COS 101: Introduction to Computing Sciences (3 Units C: LH 30; PH 45) Learning

Outcomes
At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. explain basic components of computers and other computing devices;
2. describe the various applications of computers;
3. explain information processing and its roles in the society;
4. describe the Internet, its various applications and its impact;
5. explain the different areas of the computing discipline and its specializations; and
6. demonstrate practical skills on using computers and the internet.
Course Contents
Brief history of computing. Description of the basic components of a computer/computing
device. Input/Output devices and peripherals. Hardware, software and human ware. Diverse
and growing computer/digital applications. Information processing and its roles in society.
The Internet, its applications and its impact on the world today. The different areas/programs
of the computing discipline. The job specializations for computing professionals. The future of
computing.
Lab Work: Practical demonstration of the basic parts of a computer. Illustration of different
operating systems of different computing devices including desktops, laptops, tablets, smart
boards and smart phones. Demonstration of commonly used applications such as word
processors, spreadsheets, presentation software and graphics. Illustration of input and output
devices including printers, scanners, projectors and smartboards. Practical demonstration of
the Internet and its various applications. Illustration of browsers and search engines. How to
access online resources.
Week 1: Introduction to Computing and a Brief History of Computing
 Overview of Computing: What is computing? A brief introduction to the role of
computing in society.
 The History of Computing:
o Early tools for computation (Abacus, the Antikythera mechanism).
o Key developments in computation:
Early History of Computer One of the earliest and most well-known devices was
an abacus. Then in 1822, the father of computers, Charles Babbage began
developing what would be the first mechanical computer. And then in 1833 he
actually designed an Analytical Engine which was a general-purpose computer.
 Ada Lovelace’s contribution to programming.
 The Turing Machine and Alan Turing’s contributions.
o The evolution of computers:
 First Generation (Vacuum tubes).
 Second Generation (Transistors).
 Third Generation (Integrated Circuits).
 Fourth Generation (Microprocessors and Personal Computers).
 Fifth Generation (AI and Quantum Computing).
o Milestones: ENIAC, UNIVAC, IBM mainframes, personal computing
revolution.
Week 2: Basic Components of a Computer/Computing Device
 Overview of a Computer System:
o Definition of a computer as a programmable device for processing data.
o Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer.
o Memory and Storage:
 Primary memory (RAM).
 Secondary storage (HDD, SSD).
 Cache and Virtual Memory.
o Motherboard: Connecting all components.
o Bus System: Communication channels between components.
 o Power Supply: Ensures stable energy for the system.
Week 3: Input/Output Devices and Peripherals
 Input Devices:
o Keyboards, mice, touchpads, scanners, microphones, webcams.
o Emerging input technologies: speech recognition, gesture control.
 Output Devices:
o Monitors (CRT, LCD, LED).
o Printers (Inkjet, Laser, 3D printers).
o Speakers and headphones.
 Storage Devices as Peripherals:
o External hard drives, flash drives, cloud storage.
 Networking Devices: Routers, switches, modems.
 Human-Computer Interaction: Principles of designing effective user interfaces.
Week 4: Hardware, Software, and Human Ware
 Hardware: The physical components of a computer system.
o Explanation of different types of hardware: CPU, storage devices,
networking devices, etc.
 Software: The intangible components of a computer system.
o System Software: Operating Systems (Windows, Linux, macOS).
o Application Software: Programs that perform specific tasks (Word
processors, games, web browsers).
o Firmware: Embedded software in hardware devices.
 Human Ware: The human component in the computing system.
o The role of users, developers, engineers, and system administrators.
o Human-computer interaction and ergonomics.
Week 5: Diverse and Growing Computer/Digital Applications
 Application Domains:
o Business: Enterprise resource planning (ERP), customer relationship
management (CRM), e-commerce.
 o Education: E-learning platforms, MOOCs, digital classrooms.
o Health Care: Telemedicine, Electronic Health Records (EHR), health
informatics.
o Entertainment: Video games, streaming services (Netflix, YouTube), digital
media production.
o Government and Society: E-Government, digital voting systems, public data
access.
o Social Media: Impact on communication, marketing, and society.
o Artificial Intelligence and Automation: Robotics, smart devices, machine
learning.
Week 6: Information Processing and Its Role in Society
 Information Processing:
o Definition: The transformation of data into meaningful information.
o Stages of Information Processing: Input, processing, storage, output.
o Data vs. Information: Understanding the difference between raw data and
processed information.
 Information and Decision-Making:
o Role of information in business decisions, government policy, and scientific
research.
 Ethical Issues in Information Processing:
o Privacy concerns, data security, and digital ethics.
o The rise of misinformation and its societal impacts.
Week 7: The Internet: Its Applications and Impact
 The Internet:
o Overview of the Internet: What it is, how it works (TCP/IP, DNS, HTTP,
routers).
o Evolution of the Internet: ARPANET, Web 1.0 to Web 3.0.
 Internet Applications:
o The World Wide Web (browsers, search engines, websites).
o Email, instant messaging, and social media platforms.
 o E-commerce (Amazon, eBay), cloud services (Google Drive, Dropbox).
o The Internet of Things (IoT): Smart homes, connected devices.
 Impact of the Internet:
o Social: Communication, collaboration, and globalization.
o Economic: E-commerce, digital economy, job creation in tech.
o Political: Digital activism, online privacy, cyber security concerns.
Week 8: Areas of Computing Discipline and Programs
 Computer Science: Theoretical foundations, algorithms, programming languages.
 Software Engineering: Design, development, testing, and maintenance of software.
 Information Technology (IT): Managing IT infrastructure, networks, and systems.
 Cybersecurity: Protecting systems from hacking, data breaches, and cyber-attacks.
 Data Science: Analyzing large datasets to derive insights and inform decisions.
 Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: Development of intelligent systems
and automation.
 Human-Computer Interaction (HCI): User interface design, usability, and
accessibility.
 Computational Biology/Health Informatics: Using computing for biological research
and healthcare.
 Emerging Fields: Quantum computing, blockchain, and the Metaverse.
Week 9: Job Specializations for Computing Professionals
 Overview of Computing Careers:
o Software Developer, Systems Analyst, Network Engineer, Database
Administrator, AI Specialist.
 Specializations:
o Frontend vs. Backend Development.
o DevOps, Cloud Computing, IT Support.
o Cybersecurity Analyst, Ethical Hacker, Data Scientist.
o Game Developer, UX/UI Designer.
o Research and Academia: Computer Science Researcher, University Faculty.
  Skills Needed:
o Technical skills: Programming, systems administration, database
management, cloud services.
o Soft skills: Communication, teamwork, problem-solving, adaptability.
 Job Market Outlook:
o Current trends in tech job demand (AI, cybersecurity, cloud computing).
o High-growth fields and industries.
Week 10: The Future of Computing
 Emerging Technologies:
o Quantum Computing: Potential to revolutionize data processing power.
o Artificial Intelligence and Deep Learning: Impact on automation, decision-
making, and creativity.
o Blockchain: Distributed ledger technology and its impact on security and
finance.
o 5G and Edge Computing: Faster, more efficient networks, enabling new
applications.
 Future of Human-Computer Interaction:
o Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR).
o Brain-computer interfaces (BCI).
 Ethical Considerations and Challenges:
o Privacy and surveillance in the digital age.
o The digital divide and ensuring equitable access to technology.
o The role of regulation and governance in the future of technology.
 The Role of Computing in Society:
o Sustainability and environmental impact of computing.
o The growing importance of data in driving decision-making.
o Opportunities and challenges in the digital transformation of industries.

A Brief History of Computers

Ancient Times
Early Man relied on counting on his fingers and toes (which by the way, is the
basis for our base 10 numbering system). He also used sticks and stones as
markers. Later notched sticks and knotted cords were used for counting. Finally
came symbols written on hides, parchment, and later paper. Man invents the
concept of number, then invents devices to help keep up with the numbers of his possessions.

Roman Empire

The ancient Romans developed an Abacus, the first

"machine" for calculating. While it predates the Chinese
abacus we do not know if it was the ancestor of that
Abacus. Counters in the lower groove are 1 x 10n, those in
the upper groove are 5 x 10n

Industrial Age - 1600

John Napier, a Scottish nobleman and politician devoted much of his

leisure time to the study of mathematics. He was especially interested
in devising ways to aid computations. His greatest contribution was
the invention of logarithms. He inscribed logarithmic measurements on a set of 10
wooden rods and thus was able to do multiplication and division by matching up numbers on the
rods. These became known as Napier’s Bones.

1621 - The Sliderule

Napier invented logarithms, Edmund Gunter invented the logarithmic scales (lines
etched on metal or wood), but it was William Oughtred, in England who invented the
sliderule. Using the concept of Napier’s bones, he inscribed logarithms on strips of wood and
invented the calculating "machine" which was used up until the mid-1970s when the first hand-
held calculators and microcomputers appeared.
1642 - Blaise Pascal(1623-1662)

Blaise Pascal, a French mathematical genius, at the age of

19 invented a machine, which he called the Pascaline that
could do addition and subtraction to help his father, who
was also a mathematician. Pascal’s machine consisted of a
series of gears with 10 teeth each, representing the numbers 0 to 9. As each gear made one turn it
would trip the next gear up to make 1/10 of a revolution. This principle remained the foundation
of all mechanical adding machines for centuries after his death. The Pascal programming
language was named in his honor.

1673 - Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented differential and integral

calculus independently of Sir Isaac Newton, who is usually given
sole credit. He invented a calculating machine known as Leibniz’s
Wheel or the Step Reckoner. It could add and subtract, like Pascal’s
machine, but it could also multiply and divide. It did this by
repeated additions or subtractions, the way mechanical adding machines of the mid to late 20th
century did. Leibniz also invented something essential to modern computers — binary
arithmetic.

1725 - The Bouchon Loom

Basile Bouchon, the son of an organ maker, worked in the textile industry. At this
time fabrics with very intricate patterns woven into them were very much in vogue.
To weave a complex pattern, however involved somewhat complicated manipulations
of the threads in a loom which frequently became tangled, broken, or out of place.
Bouchon observed the paper rolls with punched holes that his father made to program
his player organs and adapted the idea as a way of "programming" a loom. The paper passed
over a section of the loom and where the holes appeared certain threads were lifted. As a result,
the pattern could be woven repeatedly. This was the first punched paper, stored program.
Unfortunately the paper tore and was hard to advance. So, Bouchon’s loom never really caught
on and eventually ended up in the back room collecting dust.
1728 - Falçon Loom
In 1728 Jean-Batist Falçon, substituted a deck of punched cardboard cards for the paper roll of
Bouchon’s loom. This was much more durable, but the deck of cards tended to get shuffled and
it was tedious to continuously switch cards. So, Falçon’s loom ended up collecting dust next to
Bouchon’s loom.

1745 - Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)

It took inventor Joseph M. Jacquard to bring together Bouchon’s
idea of a continuous punched roll, and Falcon’s ides of durable
punched cards to produce a really workable programmable
loom. Weaving operations were controlled by punched cards
tied together to form a long loop. And, you could add as many
cards as you wanted. Each time a thread was woven in, the roll was clicked forward by one card.
The results revolutionized the weaving industry and made a lot of money for Jacquard. This idea
of punched data storage was later adapted for computer data input.

1822 – Charles Babbage (1791-1871) and Ada Augusta, The Countess of Lovelace

Charles Babbage is known as the Father of the modern computer

(even though none of his computers worked or were even
constructed in their entirety). He first designed plans to build,
what he called the Automatic Difference Engine. It was
designed to help in the construction of mathematical tables for
navigation. Unfortunately, engineering limitations of his time made it impossible for the
computer to be built. His next project was much more ambitious.

While a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University (where Stephen Hawkin is

now), a position he never actually occupied, he proposed the construction of a machine
he called the Analytic Engine. It was to have a punched card input, a memory unit
(called the store), an arithmetic unit (called the mill), automatic printout, sequential
program control, and 20-place decimal accuracy. He had actually worked out a plan for
a computer 100 years ahead of its time. Unfortunately it was never completed. It had to wait for
manufacturing technology to catch up to his ideas.

During a nine-month period in 1842-1843, Ada Lovelace translated Italian mathematician Luigi
Menabrea's memoir on Charles Babbage's Analytic Engine. With her translation she appended a
set of notes which specified in complete detail a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers with
the Engine. Historians now recognize this as the world's first computer program and honor her as
the first programmer. Too bad she has such an ill-received programming language named after
her.
1880s – Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)
The computer trail next takes us to, of all places, the U.S. Bureau of
Census. In 1880 taking the U.S. census proved to be a monumental
task. By the time it was completed it was almost time to start over for
the 1890 census. To try to overcome this problem the Census Bureau
hired Dr. Herman Hollerith. In 1887, using Jacquard’s idea of the
punched card data storage, Hollerith developed a punched card tabulating system, which allowed
the census takers to record all the information needed on punched cards which were then placed
in a special tabulating machine with a series of counters. When a lever was pulled a number of
pins came down on the card. Where there was a hole the pin went through the card and made
contact with a tiny pool of mercury below and tripped one of the counters by one. With
Hollerith’s machine the 1890 census tabulation was completed in 1/8 the time. And they checked
the count twice.

After the census Hollerith turned to using his tabulating machines for business and in 1896
organized the Tabulating Machine Company which later merged with other companies to
become IBM. His contribution to the computer then is the use of punched card data storage.
BTW: The punched cards in computers were made the same size as those of Hollerith’s machine.
And, Hollerith chose the size he did because that was the same size as the one dollar bill at that
time and therefore he could find plenty of boxes just the right size to hold the cards.

1939-1942 Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff(1903-1995) and Clifford Berry (1918-1963)

Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff and his graduate assistant,

Clifford Barry, built the first truly electronic computer,
called the Atanasoff-Berry Computer or ABC. Atanasoff
said the idea came to him as he was sitting in a small
roadside tavern in Illinois. This computer used a circuit
with 45 vacuum tubes to perform the calculations, and capacitors for storage. This was also the
first computer to use binary math.
1943 – Colossus I

The first really successful electronic

computer was built in Bletchley Park,
England. It was capable of performing only
one function, that of code breaking during
World War II. It could not be re-
programmed.

1944 – Mark I - Howard Aiken (1900-1973) and Grace Hopper (1906-1992)

In 1944 Dr. Howard Aiken of Harvard

finished the construction of the
Automatic Sequence Controlled
Calculator, popularly known as the Mark
I. It contained over 3000 mechanical
relays and was the first electro-mechanical
computer capable of making logical decisions,
like if x==3 then do this not like If its raining
outside I need to carry an umbrella. It could
perform an addition in 3/10 of a second. Compare
that with something on the order of a couple of
nano-seconds
(billionths of a second) today.

The important contribution of this machine was that it was

programmed by means of a punched paper tape, and the
instructions could be altered. In many ways, the Mark I was the
realization of Babbage’s dream.

One of the primary programmers for the Mark I was Grace Hopper. One day the Mark I was
malfunctioning and not reading its paper tape input correctly. Ms Hopper checked out the reader
and found a dead moth in the mechanism with its wings blocking the reading of the holes in the
paper tape. She removed the moth, taped it into her log book, and recorded... Relay #70 Panel F
(moth) in relay. First actual case of bug being found.
She had debugged the program, and while the word bug had been used to describe defects since
at least 1889, she is credited with coining the word debugging to describe the work of
eliminating program errors.

It was Howard Aiken, in 1947, who made the rather short-sighted comment to the effect that the
computer is a wonderful machine, but I can see that six such machines would be enough to
satisfy all the computing needs of the entire United States.

1946 – ENIAC - J. Prosper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980)

The first all electronic computer was the Electrical Numerical Integrator
and Calculator, known as ENIAC. It was designed by J. Prosper Eckert
and John W. Mauchly of the Moore School of Engineering at the University
of Pennsylvania. ENIAC was the first multipurpose electronic computer, though very difficult to
re-program. It was primarily used to computer aircraft courses, shell trajectories, and to break
codes during World War II.

ENIAC occupied a 20 x 40 foot

room and used 18,000 vacuum
tubes. ENIAC also could never
be turned off. If it was it blew too many tubes
when turned back on. It had a very limited storage
capacity and it was programmed by jumper wires
plugged into a large board.

1948 – The Transister

In 1948 an event occurred that was to forever change the course of

computers and electronics. Working at Bell Labs three scientists, John
Bordeen (1908-1991) (left), Waltar Brattain (1902-1987) (right), and
William Shockly (1910-1989) (seated) invented the transistor.

The change over from vacuum tube circuits to transistor circuits occurred
between 1956 and 1959. This brought in the second generation of computers, those based on
transisters. The first generation was mechanical and vacuum tube computers.
1951 – UNIVAC

The first practical electronic computer was built by Eckert and Mauchly
(of ENIAC fame) and was known as UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic
Computer). The first UNIVAC was used by the Bureau of Census. The
unique feature of the UNIVAC was that it was not a one-of-a-kind computer. It was mass
produced.

1954 – IBM 650

In 1954 the first electronic computer for business was installed at General
Electric Appliance Park in Louisville, Kentucky. This year also saw the
beginning of operation of the IBM 650 in Boston. This comparatively
inexpensive computer gave IBM the lead in the computer market. Over 1000 650s were sold.

1957-59 – IBM 704

From 1957-1959 the IBM 704 computer appeared, for which the Fortran
language was developed. At this time the state of the art in computers allowed 1
component per chip, that is individual transistors.

1958 - 1962 – Programming languages

From 1958-1962 many programming languages were developed.

FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)

COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language)
LISP (LISt Processor)
ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language)
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

1964 – IBM System/360

In 1964 the beginning of the third-generation computers came

with the introduction of the IBM System/360. Thanks to the new hybrid circuits (that gross
looking orange thing in the circuit board on the right), the state of the art in computer technology
allowed for 10 components per chip.

1965 - PDP-8

In 1965 the first integrated circuit computer, the PDP-8 from Digital Equipment
Corporation appeared. (PDP stands for Programmable Data Processor) After this the
real revolution in computer cost and size began.

1970 - Integrated Circuits

By the early 70s the state of the art in computer technology allowed for 1000
components per chip. To get an idea of just how much the size of electronic
components had shrunk by this time look at the image on the right. The woman is
peering through a microscope at a 16K RAM memory integrated circuit. The stand she
has her microscopy sitting on is a 16K vacuum tube memory curcuit from about 20
years previous.

1971

The Intel corporation produced the first microprocessor chip

which was a 4-bit chip. Today’s chips are 64-bit. At approximately
1/16 x 1/8 inches in size, this chip contained 250 transistors and
had all the computing power of ENIAC. It matched IBM
computers of the early 60s that had a CPU the size of an office desk.

1975 – Altair 8800

The January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics carried an article, the

first, to describe the Altair 8800, the first low-cost microprocessor
computer which had just became commercially available.

Late 1970s to early 1980s – The Microcomputer Explosion

During this period many companies appeared and disappeared,

manufacturing a variety of microcomputers (they were
called micro to distinguish them from the mainframes which some people referred to
as real computers). There was Radio Shack’s TRS-80, the Commodore 64, the Atari, but...

1977 - The Apple II

The most successful of the early microcomputers was the Apple II,
designed and built by Steve Wozniak. With fellow computer whiz
and business savvy friend, Steve Jobs, they started Apple Computer in 1977 in Woz’s garage.
Less than three years later the company earned over $100 million. Not bad for a couple of
college dropout computer geeks.

1981
In 1981, IBM produced their first microcomputer. Then the clones started to
appear. This microcomputer explosion fulfilled its slogan computers by the
millions for the millions. Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early 80s:
Were 20 times faster (Apple II ran at the speed of ¼ Megahertz).
Had a memory capacity as much as 16 times larger (Apple had 64 K).
Were thousands of times more reliable.
Consumed the power of a light bulb instead of a locomotive.
Were 1/30,000 the size.
Cost 1/10,000 as much in comparable dollars
(An Apple II with full 64 K of RAM cost $1200 in 1979.
That’s the equivalent of about $8000 to $10000 in today's dollars)

1984-1989

In 1984 the Macintosh was introduced. This was the first mass-produced,
commercially-available computer with a Graphical User Interface. In
1989 Windows 1.0 was introduced for the PC. It was sort of Mac-like but
greatly inferior. Macintosh owners were know to refer to it sarcastically
as AGAM-84 Almost as Good As Macintosh 84.

1990s
Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the 90s:
 Were 36,000 times faster (450 Megahertz was the average speed)
Had a memory capacity 1000 to 5000 times larger (average was between 4 and 20
Megabytes)
Were 1/30,000 the size
Cost 1/30,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC still cost around $1500 the
equivalent of about $2500 in 2008 dollars)

Early 2000s
Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early 2000s:
Are 180,000 times faster (2.5+ Gigahertz is the average speed)
Have a memory capacity 25,000 times larger (average 1+ Gigabytes of RAM)
Are 1/30,000 the size
Cost 1/60,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC can cost from $700 to $1500)

Data Storage
Data storage has also grown in capacity and shrunk in size as dramatically as have computers.
Today a single data DVD will hold around 4.8 gigabytes. It would take 90,000,000 punch cards
to hold the same amount of data. And, there is talk of a new high density video disk (HVD) that
will be able to hold fifty times that much data. That's more than 240 gigabytes.
Just how much data is that
8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 K = 1 Megabyte = 1,048,576 bytes
1024 Mb = 1 Gigabyte = 10,73,741,824 bytes
1024 Gb = 1 Terabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
1024 Tb = 1 Petabyte = 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes
1024 Pb = 1 Exabyte = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes
1024 Eb = 1 Zettabyte = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes
1024 Zb = 1 Yottabyte = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes
Components of Computer System
A computer that follows a set of software instructions, which is essentially every computer. A
general-purpose computer can perform any data processing operation that the instructions in a
program tell it to do. However, there are countless appliances, gadgets, toys and devices with
computer processors that follow only one set of instructions permanently built into the chip.
Such computers are known as "microcontrollers." They are produced by the billions each year
and are not user programmable.
A computer includes some basic elements. These incorporate hardware, software, programs,
data, and connectivity. No computer can operate in the lack of these elements. Apart from these
elements, by definition, components of a computer system are the fundamental elements that
make the functioning of electronic equipment smooth and faster. There are three basic
components which include:
1. Input Unit
2. Output Unit
3. CPU(Central processing unit)
While there are additional components as well, these three are primarily accountable for making
a computer function. Hence, these are also called building blocks of a computer system. All types
of computers follow the same basic logical structure as follows:
1. Take Input->This is the method of inserting data and instructions into the computer
system.
2. Store Data->Collecting data and instructions so that they are ready for processing as and
when needed.
3. Processing Data->Working on arithmetic, and logical operations on data to transform
them into useful data.
4. Output Information->The means of generating useful information or results for the user,
such as a printed record or visual display.
5. Control the workflow->Manages the method and sequence in which all of the preceding
operations are performed.
Input Unit
This part of the computer encapsulates devices with the help of which the user feeds data to the
computer. It creates an interface between the user and the computer. The input devices transform
the information into a form acceptable by the computer. Data can be in the form of numbers,
actions, words, directions, instructions, etc. Computers then practice their CPU to process this
data and deliver output.
For instance, a computer keyboard is an input unit that enters symbols, numbers, and characters.
Likewise, even a mouse works as an input unit for entering commands and directions. Other
examples of input devices include JoyStick, Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Light pen, Magnetic
Ink Card Reader (MICR), Track Ball, Graphic Tablet, Scanner, Microphone, Optical Character
Reader (OCR), Barcode Reader, etc.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The Central Processing Unit or CPU is also known as the brain of the computer. CPU executes
all types of data processing functions. It saves data/intermediate results/instructions (program)
and controls the operation of all parts of the computer.
Following are the points to remember for Central Processing Unit (CPU):
1. The CPU is taken as the brain of the computer.
2. CPU facilitates all types of data processing operations.
3. It saves data, intermediate results, and instructions (program).
4. It handles the operating of all parts of the computer.
The CPU itself has the following three components.
1. Memory or Storage Unit
2. Control Unit
3. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit
This part of the computer system works to store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This
unit passes data to other parts of the computer when required. It is also referred to as an internal
storage unit or most commonly, the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access
Memory (RAM).
It comes in various speeds, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are
two important types of memories used in the computer system. Responsibilities of the memory
unit are:
1. Works to store all the data and the instructions required for processing.
2. Works to store intermediate results of processing.
3. Works to store the final results of processing before these results are forwarded to an
output device.
4. All inputs and outputs are supplied through the main memory.
Control Unit
This unit manages the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any
calculations or comparisons or actual data processing operations.
Responsibilities of this unit are :
1. For facilitating the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a system.
2. It manages and correlates all the units of the system.
3. It receives the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the system.
4. It interacts with Input/output units to transfer data/results from storage.
 5. It does not perform processes or store data.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
1. Arithmetic Section: The responsibility of the arithmetic unit is to execute arithmetic
operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. A complete set of
complex operations are executed by making iterative use of the above operations.
2. Logic Section: The responsibility of the logic unit is to execute logic operations like
comparing, selecting, matching, and merging data.
Output Unit
This part of the computer encapsulates devices with the help of which the user receives the
information from the computer. Output devices transform the output from the computer into a
form understandable by the users. Thus, output units generate the data formatted by the computer
as per users’ interests.
Some of the output devices are; Monitor, Printer, projector, speakers, headphones, etc.

MOTHERBOARD
A motherboard (also called main board or system board) is a basic foundation of a computer
that connects all the crucial components or parts of a system. It performs the following
significant functions like: Distributing power from the power supply to all hardware components.
A motherboard (also called main board or system board) is a basic foundation of a computer that
connects all the crucial components or parts of a system. It performs the following significant
functions like:
 Distributing power from the power supply to all hardware components.
 Transferring of data and instructions between various hardware components.
 Providing various sockets and pads for mounting electronic components.
 Offering expansion slots to add other components, such as graphics card, network cards,
etc.
In older desktop computers, there had very few integrated components onto the motherboard. It
needs a large number of adapter cards for interfacing videos, hard disk, and floppy disk. In
contrast, as the technology advanced, various interfaces have accommodated on the motherboard
and fewer adapters are needed.
Nowadays, almost all the electronic components, such as CPU, RAM, expansion slots, heat
sink/fan assembly, BIOS chip, etc. have integrated onto the motherboard of all personal
computers (PCs). It also holds the expansion bus, Input/Output (I/O) interface, drive controllers,
and system memory.
In this tutorial, we will understand different components of a computer motherboard, what they
do, and where they are located on the motherboard of a computer.
Hardware Components of Computer Motherboard with Functions

A typical computer motherboard contains the following electronic components or parts that are
as:
 Chipsets
 CPU or processor sockets or slots
 Memory slots
 Expansion slots
 BIOS chip
 CMOS battery
 Power connectors
 Keyboard and mouse connectors
 Onboard disk drive connectors
 Peripheral ports and connectors
  Jumpers and DIP switches
 Case fan and Heat sink

Let’s understand each component of the motherboard in brief.

Chipsets
A chipset is a set of semiconductor chips (or circuits) on the motherboard that provides interfaces
for memory, expansion cards, and other peripheral devices. It is the foundation of the
motherboard and made up of one or several integrated circuit chips.
It works closely with the CPU processor to collectively control the memory, buses on the
motherboard, and some onboard peripheral devices. Therefore, a chipset on the motherboard
must be compatible with the processor that it serves.
A chipset and socket determines what type of processor a board can support, how fast it will run,
how fast buses will run, and speed, type, and amount of memory we can have. The original
manufacturers such as Intel and AMD usually give the name and model number to the chipsets.
We can divide the functions of a chipset into main categories – Northbridge and Southbridge.
Let’s take a brief look at both.
Bus System: Communication channels between components.
A bus is a group of parallel wires along which data can flow. The system bus is made up of a
number of such communication channels that connect the processor and other components
such as memory, input and output devices together. A computer will normally have several
buses that are used for specific purposes
Power Supply: Ensures stable energy for the system.
Power supplies ensure that electronic circuits receive stable and consistent voltage and
current levels. If the voltage isn't regulated, voltage spikes and fluctuations can cause serious
damage