Biology Department

Booklet 4

Name: -------------------- section: --------

4.1 Biological Molecules

7.1 Human nutrition

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Nutrition: Taking in of nutrients for energy, growth and development; plants
require light, carbon dioxide, water and ions; animals need organic
compounds, ions and water.

A balanced diet is a diet that contains all the food groups in the right
proportions and amounts to maintain a healthy life. That’s because we need
more of some nutrients than others.

Why do we need food?

1. For growth: providing substances needed for making new cells and tissues.

2. As a source of energy when food is broken down during respiration.

3. For replacement of worn and damaged tissues.

4. Food may prevent some diseases.

5. Food provides us with chemicals that are needed in chemical reactions.

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 Nutrients can be either :

Organic Inorganic

Carbohydrates proteins lipids fibres vitamins water Minerals

Nutrients consist of various chemical substances in the food that makes up

each person's diet.

➔ Organic substances are made up of carbon and hydrogen linked together.

1- Carbohydrates:

They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are sugar molecules made
up of a ring of carbon atoms to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are attached.

Carbohydrates are made by plants by the process of photosynthesis which traps light
energy and locks it inside the carbohydrates they make. When we eat carbohydrates
we are eating molecules in which energy is trapped (chemical energy) → this energy
originally comes from the sun.

Types of Carbohydrates:

A. Simple Carbohydrates

B. Complex Carbohydrates

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A. Simple carbohydrates:

Include monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar); which are
made up of only one ring of carbon atoms to which hydrogen and oxygen atoms are
attached.

Example of Monosaccharides include :

Glucose Galactose Fructose

B. Complex Carbohydrates:

Consist of:

1. Disaccharides: are made up of two

monosaccharides linked together.

(Di= Two, indicating that this sugar is made

up of two sugar rings linked together)

Maltose (Sugar found in malt): two Glucose molecules linked together

Sucrose (Table sugar): one Glucose molecules + one fructose linked together

Lactose (sugar found in milk): one Glucose molecule + one Galactose linked together

Note: Generally, Monosaccharides and disaccharides are soluble in water

2. Polysaccharides: are giant molecules made of sugar rings linked together

in very long chains of thousands of rings.

(Poly=many, indicating that it is made up of many sugar rings (monosaccharides)

linked together)

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 Polysaccharides
Chitin : has the same
Glycogen: made of a chain
Cellulose: made of long Starch: made of a spiral structure as cellulose but
of glucose molecules,
straight chain of glucose chain of glucose molecules, with nitrogen atoms
found as energy-storage
molecules, found in the cell found as energy-storage added, found in the
molecules in animal cells,
wall of plant cells. molecules in plant cells. exoskeleton of some
fungi and bacterial cells.
invertebrates.

• polysaccharides are generally insoluble in water

Importance of carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are the most readily available source of energy.

• Carbohydrates react with O2 to provide energy during respiration to produce

carbon dioxide and water. The carbohydrate that is normally used in respiration
is glucose. Human blood plasma contains dissolved glucose that is transported
to all cells → 1 g of carbohydrates can provide 16 kilo joule of energy.

• If we eat more carbohydrates than we need the excess amounts will be

converted into glycogen stored in the liver and muscles, or fats which is stored in
several places in our bodies specially underneath the skin (adipose tissue)

• Carbohydrates in plants are stored as starch

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2- Proteins→ long chains of amino acids

Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur atoms.

- Their basic units are amino acids; there are 20 types of amino acids.

- Proteins have different types, which change according to:

1) Type of amino acids involved.

2) Number of amino acids involved.

3) Sequence of amino acids.

Amino acids are either:

A- Essential amino acids

B- Non – essential amino acids

• You obtain the essential amino acids from the

food you take while the non-essential amino
acids are made in your body.

• The general structure of amino acids.

When any two amino acids are linked together, a peptide bond is formed and a
molecule of water is lost.

a.a.---a.a.

a.a. ---a.a---a.a.

a.a---a.a----a.a-----a.a

100 amino acids are linked by

99 peptide bonds

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 A polypeptide is formed when many amino acids are joined together by peptide
bonds (Poly means many)

There are two types of proteins

Structural proteins : Building blocks for parts
Functional proteins: these play functional
of the cells e.g. cell membranes. Bones and
roles in the body like enzymes, hormones,
skin contain a protein called collagen while
antibodies and haemoglobin.
hair contains the protein keratin

Importance of proteins:

a. Building up tissues and repairing damaged ones.

b. They make up about 18% of the mass of the body → this is the second fraction
after water

c. Some proteins are enzymes, hormones, antibodies and some are involved in the
structure of hemoglobin.

d. In some cases proteins are used as a source of energy, but only when
carbohydrates and fats are not available.

e. Proteins are one of the major components of many tissues such as actin and
myosin (in muscles), collagen (in skin and bones), keratin (in hair).

Each protein has a specific shape which enables it to carry out its specific function
e.g. enzymes and antibodies. If the protein loses its shape, it will no longer carry out
its function → High temperatures denature the protein (ruins its shape), as a result,
it will no longer carry out its function

• Excess amino acids can be changed to carbohydrates and fats by removing the
amino group (NH2) in the liver by a process called deamination. The amino group
is then reduced to ammonia (poisonous) which is then changed into urea. Urea
is then excreted by the kidneys in the urine.
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 • Nutrition experts recommend a daily intake of 0.75 grams of proteins per
Kilogram body mass per day for healthy adults for example :

If the mass is 60 Kg, they need (60* 0.75) =45 g of protein per day

3- Fats (lipids):

Fats are a group of organic compounds that belong to a larger group called lipids.

They are organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, just like
carbohydrates, but oxygen is found in less quantities.

The building units of fats are Glycerol and fatty acids

One Glycerol molecule is linked to 3 Fatty acids

Importance of fats
Major source of energy,
(1g of fats gives 37
kilojoules of energy)
Lipids are a major
Protection against heat which is double the Protection against Reduces friction between
component of the cell
loss (good insulator). amount of energy mechanical shocks. organs.
membranes
compared to
carbohydrates (16 KJ) and
proteins (17 KJ) .

Fats are also called Triglycerides (Tri = Three, indicating that there are three fatty
acids, Glyceride; refers to glycerol molecule)

• Adipose tissue: Adipose tissue is a specialized connective tissue that consists of

cells called adipocytes. Adipocytes function as the major storage site for fat in
the form of triglycerides.

• Adipose tissue is found under the skin and around organs

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 • Adipose tissue serves three functions: heat insulation, mechanical cushion, and
most importantly, a source of energy

The Fatty acids linked to the glycerol are made up of long chains of carbon and
hydrogen atoms linked together. The bonds between carbon atoms can be either
single, double or triple bonds.

Saturated fats ( Fats ) Unsaturated Fats ( Oils)

All the bonds between carbon atoms are One or more of the bonds between carbon
single covalent bonds atoms are double or triple covalent bonds.

Solid at room temperature e.g. Butter Liquid at room temperature e.g. Oils

Higher melting point Lower melting point

If all the bonds between carbons in the chain are single bonds → it is called a
saturated fat. If one or more of these bonds are double or triple → it is called
unsaturated fat.

Although lipids are essential in our diet, too much lipid is unhealthy. In particular,
you must make sure that your diet does not contain too much cholesterol (a lipid
compound) or saturated fats. Cholesterol is a substance that the body gets from food
such as eggs and meat, but we also make cholesterol in our liver. It is an essential
part of all cells but too much cholesterol is linked to heart disease.

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 Vitamins:

Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in small quantities to give a
healthy body.

They are needed for normal body function, and to help enzymes do their functions.

Vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins: these are found mostly in
Water-soluble vitamins: these are found in animal fats and oils
green leaves, fruits and cereals. → Stored in the liver → don’t need to be
→ Needs to be constantly supplied constantly supplied

Vitamin B (B1, B2,B6,B12) , Vitamin C Vitamins K , E, D,A

Properties of vitamins:

Vitamins are not digested in the body and are required in small quantities. If there is
a lack in one of the vitamins, the person develops "Vitamin deficiency disease". This
condition can be treated simply by adding the vitamin to the diet.

Vitamins are broken down during the cooking process (high temperature breaks
down vitamins) i.e. it’s better to eat vegetables fresh rather than cooked.

Vitamins are not digested neither broken down for energy.

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Vitamin C (also called Ascorbic acid):

*Sources: Plants (citrus fruits), broccoli, potatoes, cabbage, tomatoes, green pepper,
fresh green vegetables.

* Vitamin C: is needed on daily basis, because it is not stored in the body.

Importance:

1- Helps in the formation of collagen (skin, bones, blood vessels)

2- Improves Iron absorption.

3- Added to food packets as a preservative.

Vitamin – deficiency disease (scurvy)

Symptoms of scurvy:

- Skin will be covered with bruises due to the lack of collagen

fibers in blood vessels.

- Weakness, delayed wound healing, bleeding and in severe

cases gums may be badly affected that the teeth fall off.

- Impaired immunity.

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Vitamin D

Sources: most plants, butter, milk, cheese, egg yolk,

liver, fish liver oil.

It is also produced in the skin during exposure to

sunlight.

Causes of vitamin D deficiency:

1) Your exposure to sunlight is limited because the

body makes vitamin D when your skin is exposed to sunlight

2) You don't consume the recommended levels of the vitamin over time.

3) Your kidneys cannot convert vitamin D to its active form. As people age, their
kidneys are less able to convert vitamin D to its active form, thus increasing their
risk of vitamin D deficiency.

Importance:

1) Helps in absorption and use of calcium and phosphorus salts in

bones and teeth.

2) Promotes bone growth.

Vitamin deficiency disease (Rickets)

1) In children, growing bones remain soft and are deformed by body’s weight. Soft
bones are more likely to bow and fracture than harder, healthy bones.

2) Bones bend easily and may grow in a bent shape.

4) In adults, it may lead to osteomalacia, which is softening of the bones.

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Minerals:

Iron:

Sources: Red meat, eggs, legumes, bread, whole grain,

green leafy vegetables.

Causes of deficiency:

1) Lack of iron in the diet

2) Blood loss; blood contains iron within red blood cells

3) Inability to absorb iron

Importance:

Required to synthesize hemoglobin molecules in Red Blood Cells.

Deficiency disease is Anemia

• Decrease in iron will result in decrease in hemoglobin, less haemoglobin means

that less oxygen will be carried in blood to cells → less energy is produced by
respiration resulting in weakness and short breathing.

Other symptoms are : fatigue , weakness , pale skin and dizziness .

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Calcium

Sources: Dairy products (milk, cheese, yogurt,

legumes, dark green vegetables.

Importance:

1) For building and hardening of bones and teeth

2) Essential for blood clotting

3) Muscle contraction

Vitamin D is needed for efficient calcium absorption

* Deficiency symptoms:

- Retarded growth

- Slow blood clotting

- Rickets

- Muscle spasms

• Mostly vitamins are not involved in the body structures, unlike minerals which
are involved in body structures e.g. calcium in bones and iron in Red blood cells.

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 Water

It is an inorganic molecule that accounts for almost 80-90% of living tissues and
food.

Importance:

1- Universal solvent for almost all substances: digested food, salts and vitamins are
carried around the body as a watery solution in the blood. Waste products like urea
are also removed in a solution by the kidneys. Water thus acts as a solvent and as a
transport medium for all these substances.

2- Part of the transport system, such as plasma.

3- Acts as a medium for metabolic reactions.

4- A reactant in some reactions such as photosynthesis

5- It controls body temperature by secreting sweat.

6- A major content of cytoplasm, blood, and tissue fluid.

7- Acts as a lubricant in the body (at joints).

• Since we lose water by sweating, evaporation, urinating and breathing, we have

to compensate for this loss by taking in water with the diet.

What is the importance of water in digestion?

1) Solvent for dissolving enzymes

2) Makes it easier to chew, swallow and defecate (softens food)

3) Used in chemical digestion

`Why is it important that water is absorbed in the alimentary canal?

1- Prevents loss of large volumes of water

2- Prevents diarrhea

3- Prevents dehydration

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Fibers (Roughage)

• Sources: indigestible part of food mainly cellulose

from plant cell walls, whole-meal bread, cereal grains.

Fibers are indigestible in our bodies since we lack the

enzyme "cellulase" that breaks down cellulose into small
sugars.

Their energy is not available for humans; they are only digested by herbivores (they
have the enzyme that breaks down cellulose).

The importance of fibers:

Plenty of fibers in the diet, stretches the muscles of the alimentary canal and helps
push the food by peristalsis because the muscles work more strongly when there is
harder, less digestible food.

• If food remains for a longer time in your intestine, more water is absorbed
which results in constipation. Thus fibers keep faeces soft by retaining water

• Fibers may prevent gaining weight (when food spends a long time in the
intestines more absorption of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol take
place).

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 4) So more
absorption of
3) Food spends a
1) Low amount of 2) Peristalsis fatty acids, amino
long time in the constipation
fibers in diet slows down acids , sugars,
intestine
water takes
place

• There is now strong evidence that a diet rich with fibers can reduce the risk of
colon cancer.

How?

Some chemicals in food may be considered carcinogenic (capable of causing cancer)

, if your diet is low in fiber, food will spend longer time in the intestines, as a result
your colon cells will be In contact with these chemicals for a longer period of time
which increases the likelihood of developing colon cancer.

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 Food and Nutrition Experiments

Whenever you work in a lab, there are a number of safety precautions

that you should take care of to ensure that your experiment is done safely
and without any harm to you or to your classmates.

1) Wear a lab coat

2) Tie Hair Back
3) Use eye goggles
4) Use gloves
5) Keep flammable liquids such as ethanol away from
naked flame
6) Use a water bath to heat a tube of water instead of
heating it directly in the Bunsen flame to avoid the
heated liquid jumping out of the tube.

Note: always mention safety precautions when you an answer a question

that asks you to safely plan an experiment.

Benedicts Test for carbohydrates:

 Benedict's reagent is used as a test for the presence of reducing sugars.

Reducing sugars include all monosaccharides and many disaccharides
except sucrose → not considered a reducing sugar.

 The color of Benedict's solution is blue due to the presence of CuSO4

which when dissolves in water gives a blue color.

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 Procedure for solid foods:

1. Chop up the food sample into tiny pieces (to increase the
surface area and speed up the reactions), and then add water to
dissolve sugars and create a solution.
2. Filter into a test tube to obtain the liquid solution containing
sugars.
3. Add some Benedict's solution to the tube and mix the
contents, a blue color appears.
4. Place the tube in water bath at 80oC and leave it for about five
minutes. → Never forget mentioning this STEP! This
reaction requires heat!
If there is a reducing sugar the clear blue solution will become
green, yellow, orange or red depending on the concentration of
the reducing sugar.

The intensity of the color depends on the amount of reducing sugar

present.

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 To compare two food samples:

1) You must obtain the same mass/ volume of the food samples
2) Use the Same volume and concentration of Benedict’s reagent
3) Heat in a water bath at the same temperature
4) Compare the color change

How to detect the presence of other carbohydrates like starch?

You are given a bag of biscuits and you are asked to test whether or not
it contains starch.

Procedure:

1. Chop the food into small pieces and place it on a white tile.
2. Add few drops of iodine solution.
3. If the food contains starch it will go
blue-black, and if it doesn’t contain
starch, the iodine solution will stay
yellow brown
 A Change in Iodine solution color from
yellow brown to Blue- black
indicates the presence of STARCH in
the sample

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 How to test for proteins:
 You are given a sample of food that contains egg white (which is
composed of a protein called albumin ) and you are asked to detect
the presence of proteins:
The test for proteins is called biuret test.

Biuret solution is blue, if you don’t have biuret solution, you can use
dilute copper sulfate solution and potassium hydroxide.

1) Chop the food into small pieces and mix it with little water.

2) Carefully add four or five drops of Biuret solution.

3) If you see a purple color, this means that protein is present in the food,
if it stays blue then there is no protein.

Note: No heating is required

The Darker the Color formed the more protein present.

The greater the intensity of the color, the greater

the amount of protein present in the sample
(Directly Proportional). So to compare the
amount of proteins in two food samples we can
use a Colorimeter to detect the intensity of the
color formed.

Proteins are made up of amino acids. There are 20

different amino acids, by joining them together in different ways (different
sequences) different proteins can be made.

This is done in our Cells * ON RIBOSOMES *

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 How to test for fats: * Emulsion test *
1) Chop the food into small pieces and mix it with little
Ethanol this will dissolve the fats in food (fats are soluble
in Ethanol).

2) Add water into a clean test tube.

3) Carefully pour a little of the Ethanol from the first test

tube into the water.

4) If the liquid stays clear, then there is no fat in the food.

If water goes cloudy white, this shows that fat is present.
This happens because Ethanol is soluble while fats aren't, as a result, Ethanol
dissolves in water and fats remain suspended in water → cloudy solution forms.

How to Test for vitamin C:

This is done using DCPIP solution which is blue in color; if vitamin C
is present the DCPIP will become colorless.

Procedure:

Add DCPIP into a beaker

Fill a burette with the liquid containing Vitamin C

Keep adding vitamin C into the beaker until the color of DCPIP
disappears.

To compare the vitamin C contents of two fruit juices perform the

following:

E.g Apple Juice compared with orange juice

1) Add equal volumes of DCPIP into two beakers.

2) Add equal amounts of the two juices into two burettes.

3) Keep adding juice until the color of each DCPIP solution disappears.

4) Record the volume of juice needed to decolorize (become colorless) the DCPIP
solutions.
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 5) The greater the volume needed to decolorize DCPIP the lower the concentration
of vitamin C in that juice. That is, if it takes more apple juice than orange juice to
decolorize DCPIP, then the apple juice must contain fewer vitamins C.

Another way of measuring the amount of vitamin C

Iodine-starch Vitamin C Indicator:
When iodine reacts with starch a bluish black color appears, but the
presence of vitamin C with starch prevents the formation of the
complex,

This is because vitamin C will change iodine to iodide ions (vitamin C

is oxidized) that will not react with starch and will not form blue black
color.

So when Vitamin C is consumed, the excess iodine ions will now be

able to react with starch and form a bluish black complex → which indicates
the end point of the reaction.

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