Operational Amplifier

An Op Amp is an analog circuit block that takes a differential voltage input

and produces a single-ended voltage output.
Op amps usually have three terminals: two high-impedance inputs and a low-
impedance output port. The inverting input is denoted with a minus (-) sign,
and the non-inverting input uses a positive (+) sign. Operational amplifiers
work to amplify the voltage differential between the inputs, which is useful for
a variety of analog functions including signal chain, power, and control
applications.
There are four ways to classify Operational Amplifier:
• Voltage amplifiers take voltage in and produce a voltage at the output.
• Current amplifiers receive a current input and produce a current output.
• Transconductance amplifiers convert a voltage input to a current
output.
• Transresistance amplifiers convert a current input and produces a
voltage output.

Figure 1 ( Operational Amplifier Schematic)

Operational Amplifiers: Key Characteristics and Parameters
There are many different important characteristics and parameters related to
op amps . These characteristics are described in greater detail below.
Open-loop gain
Open-loop gain: The open-loop gain (“A” in Figure 1) of an Operational
Amplifiers is the measure of the gain achieved when there is no feedback
implemented in the circuit. This means the feedback path, or loop, is open.
An open-loop gain often must be exceedingly large (10,000+) to be useful in
itself, except with voltage comparators.
Voltage comparators compare the input terminal voltages. Even with small
voltage differentials, voltage comparators can drive the output to either the
positive or negative rails. High open-loop gains are beneficial in closed-loop
configurations, as they enable stable circuit behaviors across temperature,
process, and signal variations.
Input impedance
Another important characteristic of op amps is that they generally have high
input impedance (“ZIN” in Figure 1). Input impedance is measured between
the negative and positive input terminals, and its ideal value is infinity, which
minimizes loading of the source. (In reality, there is a small current leakage.)
Arranging the circuitry around an operational amplifier may significantly alter
the effective input impedance for the source, so external components and
feedback loops must be carefully configured. It is important to note that input
impedance is not solely determined by the input DC resistance. Input
capacitance can also influence circuit behavior, so that must be taken into
consideration as well.
Output impedance
An operational amplifier ideally has zero output impedance (“ZOUT” in Figure
1). However, the output impedance typically has a small value, which
determines the amount of current it can drive, and how well it can operate as
a voltage buffer.
Frequency response and bandwidth (BW)
An ideal op amp would have an infinite bandwidth (BW), and would be able to
maintain a high gain regardless of signal frequency. However, all operational
amplifiers have a finite bandwidth, generally called the “-3dB point,” where
the gain begins to roll as frequency increases. The gain of the amplifier then
decreases at a rate of -20dB/decade while the frequency increases. Op amps
with a higher BW have improved performance because they maintain higher
gains at higher frequencies; however, this higher gain results in larger power
consumption or increased cost.
Gain bandwidth product (GBP)
As the name suggests, GBP is a product of the amplifier’s gain and
bandwidth. GBP is a constant value across the curve, and can be calculated
with Equation (1):
𝐺𝐵𝑃 = 𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑥𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ = 𝐴𝑥𝐵𝑊
GBP is measured at the frequency point at which the operational amplifier’s
gain reaches unity. This is useful because it allows the user to calculate the
device’s open-loop gain at different frequencies. An operational amplifier’s
GBP is generally a measure of its usefulness and performance, as op amps
with a higher GBP can be used to achieve better performance at higher
frequencies.

These are the major parameters to consider when selecting an operational

amplifier in your design, but there are many other considerations that may
influence your design, depending on the application and performance needs.
Other common parameters include input offset voltage, noise, quiescent
current, and supply voltages.
Negative Feedback and Closed-Loop Gain
In an operational amplifier, negative feedback is implemented by feeding a
portion of the output signal through an external feedback resistor and back to
the inverting input (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 (Negative Feedback with Inverting Operational Amplifier)

Negative feedback is used to stabilize the gain. By using a negative feedback,
the closed-loop gain can be determined via external feedback components
that can have higher accuracy compared to the operational amplifier’s
internal components. This is because the internal op amp components may
vary substantially due to process shifts, temperature changes, voltage
changes, and other factors. The closed-loop gain can be calculated
with Equation (2):
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
=
𝑣𝑖𝑛 𝑓
Op Amp as Voltage comparator:
The comparator is an electronic decision-making circuit that makes use of an
operational amplifiers very high gain in its open-loop state, that is, there is no
feedback resistor.
The Op-amp comparator compares one analogue voltage level with another
analogue voltage level, or some preset reference voltage, VREF and produces
an output signal based on this voltage comparison. In other words, the op-
amp voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and
determines which is the largest of the two.
We have seen in previous tutorials that the operational amplifier can be used
with negative feedback to control the magnitude of its output signal in the
linear region performing a variety of different functions. We have also seen
that the standard operational amplifier is characterized by its open-loop
gain AO and that its output voltage is given by the expression: VOUT = AO(V+ – V-
) where V+ and V- correspond to the voltages at the non-inverting and the
inverting terminals respectively.
Voltage comparators on the other hand, either use positive feedback or no
feedback at all (open-loop mode) to switch its output between two saturated
states, because in the open-loop mode the amplifiers voltage gain is basically
equal to AVO. Then due to this high open loop gain, the output from the
comparator swings either fully to its positive supply rail, +Vcc or fully to its
negative supply rail, -Vcc on the application of varying input signal which
passes some preset threshold value.
The open-loop op-amp comparator is an analogue circuit that operates in its
non-linear region as changes in the two analogue inputs, V+ and V- causes it
to behave like a digital bistable device as triggering causes it to have two
possible output states, +Vcc or -Vcc. Then we can say that the voltage
comparator is essentially a 1-bit analogue to digital converter, as the input
signal is analogue but the output behaves digitally.
Op-amp Comparator Circuit
The op-amp comparator circuit functions by comparing an input voltage (VIN)
against a reference voltage (VREF). When VIN is less than VREF, the output is
LOW at the negative supply voltage (-Vcc), indicating negative saturation. If
VIN is increased above VREF, the output switches rapidly to HIGH at the
positive supply voltage (+Vcc), resulting in positive saturation. A decrease in
VIN back below VREF flips the output back to negative saturation,
demonstrating the comparator's role as a threshold detector.
The output state of the op-amp comparator is based on the relationship
between VIN and VREF: the output is HIGH when the non-inverting input is
greater than the inverting input and LOW otherwise. This behavior holds true
regardless of the input connections to the non-inverting or inverting inputs.
The output voltage levels are constrained by the op-amp's power supply
voltages, with practical outputs limited to +Vcc or -Vcc, despite the
theoretically infinite output potential due to high open-loop gain. Typically, a
resistive voltage divider sets the reference voltage, though other sources like
batteries, zener diodes, or potentiometers can also be employed to provide a
variable reference voltage.

Figure 3 ( Voltage Comparator)