Biosphere reserves. Our country also has a history of
religious and cultural tradition that emphasised protection of nature resources such as sacred
grooves which are found in Khasi and Jaintia hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli hills of Rajasthan, Western
Ghats of Karnataka and Maharashtra and Sarguja etc., in Meghalaya, these grooves are the last
refuges for large number of rare and threatened plants.

2. Ex-situConservation: animals and plants which are endangered and threatened are taken out
from their natural habitat and are placed in special setting to be protected and give special care.
Such practice to conserve the wild population is called Ex-situ conservation or off-site conservation.
Some of the settings for such purposes include Zoological parks, Botanical gardens and Wildlife
Safariparks. These has enabled in conserving some of the animalspecies which are already extinct in
their natural habitat. In recent years, conservation has advanced beyond keeping threatened species
in enclosures. Conservation, at present, is carried out applying biotechnology through the use of
molecular techniques.Gametes of threatened species are preserved in viable and fertile condition
for long period using Cryopreservation techniques, eggs can be fertilized in vitro and plants can be
propagated using tissue culture methods. Seeds of different genetic strains of commercialy
important plants can also be kept for long periods in seed banks.

With the realization of importance of biodiversity, many nations have joined hands to protect and
conserve the rich diversity. The convention on Biodiversity in Rio de Janeiro in1992 called the Earth
summit,calledup on all the nations to take appropriate measures for conservation of biodiversity
and sustainable utilization of its benefits.The World Summit on sustainable Development held in
2003, a follow up Earth Summit, 190 countries pledged their commitment to achieve by 2010 a
significant reduction inthe current rate of biological loss at global, regional and local levels.
Administrative bodies for conservation of Biodiversity:
1. International union for Conservation of Nature and Natural resources (|UCN): an international
agencyfounded in 1948 with its headquarter in Switzerland and membered by several nations,
government departments and private institutions. The main objective of IUCN is to promote and
support the preparation of wildlife and natural resources.

2. World Wide Fund (WWF): Established in Switzerland with Giant Panda as its symbol. 23 nations
including India are its members. Its action plan is to save the world, its people and wildlife.