lubricants

Article
Friction and Wear Behavior between Crane Wire Rope and
Pulley under Different Contact Loads
Xiangdong Chang 1,2 , Xiao Chen 3,4, *, Yaoyuan Dong 5 , Hao Lu 1,2 , Wei Tang 1,2 , Qing Zhang 1,2 and Kun Huang 1,2

1 Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Mine Mechanical and Electrical Equipment, School of Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
2 Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Intelligent Mining Equipment, Xuzhou 221116, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Mining Response and Disaster Prevention and Control in Deep Coal Mines,
Anhui University of Science and Technology, Huainan 232001, China
4 Coal Mine Safety Mining Equipment Innovation Center of Anhui Province, Anhui University of Science and
Technology, Huainan 232001, China
5 Angang Steel Company Limited, Anshan 114000, China
* Correspondence: 2020130@aust.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-150-6219-5713

Abstract: Surface wear caused by contact between crane wire rope and a pulley seriously affects
the mechanical properties of the wire rope. In this study, the tribological behavior of wire rope was
investigated using a homemade rope–pulley sliding friction test rig. Then, the influence of different
surface wear on the bending fatigue life of the rope samples was analyzed. The results show that
the friction coefficient (COF) decreases with the increasing sliding distance. It reaches a minimum of
approximately 0.52 when the contact load is 700 N. The surface temperature of the wire rope rises
rapidly and then gradually stabilizes. The maximum temperature rise fluctuates in the range of 50 ◦ C
to 60 ◦ C with increasing contact load. The wear scar of the wire rope is irregular, and the maximum
wear width increases from approximately 1.94 mm to 2.45 mm with the contact load. Additionally,
increased contact load leads to smoother wear surface of wire rope, and the wear mechanisms are
mainly abrasive wear and adhesive wear. Additionally, surface wear leads to a decrease in the
Citation: Chang, X.; Chen, X.; Dong, bending fatigue life of wire ropes, and degradation of anti-bending fatigue is more serious under a
Y.; Lu, H.; Tang, W.; Zhang, Q.; larger sliding contact load.
Huang, K. Friction and Wear
Behavior between Crane Wire Rope
Keywords: crane wire rope; pulley groove; sliding friction; surface wear; bending fatigue
and Pulley under Different Contact
Loads. Lubricants 2022, 10, 337.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
lubricants10120337
1. Introduction
Received: 30 October 2022
Wire rope is an important bearing and transmission component of crane machinery.
Accepted: 28 November 2022
The mechanical properties of the wire rope in service are directly related to the safe and
Published: 29 November 2022
reliable operation of the equipment system and the life safety of operators [1]. However,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral during operation of the crane, the wire rope is affected by the system structure and working
with regard to jurisdictional claims in conditions, resulting in different wear of the wire rope [2,3]. This in turn leads to its
published maps and institutional affil- performance degradation and service life reduction. In order to achieve a wide range
iations. of heavy lifting, wire rope is used with pulleys, as shown in Figure 1. When the crane
completes hoisting, rotating, amplitude variation and driving functions, the wire rope is
subjected to irregular vibration and impact loads [4,5]. This leads to relative sliding and
frictional wear between the wire rope and the pulley groove [6,7]. Additionally, the wire
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
rope–pulley system is in a suspended state during service, and it will shake under loading
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
conditions. Thus, the wire rope will twist and swing on the pulley groove, resulting in
This article is an open access article
complex sliding contacts and severe surface wear. In this engineering application, the
distributed under the terms and
tribological behavior between the wire rope and the pulley not only harms the service
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
performance of wire ropes but also affects the operation stability of the hoisting system.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
Therefore, exploring the sliding friction characteristics and wear mechanism between
4.0/).

Lubricants 2022, 10, 337. https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants10120337 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/lubricants

 Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 2 of 19

Therefore, exploring the sliding friction characteristics and wear mechanism between the
wirewire
the roperope
andand
the the
pulley is ofisgreat
pulley significance
of great to itstostructural
significance design,
its structural safe safe
design, use and
use
maintenance.
and maintenance.

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagram of
of operation
operation system
system of
of crane
crane wire
wire rope.
rope.

In
Inrecent
recentyears,
years, many
many scholars
scholars have have carried
carried out research on damage and safe service
of
ofwire
wireroperopeunder
under actual
actual working
working conditions.
conditions. Wear, corrosion and fatigue are the main main
damage
damage formsforms of of wire
wire ropes
ropes [8].
[8]. To explore the fretting friction friction and
and wear
wear behavior
behavior be- be-
tween
tween internal
internal steel
steel wires
wires of of wire
wire rope
rope caused
caused by complex stress state, state, Wang
Wang et al. [9,10]
investigated
investigatedthe thedynamic
dynamic wearwear evolution
evolution and fretting fatigue characteristics between steel
wires
wiresunder
under different slidingslidingamplitudes.
amplitudes.Larger Larger relative
relative displacement
displacement reduces
reduces the the sur-
surface
face
wearwear of steel
of steel wires. wires. Cruzado
Cruzado et al.et[11–13]
al. [11–13]
deeplydeeply analyzed
analyzed the influence
the influence of contact
of contact load
load
and and crossing
crossing angleangle on fretting
on fretting friction
friction and and
wearwearbetweenbetween
steel steel
wireswires by simulation
by simulation and
and experiment. The results show that the wear volume
experiment. The results show that the wear volume caused by fretting between caused by fretting between steel
steel wires
wires
depends depends
mainlymainly on variation
on variation in normal in normal contact
contact load. load. Additionally,
Additionally, considering considering
the influ-
the
enceinfluence of the structural
of the structural characteristics
characteristics of wire rope,of wire rope, different
different spiralstates
spiral contact contact states
between
between
the steel thewiressteel
willwires
alsowill also
affect affect
their their fatigue
fretting frettingbehavior
fatigue behavior [14]. Furthermore,
[14]. Furthermore, because
because
the servicethe service
environmentenvironment
of wireof wireisrope
rope veryisharsh,
very harsh,
corrosivecorrosive environmental
environmental mediamedia
have
have a greater impact on the surface lubrication and friction state
a greater impact on the surface lubrication and friction state of the wire rope [15]. Wang of the wire rope [15].
Wang et al. [16] analyzed the tribo-fatigue behaviors of rope wires
et al. [16] analyzed the tribo-fatigue behaviors of rope wires under different environmen- under different environ-
mental
tal media media
(air, (air,
acid,acid, neutral
neutral and alkaline
and alkaline electrolyte
electrolyte solutions,
solutions, and deionized
and deionized water).water).
They
They found that the wear mechanisms include abrasive
found that the wear mechanisms include abrasive wear, adhesive wear, corrosion wear, adhesive wear, corrosion
wear
wear and fatigue
and fatigue wear.wear.Sun etSun
al. et
[17]al.carried
[17] carried
out anout an experimental
experimental studystudy on modification
on modification of wireof
wire
roperope
greasegrease
andand found
found thatthat
thethe anti-wear
anti-wear ability
ability of of
thethebase
basegrease
greasecan
canbe beenhanced
enhanced by by
addition
additionof ofmultilayer
multilayer graphene
graphene or or micron
micron graphite.
graphite. In In addition
addition to to fretting
fretting wear
wear between
between
internal wires, surface wear of wire ropes due to external contact
internal wires, surface wear of wire ropes due to external contact is also an important is also an important
cause
causeof ofdamage
damageand andperformance
performancedegradation
degradationofofwire wire ropes.
ropes. Considering
Considering thethe
influence
influence of
vibration shock and ambient temperature, Peng et al. [18,19] explored
of vibration shock and ambient temperature, Peng et al. [18,19] explored the sliding fric- the sliding friction
and
tionwear
and characteristics
wear characteristicsof wire of ropes
wire under different
ropes under impact
differentloads and low-temperature
impact loads and low-
environments. They found that effective lubrication reduces impact vibration and low
temperatures increase the COF between wire ropes. Oksanen et al. [20,21] analyzed the
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 3 of 19

contact and wear characteristics between wire rope and a pulley, focusing on the effect
of relative sliding on the surface damage of the groove. The results show that material
removal proceeds through spalling of the deformation tongues by crack growth between
the graphite nodules and the surface. Moreover, the main harm of wear to wire rope is
degradation of its mechanical properties, which in turn reduces the service life of wire
ropes and threatens the safety and reliability of the equipment system. Chang et al. [22]
explored the influence of different wear scars on the breaking strength of wire rope. They
found that surface wear causes breaking elongation of wire rope to decrease and changes
the fracture morphology. Jikal et al. [23] studied the influence of different corrosions on the
fatigue limit of wire ropes through comparative tests and proposed a method for predicting
the life of wire ropes in corrosive environments. They found that corrosion could lead
to a significant decrease in fatigue strength and accelerate fatigue damage of corroded
steel strands. Fatigue life decreases linearly with corrosion level. Chen et al. [24] estab-
lished a corrosion damage model of multi-layer strand wire rope and analyzed the effect
of pitting corrosion on its mechanical properties. Wahid et al. [25] studied the effect of
number of broken wires on fracture failure of wire ropes and proposed a damage prediction
method. By analyzing the mechanical and chemical properties of wire rope, they found
that the behavior of wire rope is semi-brittle. Based on a bending fatigue test of wire ropes,
Battini et al. [26] proposed a thermal method for estimating fatigue life of metallic ropes.
The proposed model showed a very good correlation between early-stage data and first
wire failure conditions. Then, the research results realized evaluation of damage and life of
wire ropes by monitoring heat changes.
To improve the tribological behavior of wire rope under different service conditions,
Zhang et al. [27,28] studied the tribological behavior of wire rope under the condition of
modified lubricating oil and analyzed the effect of different additives on reducing the sur-
face wear. They found that lanthanum-stearate-modified lubricating oil can better reduce
the wear of wire rope under different sliding speeds and contact loads. Chang et al. [29]
studied the tribological properties of lubricated wire ropes in different corrosive envi-
ronments. The results show that the corrosion solutions degenerate the anti-friction and
anti-wear properties of the lubricating grease and oil. McColl et al. [30] studied the friction
and wear properties of steel wire under different lubrication conditions and found that
grease lubrication can form a better protective layer on the contact surface and reduce the
COF. Périer et al. [31] analyzed the fretting friction and wear behaviors of wires in NaCl
solution and aqueous solution. The results show that the influence of NaCl solution on
fretting fatigue life is not obvious. Molnár et al. [32] studied the performance degradation
of wire rope and internal wire in salt solution. It is helpful to predict the service life of wire
ropes. Wu et al. [33] studied the influence of sulfide concentration, stress level and pH
value on stress corrosion cracking of steel wire. They found that galvanized coating was
effective in reducing the corrosion.
Through the above analysis, it can be found that the existing research mainly focuses
on fretting fatigue of steel wires and surface wear between wire ropes. However, the
variation characteristics of friction behavior and wear mechanisms mainly depend on
tribological (friction) pairs [34,35]. There are few studies on the rope–pulley friction and
wear system. This surface wear is also common under service conditions of crane wire
ropes. Additionally, it is difficult to accurately judge the service state and safety reliability
of wire rope without fully mastering the damage forms and characteristic mechanisms.
Therefore, it is necessary to study the tribological behavior of crane wire rope in the process
of bending over the pulley and reveal the damage to its service performance.
In this paper, sliding friction and wear tests between wire rope and a pulley under
different contact loads were carried out. Variations in the COF, friction temperature rise
and characteristic parameters (wear width and wear loss) of surface wear under different
test conditions were measured and analyzed. Additionally, the characteristics and wear
mechanisms of the wear surface were revealed. Finally, the fracture failure behaviors of
different worn wire ropes under bending fatigue load were analyzed. The degradation
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 20

Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 4 of 19

mechanisms of the wear surface were revealed. Finally, the fracture failure behaviors of
different worn wire ropes under bending fatigue load were analyzed. The degradation
characteristics of the bending fatigue life of the rope samples were studied. Related re-
characteristics
search of the
can reveal thebending
rope–pulleyfatigue life ofcharacteristics
friction the rope samples andwere studied.
establish the Related research
relationship be-
can reveal
tween weartheand rope–pulley
bending fatiguefrictionlifecharacteristics
degradation. The andresearch
establishresults
the relationship
can provide between
an im-
wear and
portant bending
basis fatigue lifethe
for prolonging degradation.
service life The research
of wire results
rope and can provide
guiding its safeanuse.important
basis for prolonging the service life of wire rope and guiding its safe use.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Test Sample
2.1. Test Sample
In this paper, the friction pairs include wire rope and pulley, as shown in Figure 2.
In this paper, the friction pairs include wire rope and pulley, as shown in Figure 2.
The pulley is made of Q235 steel plate (see Figure 2b,c). Its chemical composition (in wt%)
The pulley is made of Q235 steel plate (see Figure 2b,c). Its chemical composition (in wt%)
is
is 0.18
0.18 C,
C,0.46
0.46Mn,
Mn,0.275
0.275Si,Si,0.045
0.045S Sand and0.040.04P.P.Additionally,
Additionally,the thediameter
diameter of of
thethepulley
pulleyis
400 mm, and the diameter of the rope groove is 14 mm. Furthermore,
is 400 mm, and the diameter of the rope groove is 14 mm. Furthermore, the structure the structure of the
wire
of therope
wireis rope
presented in Figure
is presented in 2d,e.
Figure It is 6 × 19
2d,e. galvanized
It is wire ropewire
6 × 19 galvanized withrope
fiberwith
core fiber
(SZ-
B-0.60-YB/T5294-2009),
core (SZ-B-0.60-YB/T5294-2009), which contains which6contains
strands,6and each and
strands, strandeachconsists
strand of 19 steel
consists of
wires.
19 steel wires. The internal steel wires are manufactured by the cold drawing processhigh-
The internal steel wires are manufactured by the cold drawing process from from
quality carbon
high-quality structural
carbon steel. steel.
structural Additionally, the thickness
Additionally, of galvanized
the thickness layer layer
of galvanized of theofsteel
the
wire is approximately 7 μm to 20 μm. The density of galvanized
steel wire is approximately 7 µm to 20 µm. The density of galvanized low carbon steel low carbon steel wire is
wire
approximately
is approximately 7.81 × 103
7.81 × 103kg/m 3
kg/m . The
3 surface
. The morphology
surface morphology of steel wires
of steel is presented
wires is presented in
Figure
in Figure 2f. The chemical
2f. The chemicalcomposition
composition of theof wire material
the wire (in wt%)
material is 98.69
(in wt%) Fe, 0.87
is 98.69 Fe, C, 0.39
0.87 C,
Si,
0.390.03 Mn and
Si, 0.03 Mn and0.010.01
Ni, Ni,
andandthethe other
otherelements
elements include
includeS and
S andP.P.TheThedetailed
detailedstructural
structural
parameters
parameters of of the
the wire
wire rope
rope are shown in
are shown in Table
Table 1.1.

Wire

(a) Friction pair Strand

Zinc coating

(f) Steel surface

(b) (c) (d) (e)
Sheave groove Groove surface Rope surface Wire rope
Figure
Figure 2.
2. Surface
Surfacestructure
structure of
of friction
friction pairs:
pairs: (a)
(a)contact
contactform,
form,(b)
(b)and
and(c)
(c)pulley,
pulley,(d)
(d)and
and(e)
(e)wire
wirerope,
rope,
(f)
(f) surface
surface morphology
morphology ofof steel
steel wires.
wires.

Table
Table 1. Structure parameters of the wire rope.
rope.

Parameter
Parameter Value Value
Length
Lengthofofthe
the rope sample(mm)
rope sample (mm) 600 600
Diameter of the rope
Diameter of the rope (mm)(mm) 9.3 9.3
Radiusof
Radius ofthe
the steel
steel wires
wires(mm)
(mm) 0.3 0.3
Strandlay
Strand laylength
length (mm)
(mm) 70 70
Strand lay angle (◦ ) 15.5
Strand lay angle (°)
Strand lay direction Right
15.5
Strand laytensile
Nominal direction
strength (Mpa) 1570 Right
Nominal
Breakingtensile
force (N)strength (Mpa) 52,500 1570
Breaking force (N) 52,500
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 5 of 19

2.2. Test Procedure

To investigate the tribological behavior between wire rope and pulley and the effect of
surface wear on its bending fatigue life, the sliding friction and wear tests were conducted
using a homemade test rig, as shown in Figure 3a. The contact angle of the wire rope
is 45◦ . Then, the bending fatigue tests of the damaged rope samples were conducted
using a customized testing machine, as shown in Figure 3d. The friction test rig mainly
includes drive system, rotation system, loading system and data acquisition system. The
pulley is connected with variable frequency motor through a drive shaft. It can realize
continuous rotation under the control of frequency converter. Both ends of the wire rope
are connected with the floating loading device, and the wire rope is in contact with the
pulley rope groove (see Figure 3b,c). During the wear test, the wire rope is clamped firmly
at both ends. Additionally, the floating loading device is connected to the linear guide rails
by four sliders, allowing it to move freely in the vertical direction. Therefore, the contact
load between the wire rope and the pulley is the weight of the floating loading device and
the wire rope. Furthermore, the contact load of the friction pair can be adjusted by placing
different heavy blocks on the floating loading device. Considering that the crane wire rope
is mostly in service under variable loading conditions, sliding friction and wear tests of the
wire rope under different contact loads (F) were conducted. The sliding friction torque of
the wire rope can be monitored in real time by a dynamic torque sensor (between pulley
shaft and the motor) and data acquisition system. The bending fatigue testing machine
can realize continuous left and right bending of the damaged rope samples, as shown in
Figure 3d. One end of the wire rope is connected to the rocker and the other end is fixed by
the arc fixture (see Figure 3e). During the bending fatigue test, the contact state between
the wire rope and the arc fixture is shown in Figure 3f. Additionally, the controller of the
testing machine can adjust the bending frequency of the wire rope and display the bending
times in real time. Therefore, the influence of surface wear on the bending fatigue life of
wire ropes can be revealed by analyzing the relationship between the number of broken
wires and the bending fatigue times of different damaged ropes. In most engineering
applications, wire ropes are judged to be scrapped when the wire breakage rate reaches
10%. The bending fatigue times of the first 12 broken wires were studied in this paper.
Moreover, the detailed parameters of the tribological test and the bending fatigue test are
shown in Table 2.

2.3. Test Parameters and Methods

The sliding friction characteristics between the wire rope and the pulley were analyzed
by the COF and the temperature rise (see Figure 4a). The friction force of the wire rope
can be obtained by the friction torque measured by the dynamic torque sensor and the
radius of the pulley. Then, combined with the contact load between the wire rope and
the pulley, the COF of the wire rope can be calculated. Therefore, this paper analyzed the
variation in the COF with sliding distance and contact load. During the sliding friction test,
the temperature distribution characteristics of the wire rope were monitored and recorded
by an infrared thermal imager. It enables real-time detection and data recording of the
surface temperature of objects in the observation area. Then, the variation temperature
rise in the contact region was analyzed through the maximum temperature and the room
temperature (see Figure 4a). Additionally, the distribution of the surface wear scar was
observed using an optical microscope. The maximum wear width of the wear scar was
measured, as shown in Figure 4b,c. The structural contour of the wire rope is distinguished
by the color change in the 3D diagram, and the same color corresponds to the same height.
The redder the color, the greater the relative height. Furthermore, the weight of wear debris
produced by the friction pair during the wear test was measured by an electronic balance.
The measurement accuracy is 0.1 mg. The wear characteristics and wear mechanisms
of the crane wire rope were analyzed by the optical microscope and scanning electron
microscope (SEM), as shown in Figure 4d. Finally, the variation law of broken wires and
bending fatigue times of the rope sample were analyzed (see Figure 4e). The distribution
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 6 of 19

characteristics and fracture morphology of broken wires in the wear region were observed
and discussed.

Table 2. Experimental parameters.

Sliding Friction and Wear Test Bending Fatigue Test

Parameters Values Parameters Values
Contact load (N) 600, 650, 700, 750, 800 Sample length (mm) 350
Sliding distance (m) 240 Frequency (Hz) 1
Sliding velocity (m/s) 0.8 Number of broken wires 12
Contact angle (◦ ) 45 Bending radius (mm) 100
Contact arc length (mm) 157
Ambient temperature (◦ C) 25 ± 5
Lubricants
Relative2022, 10, x FOR
humidity (%) PEER REVIEW 50 ± 10 6 of 20
Atmosphere Laboratory air

Floating loading bracket

F
A A

Sheave Guide rail

Torque sensor

Motor Sliding block

(a) (b)

Floating loading bracket

Bending
Wire rope
Rocker

(c) A-A
Bending rope
Arc fixture

(d) (e) (f)

Figure3.3.Structure
Figure Structureof oftest
testrigs:
rigs:(a)
(a)sliding
slidingfriction
frictionand
andwear
weartest
testrig,
rig,(b)
(b)front
frontview
viewofof friction
friction tester,
tester,
(c) top view of the friction tester, (d) breaking tensile testing machine, (e) tensioning and fixing of of
(c) top view of the friction tester, (d) breaking tensile testing machine, (e) tensioning and fixing
wirerope,
wire rope,(f)
(f)bending
bendingcontact
contactstate
stateofofwire
wirerope.
rope.

Table 2. Experimental parameters.

Sliding Friction and Wear Test Bending Fatigue Test

Parameters Values Parameters Values
Contact load (N) 600, 650, 700, 750, 800 Sample length (mm) 350
Sliding distance (m) 240 Frequency (Hz) 1
Sliding velocity (m/s) 0.8 Number of broken wires 12
Contact angle (°) 45 Bending radius (mm) 100
Contact arc length (mm) 157
 of wear debris produced by the friction pair during the wear test was measured by an
electronic balance. The measurement accuracy is 0.1 mg. The wear characteristics and
wear mechanisms of the crane wire rope were analyzed by the optical microscope and
scanning electron microscope (SEM), as shown in Figure 4d. Finally, the variation law of
broken wires and bending fatigue times of the rope sample were analyzed (see Figure 4e).
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 7 ofre-
The distribution characteristics and fracture morphology of broken wires in the wear 19

gion were observed and discussed.

Figure 4.4. Main

Main research parameters
research parametersof tribological properties
of tribological and bending
properties fatiguefatigue
and bending behavior: (a) in-
behavior:
frared
(a) thermal
infrared image,image,
thermal (b) 3D(b)
topography of wearofscar,
3D topography wear(c)scar,
optical
(c) micrograph of wear scar,
optical micrograph (d) SEM
of wear scar,
of wear
(d) SEMsurface,
of wear (e) fatigue
surface, (e)broken
fatiguewires.
broken wires.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Sliding
3.1. Sliding Friction
Friction Parameters
Parameters
Figure 55 shows
Figure showsthethevariation
variationininthe
the
COFCOF between
between wirewire
roperope
andand a pulley
a pulley underunder
dif-
different contact loads. Because the surface structure of the wire rope is complex
ferent contact loads. Because the surface structure of the wire rope is complex and is con- and is
constantly
stantly changing
changing during
during thethe sliding
sliding wear,
wear, thethe variationtrend
variation trendofofthe
theCOF
COFwith
with increasing
increasing
sliding distance is obvious (see Figure 5a). In the initial stage of the sliding friction
sliding distance is obvious (see Figure 5a). In the initial stage of the sliding friction test,test,
the
spiral wires of the rope surface contact with the pulley groove directly. The surface of the
the spiral wires of the rope surface contact with the pulley groove directly. The surface of
friction pair is mainly line contact, and the contact area is small. Thus, the COF decreases
the friction pair is mainly line contact, and the contact area is small. Thus, the COF de-
rapidly from the larger position when the sliding distance is less than approximately 30 m.
creases rapidly from the larger position when the sliding distance is less than approxi-
Additionally, as the structures of the wire rope and steel wires are both cylindrical, the
mately 30 m. Additionally, as the structures of the wire rope and steel wires are both cy-
contact area of the friction pair will continue to increase during the sliding process, and
lindrical, the contact area of the friction pair will continue to increase during the sliding
the increase rate is fast and then slow. The contact form changes from line contact to
process, and the increase rate is fast and then slow. The contact form changes from line
surface contact and the contact stress decreases. The COF shows a decreasing trend and
contact to surface contact and the contact stress decreases. The COF shows a decreasing
its decreasing speed becomes significantly smaller as the sliding distance increases from
trend and its decreasing speed becomes significantly smaller as the sliding distance
approximately 50 m to 180 m. Finally, when the sliding distance exceeds 180 m, the COF of
the wire rope enters a relatively stable stage. This indicates that the contact state between
the wire rope and the pulley is relatively stable, and the increase in the sliding distance
does not have a great influence on the surface characteristics. Therefore, the COF between
the crane wire rope and the pulley is constantly changing in the process of service. The
wear state of the wire rope can be judged by its change rule. Moreover, under different
contact loads, the variation trend of the COF with sliding distance is basically the same,
but there are some differences in the stable stage. Figure 5b shows the average COF in the
relative stable stage under different contact loads. It is clear that the effect of the contact
load on the COF is not obvious. The COF fluctuates from approximately 0.5 to 0.6 as the
contact load increases from 600 N to 800 N. Additionally, with the contact load increasing
from 600 N to 700 N, the COF decreases from 0.58 to 0.52. Then, with the contact load
continuing to increase to 800 N, the COF increases linearly to 0.56. This means that the
COF of the wire rope is the minimum at the contact load of 700 N. The variation in the COF
is due to the change in the surface characteristics of the wire rope under different contact
loads. Additionally, the structure of wire rope is complex, and the change in its contact
state during the experiment will also have a great influence on the COF [36]. The increase
 mately 0.5 to 0.6 as the contact load increases from 600 N to 800 N. Additionally, with the
contact load increasing from 600 N to 700 N, the COF decreases from 0.58 to 0.52. Then,
with the contact load continuing to increase to 800 N, the COF increases linearly to 0.56.
This means that the COF of the wire rope is the minimum at the contact load of 700 N.
The variation in the COF is due to the change in the surface characteristics of the wire rope
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 8 of 19
under different contact loads. Additionally, the structure of wire rope is complex, and the
change in its contact state during the experiment will also have a great influence on the
COF [36]. The increase in contact load will increase the effective contact area of the metal
in contact
friction load
pair, will increase
resulting the effective
in an increase in thecontact area of the
COF. However, metalthe
during friction
slidingpair, resulting
process, the
in an increase
larger in thelikely
load is more COF. to However, during
cause plastic the sliding of
deformation process, the larger load ison
the micro-protrusions more
the
likely tosurface,
contact cause plastic
whichdeformation
in turn causes ofthe
thesurface
micro-protrusions on the contact
pits and protrusions surface, which
to complement each
other. This ultimately results in a smoother sliding contact surface of the wire ultimately
in turn causes the surface pits and protrusions to complement each other. This rope. The
results
COF in a smoother
under this slidingsliding contact
condition surface of
is relatively the wire
smaller. rope. TheinCOF
Therefore, under this
the process sliding
of increas-
condition is relatively smaller. Therefore, in the process of increasing
ing the contact load, the two COF variation characteristics are balanced with each other. the contact load,
the two
The COFCOF will variation characteristics
have a minimum are balanced
value. This shows that with
theeach
smoothother. The COF
surface of thewill
wirehave
ropea
minimum value. This shows that the smooth surface of the wire rope
plays a leading role in the COF when the contact load is 700 N. Furthermore, as the contactplays a leading role
in the COF when the contact load is 700 N. Furthermore, as the contact
load continues to increase, the adhesion force increases, and the COF increases during the load continues to
increase, the adhesion force increases, and the COF increases during
sliding process. Moreover, the contact load mainly affects the surface wear degree of the the sliding process.
Moreover,
wire rope, the
andcontact load mainly
the influence on theaffects
COF in thethe
surface
stablewear
stagedegree of the wire
is relatively small. rope,
Theand the
fluctu-
influence on the COF in the stable stage is relatively small. The fluctuation
ation of the COF with contact load is mainly determined by an increase in the temperature of the COF with
contact load is mainly determined by an increase in the temperature in the friction region
in the friction region and the surface wear characteristics of wear scars.
and the surface wear characteristics of wear scars.
0.72
1.0
600 N
COF
Friction coefficient

650 N

Friction coefficient
0.9 0.64 0.58 0.59
700 N 0.56
0.8 750 N 0.54
800 N 0.52
0.56
0.7

0.6 0.48

0.5
0.40
0.4
(a) (b)
0.3 0.32
0 50 100 150 200 250 600 650 700 750 800
Sliding distance (m) Contact load (N)
Figure 5. COF curves between wire rope and pulley under different sliding conditions: (a) process
variation
variation curves
curves with sliding distance,
with sliding distance, (b)
(b) average
average COF
COF in
in the
the relatively
relatively stable
stable stage.
stage.

The infrared thermograms

thermograms of of a friction
friction pair under
under different contact loads are shown
in Figure
Figure 6.6. The
Thesurface
surfacecolor
colorofofthe
thecontact
contactarea
areabetween
between the wire
the wirerope and
rope andthethe
pulley is
pulley
significantly
is significantlybrighter. This
brighter. means
This means the the
temperature in the
temperature in region is higher
the region and aand
is higher great deal
a great
of frictional
deal heat is
of frictional generated
heat during
is generated the friction
during test. test.
the friction Additionally, the temperature
Additionally, dis-
the temperature
distribution
tribution characteristics
characteristics caused
caused bybythethe continuoussliding
continuous slidingbetween
betweenthe
thewire
wirerope
rope and
and the
the
visualized through the infrared thermal image. The
pulley can be visualized The bright
bright area
area spreads
spreads from
from
the top of the contact arc between the rope and the groove to the surrounding area. Since
the pulley rotates continuously during the test, the temperature of its circumference is the
highest, and, the closer to the center of the circle, the lower the temperature. Furthermore,
because the wire rope is a complex structure made of many twisted steel wires, its thermal
conductivity is relatively poor. The color difference between the contact area and the non-
contact area of the wire rope is obvious. This indicates that sliding friction wear only has a
significant effect on the temperature of the contact area of the wire rope. Therefore, in the
service process of crane wire rope, the temperature rise of the wire rope is a transient process
and its impact is not sustainable. However, sliding friction can cause the temperature of
the pulley to remain at a high level. Moreover, an increase in contact load will lead to a
change in the surface temperature of the wire rope, but it is difficult to distinguish through
the color of the infrared thermal images.
 contact area of the wire rope is obvious. This indicates that sliding friction wear only has
a significant effect on the temperature of the contact area of the wire rope. Therefore, in
the service process of crane wire rope, the temperature rise of the wire rope is a transient
process and its impact is not sustainable. However, sliding friction can cause the temper-
ature of the pulley to remain at a high level. Moreover, an increase in contact load will
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 9 of 19
lead to a change in the surface temperature of the wire rope, but it is difficult to distinguish
through the color of the infrared thermal images.

Figure6.6. Infrared
Figure Infrared thermal
thermal images
images of
of the friction pairs:
the friction pairs: (a)
(a) contact
contact load
loadof
of600
600N,
N,(b)
(b)contact
contactload
loadof
of 800
800 N.N.

Figure
Figure77shows
showsthetheinfrared
infraredthermal
thermalimage
imageofofthe
thefriction
frictionpairs
pairsunder
underdifferent
differentsliding
sliding
distances. It clearly shows the variation characteristics of the surface temperature
distances. It clearly shows the variation characteristics of the surface temperature during the
during
friction test. The
the friction test.color
The of the of
color wire
therope changes
wire greatly with
rope changes the increasing
greatly sliding distance,
with the increasing sliding
especially in the early stage of the test. When the sliding distance increases
distance, especially in the early stage of the test. When the sliding distance increases from 5 mfromto
50 m, the surface color of the wire rope gradually changes from dull to
5 m to 50 m, the surface color of the wire rope gradually changes from dull to bright, asbright, as shown
in Figure 7a–d. This means that the surface temperature of the wire rope rises rapidly at
shown in Figure 7a–d. This means that the surface temperature of the wire rope rises rap-
this stage. Additionally, the frictional heat generated by the test is gradually diffused from
idly at this stage. Additionally, the frictional heat generated by the test is gradually dif-
the contact surface, and the temperature of the pulley groove rises significantly faster (see
fused from the contact surface, and the temperature of the pulley groove rises significantly
Figure 7c). This is because the structure of the groove is regular and the surface is complete
faster (see Figure 7c). This is because the structure of the groove is regular and the surface
and continuous. The friction heat transfers faster on the pulley. Furthermore, when the
is complete and continuous. The friction heat transfers faster on the pulley. Furthermore,
sliding distance exceeds 100 m, the surface color of the wire rope is very bright and basically
when the sliding distance exceeds 100 m, the surface color of the wire rope is very bright and
unchanged. However, the temperature of the contact area is still increasing with the sliding
basically as
distance, unchanged. However,
shown in Figure theTherefore,
7e–h. temperaturethe of the contact
friction area is stillby
heat generated increasing with the
the rope–pulley
sliding distance, as shown in Figure 7e–h. Therefore, the friction heat generated
friction transfers slowly on the surface of the wire rope, and the temperature rise is mainly by the rope–
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW
pulley friction transfers slowly on the surface of the wire rope, and the temperature 10rise
of 20
concentrated in the sliding contact area. The temperature variation in the wire rope is more
is mainly
easily concentrated
observed in the sliding
by the infrared thermalcontact
imagerarea.
at theThe temperature
beginning of thevariation
test. in the wire
rope is more easily observed by the infrared thermal imager at the beginning of the test.

Figure 7. Infrared thermal images of wire rope under different sliding distances.
Figure 7. Infrared thermal images of wire rope under different sliding distances.
The variation in the maximum temperature rise of the wire rope with the sliding
The variation in the maximum temperature rise of the wire rope with the sliding distance
distance and the contact load collected by the infrared thermal imager is shown in Figure 8.
and the contact
The difference load collected
among by the infrared
the temperature thermal
rise curves underimager is shown
different contactinloads
Figure 8. Theas
is small, dif-
shown in Figure 8a. The changing trend of the curves is basically the same. The curves in-as
ference among the temperature rise curves under different contact loads is small,
shownrapidly
crease in Figure 8a.beginning
at the The changing trend
of the test butoffluctuate
the curves is basically
greatly. the same.
This is because the The curves
structure
increase rapidly at the beginning of the test but fluctuate greatly. This is because
of the rope surface changes greatly in the initial wear stage. The friction pair changes from the struc-
ture of the rope surface changes greatly in the initial wear stage. The friction pair changes
from discontinuous line contact state to more stable surface contact state. Therefore, the
surface temperature of the wire rope changes greatly in a short sliding distance. Addition-
ally, the contact position of the wire rope on the rope groove changes greatly at this stage,
and the surface temperature distribution of the wire rope is not uniform (see Figure 7).
 Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 10 of 19

discontinuous line contact state to more stable surface contact state. Therefore, the surface
temperature of the wire rope changes greatly in a short sliding distance. Additionally, the
contact position of the wire rope on the rope groove changes greatly at this stage, and the
surface temperature distribution of the wire rope is not uniform (see Figure 7). The location
of highest surface temperature monitored by infrared thermography is constantly chang-
ing. Thus, the maximum temperature rise curves of the rope surface fluctuates greatly
within a sliding distance of approximately 50 m. Furthermore, as the sliding distance
continues to increase (from 50 m to 240 m), the temperature curves gradually stabilize
after a slow growth stage. This indicates that the sliding wear surface of the wire rope
gradually becomes stable. Although friction heat continues to be generated during the test,
the surface temperature rise of the wire rope will not always increase. When the sliding
distance exceeds 150 m, the heat generated by the rope–pulley sliding friction is balanced
with the heat dissipation conditions of the surrounding environment. Thus, the maximum
temperature rise of the wire rope is almost constant at the later stage of the friction test.
Moreover, when the contact loads are 750 N and 800 N, the temperature rise curves rise
significantly faster than other curves in the slow growth stage (from approximately 50 m to
150 m). This means that the increase in contact load will accelerate the increase in surface
temperature of the wire rope during the friction test. This is because the larger contact
load leads to an increase in the surface stress of the wire rope, and the evolution speed of
the wear will be accelerated during the sliding process. Especially in the transition phase,
the wear process will be more severe. Additionally, large contact stress will cause plastic
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20
deformation of the rope surface and the wear surface will be relatively smooth. Thus, more
energy is converted into frictional heat during sliding friction.

80 70
70 (a) (b) 57
Temperature
63
Temperature (℃)

55
Temperature (℃)

60 52.7 53.5
51.7
56
50
40 49
30 600 N
650 N 42
20 700N
750 N 35
10 800 N
0 28
0 50 100 150 200 250 600 650 700 750 800
Sliding distance (m) Contact load (N)
Figure Variationcurves
Figure8.8.Variation curvesofof friction
friction temperature
temperature rise
rise under
under different
different contact
contact loads:
loads: (a) process
(a) process var-
iation curves
variation withwith
curves sliding distance,
sliding (b) (b)
distance, average temperature
average at the
temperature end
at the of of
end thethe
measurement.
measurement.

ToToquantitatively
quantitativelycompare
comparethe theinfluence
influence of of different
different contact
contact loads
loads on friction
on the the friction
tem-
temperature rise in the relatively stable stage, the average temperature
perature rise in the relatively stable stage, the average temperature rise of the rope surfacerise of the rope
surface
was was calculated
calculated based onbased on the
the data data collected
collected from the from
lastthe
50 m lastsliding
50 m sliding
distance,distance,
as shownas
shown in Figure 8b. The influence of contact load on the temperature rise
in Figure 8b. The influence of contact load on the temperature rise is not obvious, and the is not obvious,
and thelaw
change change law is opposite
is opposite to that ofto that
the of the
COF. COF.
With theWith theload
contact contact load increasing
increasing from 600from
N◦ to
600 N to 800 N, the friction
800 N, the friction temperature temperature rise fluctuates in the range of approximately
rise fluctuates in the range of approximately 51 °C to ap- 51 C
to approximately 57 ◦ C. This indicates that the surface wear state of the wire ropes is
proximately 57 °C. This indicates that the surface wear state of the wire ropes is similar in
similar in the relatively stable stage. Because the contact load has a greater influence on the
the relatively stable stage. Because the contact load has a greater influence on the progress
progress and degree of surface wear, the influence on the surface characteristics and friction
and degree of surface wear, the influence on the surface characteristics and friction contact
contact state is relatively small. Furthermore, when the contact load is 700 N, the friction
state is relatively small. Furthermore, when the contact load is 700 N, the friction temper-
temperature rise is maximized. This is because the frictional heat generated by the wire
ature rise is maximized. This is because the frictional heat generated by the wire rope
rope during sliding is closely related to the change in friction and wear morphology [37].
during slidingthe
Additionally, is closely related toaffects
test temperature the change in friction
the hardness andand wear morphology
tribological properties [37]. Ad-
of metal
ditionally, the test
materials [38]. Undertemperature affects
the condition the hardness
of small COF, the and tribological
surface of the wireproperties of metal
rope is relatively
materials [38]. Under the condition of small COF, the surface of the wire rope is relatively
smooth and the wear rate slows down. At this time, more energy is converted into friction
heat during the sliding friction process. Therefore, the friction temperature rise of the wire
rope is relatively large. Therefore, by monitoring the temperature change in the wire rope,
the wear state can be well judged, but it is difficult to distinguish the change in contact
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 11 of 19

smooth and the wear rate slows down. At this time, more energy is converted into friction
heat during the sliding friction process. Therefore, the friction temperature rise of the wire
rope is relatively large. Therefore, by monitoring the temperature change in the wire rope,
the wear state can be well judged, but it is difficult to distinguish the change in contact load
between the rope and the pulley.

3.2. Characteristic Parameters of Surface Wear Scar

The wear scar characteristics of the wire rope under different contact loads are pre-
sented in Figure 9. The wear surface of the wire rope is divided into many independent
areas by the rope strand. This is because, under the condition of wire rope–pulley sliding
contact, the rope will have multiple strands in contact with the groove at the same time,
resulting in surface wear of multiple strands. Additionally, the contour of the wear scar on
the strand surface is very irregular. This is due to the strand being made of multiple steel
wires, which are cylindrical in structure. Thus, the wear edge of each wire is a circular arc,
resulting in the wear scar on the whole rope strand being elliptical with irregular contours.
Furthermore, the size of the wear scar tends to expand, as shown in Figure 9c. The wear
scar contour map is measured and extracted by an optical microscope. It can be used to
more clearly compare changes in the wear area of the wire rope surface. This is because the
steel wire and the rope strand inside the wire rope will deform and move relatively under
the action of external force [39]. Thus, the larger contact load will flatten the wire rope
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW and
12 of 20
cause structural deformation. Moreover, the larger contact load results in an increase in the
surface stress of the steel wire, and the material is more prone to plastic deformation and
shear spalling during sliding contact. Therefore, contact load affects the wear rate of the
affects the wear rate of the wire rope. In engineering application, the contact load between
wire rope. In engineering application, the contact load between the rope and pulley should
the rope and pulley should be minimized to protect the crane wire rope.
be minimized to protect the crane wire rope.

Figure9.9.Distribution
Figure Distribution of
of wear
wear scars
scars on
on rope
rope strand
strand under
under different
different contact loads: (a,b)
contact loads: (a,b) wear
wear scars,
scars,
(c)
(c)profile
profileofofwear
wearscar
scarunder
underdifferent
differentcontact
contactloads.
loads.

Figure
Figure10 10shows
shows thethe maximum
maximum wear wear width
width of
of the
the wear
wear scar
scar on
on the
the rope
rope surface and
surface and
the wear loss of the friction pairs under different contact loads. Wear width increases
the wear loss of the friction pairs under different contact loads. Wear width increases sig- signif-
icantly withwith
nificantly increasing contact
increasing load,load,
contact from from
approximately 1.94 mm
approximately 1.94tomm
2.45tomm.
2.45Additionally,
mm. Addi-
when thewhen
tionally, contacttheload is small
contact load is(less
smallthan 700
(less N),700
than theN),
wear
the width increases
wear width slowly.
increases The
slowly.
variation range in the wear width is approximately 0.14 mm. However,
The variation range in the wear width is approximately 0.14 mm. However, when the when the contact
load increases
contact from 700from
load increases N to700
800NN, tothe
800wear
N, thewidth
wearincreases rapidlyrapidly
width increases from approximately
from approx-
2.08 mm to 2.45 mm. This indicates that the wear width increases nonlinearly with in-
imately 2.08 mm to 2.45 mm. This indicates that the wear width increases nonlinearly with
creasing contact load. This is not only because the surface wear is more severe but also
increasing contact load. This is not only because the surface wear is more severe but also
the result of structural deformation of the wire rope under transverse pressure. The wear
the result of structural deformation of the wire rope under transverse pressure. The wear
loss between the wire rope and the pulley under different contact loads is presented in
loss between the wire rope and the pulley under different contact loads is presented in
Figure 9b. It increases linearly with the contact load (from approximately 5.614 g to 6.581 g).
Figure 9b. It increases linearly with the contact load (from approximately 5.614 g to 6.581
There are obvious differences in the change trend between the wear width and the wear
g). There are obvious differences in the change trend between the wear width and the
loss. This is because the pulley groove during the sliding friction test also resulted in severe
wear loss. This is because the pulley groove during the sliding friction test also resulted
wear and produced a large amount of wear debris. Because the wear of the rope groove is
in severe wear and produced a large amount of wear debris. Because the wear of the rope
relatively uniform during sliding wear, the amount of wear generated by the friction pairs
groove is relatively uniform during sliding wear, the amount of wear generated by the
increases steadily as the contact load increases. Therefore, by quantitatively analyzing the
friction pairs increases steadily as the contact load increases. Therefore, by quantitatively
wear characteristics, it can be found that the actual damage of the contact load to the wear
analyzing the wear characteristics, it can be found that the actual damage of the contact
degree of the wire rope is approximately linear.
load to the wear degree of the wire rope is approximately linear.

3.0 8.0
Wear width Wear loss
2.45 7.2 6.581
6.137 6.242
)

2.5 5.916
 wear loss. This is because the pulley groove during the sliding friction test also resulted
in severe wear and produced a large amount of wear debris. Because the wear of the rope
groove is relatively uniform during sliding wear, the amount of wear generated by the
friction pairs increases steadily as the contact load increases. Therefore, by quantitatively
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 analyzing the wear characteristics, it can be found that the actual damage of the contact
12 of 19
load to the wear degree of the wire rope is approximately linear.

3.0 8.0
Wear width Wear loss
2.45 7.2 6.581
6.137 6.242

Wear width (mm)

2.5 5.916
2.16 6.4 5.614

Wear loss (g)

2.08
1.94 1.97
5.6
2.0
4.8

4.0
1.5
3.2

1.0 2.4
600 650 700 750 800 600 650 700 750 800
Contact load (N) Contact load (N)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Wear
Wear characteristic
characteristic parameters
parameters of
of wire
wire rope
rope under
under different
different contact
contact loads:
loads: (a)
(a) maximum
maximum
wear
wear width,
width, (b)
(b) wear
wear loss.
loss.

3.3. Surface Wear Mechanism of Wire Rope

Figure 11 shows the optical microscopy of the wear surface of the rope strand under
different contact loads. The difference in surface characteristics among the wear scars is
obvious. When the contact load increases from 600 N to 800 N, the wear surface becomes
smoother. When the contact load is small (see Figure 11a,b), the wear surface on the wires
is rough and there are obvious scratches along the sliding direction. This indicates that
a serious ploughing action occurs during the sliding friction between the wire rope and
the pulley groove. Additionally, large wear particles in the gap between the wires can be
observed (see Figure 11b). This means that there is a large amount of wear debris between
the sliding friction pairs and the wear surface is scratched during the test. Furthermore, as
the contact load continues to increase, the characteristics of the wear scar surface become
clearer. When the load is 700 N (see Figure 11c), the steel wire surface material is squeezed
seriously. Part of the material is misaligned and fills the gap between the wires, resulting in
a continuous wear surface. This indicates that the main material removal forms of the wire
rope change during the sliding wear process. The ploughing begins to weaken, and then
the plastic deformation and spalling become more pronounced. As shown in Figure 11d,
the surface is smooth and the furrows are difficult to distinguish. This is because the
larger contact load makes the surface asperities in the contact area squeezed and deformed.
During the sliding process, it will be directly rolled and flatten rather than ploughed.
Therefore, the wear surface becomes smoother. Meanwhile, the wear debris in the middle
of the sliding friction pairs is also crushed, further weakening the ploughing effect of the
material. Moreover, with the contact load increasing to 800 N (see Figure 11e), the wear
surface is smoother and the plastic deformation of the steel wire material is more obvious.
Additionally, there are significant pitting and high-temperature oxidation characteristics
caused by frictional heat on wear surfaces [40]. This is because the temperature of the
friction surface of the wire rope increases significantly under large contact load. This causes
the material in the contact region to soften, which in turn is more likely to be cut and
plastically deformed. The contact surface of the wire rope is more likely to produce material
shear and plastic deformation along the sliding direction [41]. Under the combined effect of
transient high temperature and friction, the surface of wire rope is oxidized and discolored.
Therefore, in the rope–pulley sliding friction and wear system, the variation in the contact
load will cause the change in wear surface characteristics. The greater the contact load,
the smoother the wear area in which contact stress and friction heat are the key factors
affecting the wear characteristics of the crane wire rope.
 likely to produce material shear and plastic deformation along the sliding direction [4
Under the combined effect of transient high temperature and friction, the surface of w
rope is oxidized and discolored. Therefore, in the rope–pulley sliding friction and w
system, the variation in the contact load will cause the change in wear surface charact
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 13 of 19 stress a
istics. The greater the contact load, the smoother the wear area in which contact
friction heat are the key factors affecting the wear characteristics of the crane wire rop

Figure11.
Figure 11.Surface
Surface wear
wear characteristics
characteristics of wireof wire
rope rope
under undercontact
different different contact
loads: (a) 600loads: (a) 600
N, (b) 650 N, N, (b)
N,700
(c) (c) N,
700(d)N,750
(d)N,750 N, (e)
(e) 800 N. 800 N.

The morphological characteristics of the wear debris were obtained by the optical
microscope and SEM, as shown in Figure 12. Figure 12a–c shows the optical micrographs
of the wear debris in different sizes, and Figure 12d–f shows the SEM images of the wear
debris in different sizes. They are taken from different test samples. It is observed that the
characteristics of the wear debris produced during the friction test are constantly changing.
The particle size of the wear debris is relatively large at the initial stage of the test, as
shown in Figure 12a,d. The wear debris is mostly long strip, and there is obvious plastic
deformation and furrows on the surface. This is because the contact area between the
wire rope and the rope groove is small and the contact stress is large in the early stage
of the friction test. The line contact state is easy to produce ploughing on the surface of
the rope groove, resulting in removal of large particle materials. Furthermore, with the
sliding distance increasing, the contact area between the friction pairs expands rapidly
and the size of the wear debris becomes smaller, showing irregular flake particles (see
Figure 12b,e). This indicates that the ploughing action of the wire rope on the surface of the
groove is weakened, and the removal of the material is mainly caused by adhesion and
spalling between the contact surfaces. Moreover, when the friction experiment enters a
relatively stable stage, the wear rate of the friction pair slows down and the size of the wear
debris becomes smaller (see Figure 12c,f). This is because the surface of the friction pairs
becomes more and more smooth, and the material does not easily fall off during the sliding
friction process. Additionally, part of the wear debris is crushed between the sliding contact
surfaces and the wear particles become smaller and thinner. Therefore, in the process of
sliding wear between the wire rope and pulley, the size of wear debris becomes smaller
and smaller. In the relatively stable stage, the wear debris is the smallest and plays a role of
lubrication in the sliding process, which can reduce the degree of the surface wear.
Figure 13 shows the SEM image of the wear surface on the damaged steel wires under
different contact loads. This clearly shows the change in wear characteristics on rope
surface with increasing contact load. The wear characteristic of the damaged wire is mainly
furrows when the contact load is 600 N (see Figure 13a). The surface is uneven, and there
are characteristics of plastic deformation caused by large contact stress. This means that
the surface damage of the wire rope is obviously affected by its structure, and removal
of the material is mainly caused by the mechanical damage. Because the wire rope is a
spiral structure, the sliding contact surface is composed of discontinuous steel wires and
rope strands. This causes the friction pair contact surface to be very uneven. Thus, the
Lubricants 2022, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

The morphological characteristics of the wear debris were obtained by the optical
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 14 of 19
microscope and SEM, as shown in Figure 12. Figure 12a–c shows the optical micrographs
of the wear debris in different sizes, and Figure 12d–f shows the SEM images of the wear
debris in different sizes. They are taken from different test samples. It is observed that the
sliding resistance is larger and the surface scratches and ploughing effect is more obvious.
characteristics of the wear debris produced during the friction test are constantly chang-
Additionally, the wear particles between the contact surface will exacerbate the surface
ing. The particle size of the wear debris is relatively large at the initial stage of the test, as
ploughing. Furthermore, as the contact load changes to 650 N (see Figure 13b), although
shownfurrows
many in Figure are12a,d. The wear
distributed alongdebris is mostly
the sliding long strip,
direction on theandwear there is obvious
surface, the size plastic
of the furrows is small and the surface is more regular. This indicates that an increase wire
deformation and furrows on the surface. This is because the contact area between the
rope
in the and
contactthe load
ropewillgroove
reduceis small and
the size of the
the contact
furrows stress
and makeis large in the early
the spalling and stage
pittingof the
friction test. The line contact state is easy to produce ploughing
characteristics more pronounced. Moreover, when the contact load exceeds 700 N, on the surface of the
the rope
groove,
wear resulting
surface of the in removal
steel of largevery
wire becomes particle
smooth materials. Furthermore,
(see Figure with the
13c–e). Especially sliding
when the dis-
tance increasing,
contact load is 800 N, theit contact area
is difficult between
to see the friction
the obvious damagepairs expands rapidly
characteristics andarea.
in the wear the size
This is because
of the the friction
wear debris becomestemperature
smaller,rise of the wire
showing rope isflake
irregular larger under the
particles condition
(see Figure of 12b,e).
large contact load. The surface material will soften during the sliding
This indicates that the ploughing action of the wire rope on the surface of the groove is wear process, which
isweakened,
more likelyand to bethesheared
removal and ofplastically deformed.
the material Therefore,
is mainly caused thebyfurrow characteristics
adhesion and spalling
of the wear surface are weakened, and the adhesion characteristics,
between the contact surfaces. Moreover, when the friction experiment enters such as pitting and
a relatively
spalling, are enhanced.
stable stage, the wear rate Therefore, with the
of the friction increases
pair slows downin contact load,
and the theoffurrows
size the wear anddebris
spalling pits on the wear surface of the wire rope are significantly reduced. The abrasive
becomes smaller (see Figure 12c,f). This is because the surface of the friction pairs becomes
wear is reduced during this process. Additionally, as the surface becomes smoother, the
more and more smooth, and the material does not easily fall off during the sliding friction
wear rate slows down, and adhesion is enhanced and the size of the wear debris becomes
process. Additionally, part of the wear debris is crushed between the sliding contact sur-
smaller. This also causes the abrasive wear characteristics to weaken. The sliding wear
faces and the
mechanisms wear particles
between the wire become
rope andsmaller
the pulleyandare thinner.
mainlyTherefore,
abrasive wear in the
andprocess
adhesive of slid-
ing wear
wear. between the
Furthermore, thewire rope andcharacteristics
morphology pulley, the size of of wear debris
abrasive wear on becomes
the wiresmaller
rope and
smaller.
surface areInmore
the relatively
obvious under stable stage,contact
smaller the wearload.debris is the
The effect of smallest
contact load andonplays a role of
the wear
lubrication in the sliding process, which can reduce the degree
mechanism is mainly achieved by plastic deformation and friction temperature rise. of the surface wear.

Figure 12.Optical
Figure12. Opticalmicroscopy and
microscopy SEM
and of of
SEM wear debris
wear between
debris wirewire
between roperope
and and
pulley: (a–c)(a–c)
pulley: macro-
macro-
graph under optical microscope, (d–f) microtopography under SEM.
graph under optical microscope, (d–f) microtopography under SEM.

Figure 13 shows the SEM image of the wear surface on the damaged steel wires under
different contact loads. This clearly shows the change in wear characteristics on rope
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Figure13.
Figure 13.SEM
SEMimage
imageofof worn
worn steel
steel wires
wires under
under different
different contact
contact loads:loads:
(a) 600(a)
N,600 N, (b)
(b) 650 650700
N, (c) N,N,
(c) 700
N, 750
(d) (d) N,
750(e)
N,800
(e)N.
800 N.

3.4.
3.4.Bending
BendingFatigue
FatigueFailure of of
Failure Worn
Worn Wire Rope
Wire Rope
The corresponding relationship between number of broken wires and bending cycles
The corresponding relationship between number of broken wires and bending cycles
is obtained by carrying out bending fatigue tests on the wire rope with different surface
is obtained by carrying out bending fatigue tests on the wire rope with different surface
wear, as shown in Figure 14. With the accumulation of bending fatigue time, the number of
wear, as shown in Figure 14. With the accumulation of bending fatigue time, the number
broken wires increases continuously. When the wire rope is not subjected to surface wear,
of broken
the wires
first broken increases
wire continuously.
occurs after When
approximately thebending
5200 wire rope is not
fatigue subjected
cycles, as shownto surface
in
wear, 14a.
Figure the first
Then,broken wire occurs
as the amount after approximately
of bending 5200 bending
increases, the broken fatigue
wire increases cycles, as
linearly.
shown in when
However, Figurethe14a. Then, of
number as broken
the amount
wiresof bending
exceeds increases,
four, its growth therate
broken
begins wire increases
to slow
linearly.
down. However, when
Furthermore, the number
when the numberof ofbroken
brokenwires
wiresexceeds
exceeds six,four, its growth
its growth rate rate
beginsbegins
toincrease
to slow down. Furthermore,
again. when in
With the increase thebending
numberfatigue
of broken
time,wires exceeds
the broken six,curves
wire its growth
rise rate
begins to increase
approximately again. With
in a straight line. the
Thisincrease
indicatesinthat
bending fatiguefatigue
the bending time, the broken
damage wire
to the curves
wire
rope is a cumulative deterioration process, and, with an increase in bending
rise approximately in a straight line. This indicates that the bending fatigue damage to the fatigue time,
the
wirefracture
rope isspeed of the wires
a cumulative is accelerated.process,
deterioration Additionally, the variation
and, with an increase trendinofbending
the brokenfatigue
wire
time,curves of the rope
the fracture speed samples is basically
of the wires the same,Additionally,
is accelerated. but the anti-fatigue performance
the variation trendisof the
obviously
broken wire degraded.
curves of With
the an increase
rope samplesin contact load,the
is basically thesame,
bending butfatigue times of the
the anti-fatigue perfor-
wire rope under the same broken wire condition decrease.
mance is obviously degraded. With an increase in contact load, the bendingThe first broken wire beginstimes
fatigue
to appear on these rope samples after 2000–3500 bending fatigue cycles. This means that
of the wire rope under the same broken wire condition decrease. The first broken wire
surface wear has a significant effect on the bending fatigue strength of wire ropes and
begins to appear on these rope samples after 2000–3500 bending fatigue cycles. This means
accelerates the fracture speed of internal steel wires [42]. Furthermore, by comparing the
that surface wear has a significant effect on the bending fatigue strength of wire ropes and
change process of the curves, it can be seen that, when the number of broken wires exceeds
accelerates the fracture speed of internal steel wires [42]. Furthermore, by comparing the
change process of the curves, it can be seen that, when the number of broken wires exceeds
approximately seven, the broken wires change more regularly with increasing bending
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 16 of 19
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approximately seven, the broken wires change more regularly with increasing bending
fatigue
fatigue times.
times. This
This indicates
indicates that
that the
the internal
internal wire
wire breaking
breaking of of the
the wire
wire rope
rope hashas aa certain
certain
randomness
randomness in the early stage of the bending fatigue test, and the breaking sequence
in the early stage of the bending fatigue test, and the breaking sequence of of
different
different positions
positions isis uncertain.
uncertain. However,
However, whenwhen thethe broken
broken wirewirereaches
reachesaacertain
certainnumber,
number,
the
the bending
bending fatigue
fatigue dangerous
dangerous area area of
of the
the wire
wire rope
rope is is basically
basically determined,
determined, and and the
the stress
stress
becomes
becomes concentrated
concentrated nearnear the
the broken
broken wire
wireofofthe
thewire
wirerope.
rope.This
Thisisismore
morelikely
likelytotocause
causea
afracture
fractureofof
thethe surrounding
surrounding steel
steel wires.
wires. Therefore,
Therefore, thetherope rope samples
samples in bending
in the the bending fa-
fatigue
tigue process appear as continuous concentrated broken wires in the
process appear as continuous concentrated broken wires in the late bending fatigue test. late bending fatigue
test. Moreover,
Moreover, Figure Figure 14b shows
14b shows the maximum
the maximum bendingbending
fatigue fatigue
times times
of the of thesample
rope rope sample
under
under different
different contactcontact loads.
loads. The The bending
bending fatigue fatigue times decrease
times decrease from approximately
from approximately 7700 to
7700
4850 to 4850
with with increasing
increasing contactcontact
load. Theload. The bending
bending fatiguefatigue life wire
life of the of therope
wireisrope is ob-
obviously
viously
degraded,degraded,
and it isand it is proved
proved that thethatharmtheof
harm of sliding
sliding wear to wear
theto the rope
wire wire increases
rope increases
with
with increasing
increasing contact contact load. Therefore,
load. Therefore, controlling
controlling the contact the load
contact load the
between between
crane the
wirecrane
rope
wire rope and the pulley can effectively extend its
and the pulley can effectively extend its bending fatigue life. bending fatigue life.

14 10,000
10000
Without wear
(a)

Maximum bending times

9000 9500 (without wear)
Number of broken wires

12 Maximum bending times

7700

10
8000 7250
6780
(b)
7000
8 5910
6000
6 4850
600 N 5000
4 650 N
4000
700 N
2 750 N 3000
800 N
0 2000
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10,000 11,000
10000 11000 600 650 700 750 800
Bending fatigue times Contact load (N)
Bending fatigue
14. Bending
Figure 14. fatigue degradation
degradation characteristics
characteristics of different
different rope samples: (a) variation
variation curves
curves
of broken wire number with bending fatigue times, (b) maximum bending fatigue times
broken wire number with bending fatigue times, (b) maximum bending fatigue times under under dif-
ferent contact loads.
different contact loads.

Figure 15 shows
shows the the broken
broken wirewire distribution
distribution (Figure
(Figure 15a–c)
15a–c) and
and fracture
fracture morphology
morphology
(Figure 15c–e) of rope samples caused by bending fatigue test.
15c–e) of rope samples caused by bending fatigue test. The observations The observations in in
Figure
Figure 15
areare
15 taken from
taken different
from roperope
different samples and wire
samples and samples. The broken
wire samples. wires produced
The broken during
wires produced
the bending
during fatiguefatigue
the bending processprocess
are mainly concentrated
are mainly in theinwear
concentrated region.
the wear ThisThis
region. indicates
indi-
that surface
cates wear reduces
that surface wear reducesthe bending fatiguefatigue
the bending strength of wireofrope
strength wire[42].
ropeAdditionally,
[42]. Addition- the
fracture
ally, of the steel
the fracture wire
of the appears
steel in the middle
wire appears of the wear
in the middle of thescar and
wear is and
scar distributed along
is distributed
the spiral
along direction
the spiral on theon
direction ropethestrand (see Figure
rope strand 15a–c).15a–c).
(see Figure This isThis
because wire tension
is because wire ten- is
along the steel wire axial direction in the process of bending and
sion is along the steel wire axial direction in the process of bending and the fracture is the fracture is along the
steel wire
along radialwire
the steel direction
radial[43]. Therefore,
direction the brokenthe
[43]. Therefore, steel wire issteel
broken continuously distributed
wire is continuously
along the strand
distributed alongaxis. Additionally,
the strand the fracturethe
axis. Additionally, of fracture
the steelof wire
theissteel
verywire
neat,
is indicating
very neat,
that the fracture
indicating that theis afracture
transient is process,
a transient andprocess,
no plasticanddeformation caused by a large
no plastic deformation caused load
by isa
produced before fracture. Figure 15d shows the fracture characteristics
large load is produced before fracture. Figure 15d shows the fracture characteristics of the of the unworn steel
wire. Thesteel
unworn fracture
wire.profile of the steel
The fracture profilewireofisthevery complete
steel wire is andverythere are many
complete and cracks
there are on
the fracture surface. This indicates that the internal damage of
many cracks on the fracture surface. This indicates that the internal damage of steel wiresteel wire under bending
fatiguebending
under load is fatigue
a process loadofiscontinuous
a process ofcumulative
continuouschange.
cumulative Thechange.
crack propagates
The crack prop-with
the increase in bending fatigue times until fracture. Furthermore,
agates with the increase in bending fatigue times until fracture. Furthermore, when the when the steel wire is
subjected
steel wire to surface wear,
is subjected the fracture
to surface wear,characteristics do not change
the fracture characteristics dosignificantly, but the
not change signifi-
number of cracks on the surface increase and the size becomes
cantly, but the number of cracks on the surface increase and the size becomes larger. This larger. This means that
surface wear accelerates growth in fatigue cracks, causing
means that surface wear accelerates growth in fatigue cracks, causing the wire rope tothe wire rope to break faster.
Moreover, the fracture morphology of the wire rope is relatively regular and the surface is
break faster. Moreover, the fracture morphology of the wire rope is relatively regular and
bright crystalline. Therefore, the fracture mechanism of wire rope under bending fatigue
the surface is bright crystalline. Therefore, the fracture mechanism of wire rope under
load is mainly brittle fracture. Surface wear causes the broken wire to concentrate and
bending fatigue load is mainly brittle fracture. Surface wear causes the broken wire to
speed up, greatly affecting the service life of the wire rope.
concentrate and speed up, greatly affecting the service life of the wire rope.
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Figure15.
Figure 15.Fracture
Fracturefailure
failurebehavior
behaviorofof worn
worn wire
wire rope
rope caused
caused by bending
by bending fatigue:
fatigue: (a–c)(a–c) distribution
distribution
characteristicsofofbroken
characteristics brokenwires,
wires, (d–f)
(d–f) fracture
fracture characteristics.
characteristics.

4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
In this study, the friction characteristics and wear mechanisms between crane wire
In this study, the friction characteristics and wear mechanisms between crane wire
rope and a pulley groove were investigated. Then, the bending fatigue life and fracture
rope and a pulley groove were investigated. Then, the bending fatigue life and fracture
failure behavior of the damaged rope samples were analyzed. The major conclusions are
failure
as behavior of the damaged rope samples were analyzed. The major conclusions are
follows:
as follows:
(1) The COF decreases with the increasing sliding distance, and the variation speed is
(1) The COFthen
fast and decreases
slow. The with theofincreasing
effect contact load sliding
on thedistance,
COF in the andstable
the variation speed is
stage is small.
fast and
With then slow.
the contact loadThe effect of
increasing contact
from 600 Nload onN,
to 800 thetheCOF
COFinfluctuates
the stableinstage is small.
the range
With the contact load
of approximately increasing
0.52 to 0.59. from 600 N to 800 N, the COF fluctuates in the range
(2) ofTheapproximately
surface temperature0.52 to rise
0.59.of the wire rope increases rapidly and then becomes
stablesurface
(2) The gradually during therise
temperature friction
of the test. The
wire surface
rope temperature
increases rapidlyofand the then
wire rope
becomes
rises relatively
stable gradually fastduring
under the
the condition of large
friction test. Theload contact.
surface The increase
temperature in contact
of the wire rope
load causes
rises the friction
relatively fast undertemperature rise to
the condition ofincrease
large loadfirstcontact.
and then Thedecrease,
increase andin the
contact
temperature reaches the maximum at the load of 700 N, which is approximately ◦ C.
57and
load causes the friction temperature rise to increase first and then decrease, the
(3) temperature
Rope–pulley sliding
reachescontact causes the
the maximum wear
at the of the
load wire
of 700 N,rope
whichto be discontinuously57 °C.
is approximately
distributed on multiple strands with irregular contour. Under the same sliding
(3) Rope–pulley sliding contact causes the wear of the wire rope to be discontinuously
condition, the larger contact load leads to an increase in the wear degree of the wire
distributed on multiple strands with irregular contour. Under the same sliding con-
rope. The wear width increases from approximately 1.94 mm to 2.45 mm with the
dition, the larger contact load leads to an increase in the wear degree of the wire rope.
increasing contact load.
(4) The
In thewear width
process increases
of sliding wear from approximately
between the wire rope 1.94
andmm theto 2.45 groove,
pulley mm with thethe
sizeincreas-
of
ing contact load.
wear debris becomes smaller and smaller. The wear surface of the wire rope becomes
(4) In the process
smoother and theof sliding
damage wear between thesuch
characteristics, wireasrope and and
furrows the pulley
pits, aregroove,
no longerthe size
of wear with
obvious debristhebecomes
increasingsmaller
contactand smaller.
load. The wearThemechanism
wear surface of the
under wire
large rope be-
contact
comes smoother
load is mainly and the
adhesive wear.damage characteristics, such as furrows and pits, are no
(5) longer
Surfaceobvious with thethe
wear accelerates increasing contact
fracture speed ofload. Therope
the wire wear andmechanism
causes theunder
brokenlarge
wire
contactposition
load istomainly
be concentrated
adhesive wear.under bending fatigue condition. An increase in
contact load
(5) Surface wearleads the maximum
accelerates bending
the fracture speed fatigue
of thecycles
wireof the and
rope worncauses
wire rope to
the broken
decrease from approximately 7700 to 4850. The bending fatigue
wire position to be concentrated under bending fatigue condition. An increase in con- life of the wire rope
tact load leads the maximum bending fatigue cycles of the worn wire rope to decrease
from approximately 7700 to 4850. The bending fatigue life of the wire rope decreases
Lubricants 2022, 10, 337 18 of 19

decreases with an increase in sliding contact load. The fracture failure mechanism of
the wire rope is mainly brittle fracture.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.C. (Xiangdong Chang) and X.C. (Xiao Chen); method-
ology, X.C. (Xiangdong Chang) and X.C. (Xiao Chen); validation, Y.D. and H.L.; investigation, Y.D.
and W.T.; data curation, Q.Z. and K.H.; writing—original draft preparation, X.C. (Xiangdong Chang)
and X.C. (Xiao Chen); writing—review and editing, Y.D. and H.L.; visualization, W.T., Q.Z. and K.H.;
supervision, Y.D. and H.L.; project administration, X.C. (Xiangdong Chang); funding acquisition, X.C.
(Xiangdong Chang). All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant numbers
52005272 and 51975572. This project is also partly supported by Priority Academic Program Devel-
opment of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (PAPD), Top-notch Academic Programs Project of
Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (TAPP).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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