National Geographic History - December 2024 USA

I
TAKE 90%
$29 Save $270 OFF INSTA
NTLY!
Your Insider Offer Code: TPW370-04

You must use the insider offer code to get our special price.
®
FROM THE EDITOR
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC IMAGE COLLECTION
The holiday season is my favorite time of year. My

childhood sense of wonder is reignited, and I lean heavily into tradition.
It’s made even better now that I get to pass those traditions on to my
children. After all, that’s how the magic is preserved.
In this issue, we examine two holiday traditions that have surprising

origins. While The Nutcracker ballet and the poem “A Visit From St. Nich-
olas” took root in America, they, like America itself, were imbued with
cultures found an ocean away, and they helped spawn new ways to com-
memorate Christmas. In fact, the image of St. Nicholas documented by
Clement Clarke Moore persists, as evidenced by the illustration above.
Commissioned for the hundredth birthday of Alexander Graham Bell in
1947, the drawing leans heavily on the vision of a “right jolly old elf” and
incorporates the new tradition of a telephone call to Santa’s workshop.
Aside from holiday lore, these pages explore the history of medieval castles,
unearth the Vatican necropolis in search of St. Peter, and witness the arrival
of immigrants to America via Ellis Island. We hope you enjoy the issue.
Bridget E. Hamilton, Editorial Director

C O M PA N I O N
B O O K AVA I L A B L E
N OV E M B E R 5
VOL. 10 NO. 5
A SAINT AND SOME SINNERS

The Room of the Saints, in the Borgia
Apartment, at the Vatican, depicts
St. Catherine of Alexandria and figures
from the Borgia family. It was painted
in the 1490s by Bernardino di Betto.
ORONOZ/ALBUM
Features Departments
6 NEWS
22 The Real Emperor Nero
Teeming with objects, an elite grave in
His cruelty to Christians won him eternal notoriety. But before his reign eastern China is revealing details of
collapsed into chaos, the younger Nero had ruled with restraint, confronting the brilliant but doomed Chu state just
the greed of the Senate and striving to improve life for everyday Romans. before the dawn of a united China.
8 MILESTONES
36 In Search of the Apostle ’Twas the Christmas poem that
In the 1940s archaeologists at the Vatican found a monument matching an brought Santa to America. Published
early description of Peter’s tomb. Bones found nearby, which some believe in 1823, “A Visit From St. Nicholas“ drew
to be those of Peter, are now the focus of an intense scholarly debate. on the traditions of Dutch New Yorkers to
become a festive classic.
12 DAILY LIFE
52 The Age of Castles
From Egypt’s earliest dynasties,
To beef up their defenses, Europe’s medieval kings vied to build ever more dancers pirouetted at funerals and
elaborate castles. But attackers were innovating too, and by the 1300s, not feasts, developing an increasingly complex
even the strongest structures could resist the advances of gunpowder. series of movements and styles to mark
the rituals of life and death.
68 Curse of the Borgias 18 WORK OF ART
Reigning as Pope Alexander VI, Rodrigo Borgia ruthlessly Tchaikovsky’s Christmas ballet
appointed his children as cardinals and generals or married them The Nutcracker was rediscovered
off to nobility. Murder and intrigue followed in the Borgias’ wake, in 1940s America. It revived the
flagging fortunes of U.S. ballet
but when Alexander died in 1503, their power expired with him. and is now a holiday stalwart.
92 DISCOVERIES
84 Arriving at Ellis Island Rumors of a city lost in the
Large numbers of immigrants coming to the United States in the Chinese desert led scholars
early 1900s shaped modern America. Many first experienced to Dandan-Oilik in the 1890s.
American food and customs in the control center on New Flourishing on the Silk Road from
York’s Ellis Island, the gateway to a fresh start and a new life. the sixth century, it was once filled
with painted Buddhist shrines.
Two horsemen on a painted wooden panel from Dandan-Oilik, sixth century a.d.
BRITISH MUSEUM/SCALA, FLORENCE
EDITORIAL DIRECTOR BRIDGET E. HAMILTON
Deputy Editor JULIUS PURCELL

Editor TIARA BEATTY
Editorial Consultants JOSEP MARIA CASALS (Managing Editor, Historia)
IÑAKI DE LA FUENTE (Art Director, Historia)
VICTOR LLORET BLACKBURN (Editorial Consultant and Contributor)
Design Editor VERÓNICA MARCARIAN
Photography Editor MERITXELL CASANOVAS
Cartography Editor CHRISTINE FELLENZ
Production Editors ALEXANDRA HARTNETT, SEAN PHILPOTTS
Vatican Hill was the location of Contributors: CAROLINE BRAUN, SANDRA DANE, ELENI GAGE, EMILY SHENK FLORY, CINDY LEITNER, SARAH
the Vatican necropolis. After being PRESANT-COLLINS, JENNIFER VILAGA
martyred circa A.D. 67, the Apostle
Peter was venerated at the burial site, PUBLISHER JOHN MACKETHAN
where a basilica bearing his name was
eventually constructed. Advertising ROB BYRNES
PAOLO GIOCOSO/FOTOTECA 9X12
Consumer Marketing and Planning LAUREN BOYER, ANDREW DIAMOND, KATHERINE M. MILLER,
ZOLA POLYNICE, ROCCO RUGGIERI, SUSAN SHAW, JANET ZAVREL
Production Services JAMES ANDERSON, REBEKAH A. CAIN, JENNIFER HOFF, KRISTIN M. SEMENIUK
Customer Service SCOTT ARONSON, JORDAN HELLMUTH, TRACY PELT
Statement of Ownership, Management, and Monthly
Circulation of NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY for subscription questions, visit www.nghservice.com or call 1-800-647-5463.
to subscribe online, visit www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine.
Owner and Publisher: National Geographic Partners, LLC for corrections and clarifications, visit natgeo.com/corrections.
David E. Miller, EVP & GM
while we do not accept unsolicited materials, we welcome your comments
Bridget E. Hamilton, Editorial Director
Headquarters of Publisher and Publication: and suggestions at history@natgeo.com.
1145 17th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036
Stockholders; Bondholders; Mortgage;
Other Security Holders: National Geographic Society
and The Walt Disney Company
AVERAGE NO.
COPIES EACH
ISSUE DURING SINGLE ISSUE
PRECEDING NEAREST TO
12 MOS. FILING DATE PRESIDENT, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC CONTENT COURTENEY MONROE
Nov 2023– S/O
Oct 2024 2024 EVP & GENERAL MANAGER DAVID E. MILLER
A. TOTAL COPIES PRINTED SENIOR MANAGEMENT

(Net Press Run) 192,305 16,9398 VICE PRESIDENT, SOCIAL MEDIA TULANI ANDRÉ
B. PAID CIRCULATION VICE PRESIDENT, INTEGRATED PLANNING & OPERATIONS MARCELO GALDIERI
1. Outside-County Mail VICE PRESIDENT, GROWTH STRATEGY & BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT JULIANNE GALVIN
149,264 141,457 SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT & EDITORIAL DIRECTOR NATHAN LUMP
Subscriptions
DIRECTOR, PRINT OPERATIONS JOHN MACKETHAN
2. In-County Mail
Subscriptions – –
COPYRIGHT © 2024 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC PARTNERS, LLC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC AND YELLOW BORDER DESIGN ARE
3. Single Copy Sales/ TRADEMARKS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, USED UNDER LICENSE. PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Non USPS Paid
Distribution 22,345 17,412
4. Other Classes Mailed
Through USPS 3,233 3,100
C.TOTAL PAID
CIRCULATION 174,842 161,969
D. FREE DISTRIBUTION PRESIDENT RICARDO RODRIGO
(includes samples, EDITOR ANA RODRIGO
no news agents) CORPORATE MANAGING DIRECTOR JOAN BORRELL
1. Outside-County 830 754 MANAGING DIRECTOR ÁUREA DÍAZ
2. In-County – – EDITORIAL DIRECTOR SUSANA GÓMEZ MARCULETA
EDITORIAL COORDINATOR MÒNICA ARTIGAS
3. Other Classes Mailed
MARKETING DIRECTOR BERTA CASTELLET
Through USPS – – CREATIVE DIRECTOR JORDINA SALVANY
4. Free Distribution
Outside the Mail – –
E. TOTAL FREE National Geographic History (ISSN 2380-3878) is published bimonthly in January/February, March/April, May/June, July/
DISTRIBUTION 830 754 August, September/October, and November/December by National Geographic Partners, LLC, 1145 17th Street, NW,
F. TOTAL DISTRIBUTION Washington, DC 20036. Volume 10, Number 5. $39 per year for U.S. delivery. Periodicals postage paid at Washington,
(Sum of C and E) 175,672 162,723 DC, and additional mailing offices. SUBSCRIBER: If the Postal Service alerts us that your magazine is undeliverable,
G.OFFICEUSE,LEFTOVER,ETC. 16,633 6,675 we have no further obligation unless we receive a corrected address within two years. POSTMASTER: Send address
H. TOTAL (Sum of F & G) 192,305 169,398 changes to National Geographic History, P.O. Box 37545, Boone, IA 50037. In Canada, agreement number 1000010298,
I. PERCENT PAID 100% 100% return undeliverable Canadian addresses to National Geographic History, P.O. Box 819 STN Main, Markham, ON L3P 9Z9.
Printed on 100% PEFC-Certified Paper-PEFC/29-31-58. Please recycle.

Sacred Stone of the
Southwest is on the
Brink of Extinction
C enturies ago, Persians, Tibetans
and Mayans considered turquoise
a gemstone of the heavens, believing B.
the striking blue stones were sacred
pieces of sky. Today, the rarest and
most valuable turquoise is found in the
American Southwest–– but the future
of the blue beauty is unclear.
On a recent trip to Tucson, we spoke
with fourth generation turquoise 26 carats
traders who explained that less than five
percent of turquoise mined worldwide
of genuine
can be set into jewelry and only about Arizona turquoise
twenty mines in the Southwest supply
gem-quality turquoise. Once a thriving
industry, many Southwest mines have
ONLY $99
run dry and are now closed.
We found a limited supply of turquoise
from Arizona and purchased it for
our Sedona Turquoise Collection.
Inspired by the work of those ancient
craftsmen and designed to showcase the
exceptional blue stone, each stabilized
vibrant cabochon features a unique,
one-of-a-kind matrix surrounded in
Bali metalwork. You could drop over
$1,200 on a turquoise pendant, or you
could secure 26 carats of genuine Arizona turquoise for just $99.
Your satisfaction is 100% guaranteed. If you aren’t completely happy A.
with your purchase, send it back within 30 days for a complete refund
of the item price.
The supply of Arizona turquoise is limited, don’t miss your chance to
own the Southwest’s brilliant blue treasure. Call today!
Jewelry Specifications:
• Arizona turquoise • Silver-finished settings
Sedona Turquoise Collection
A. Pendant (26 cts) $299 * $99 +s&p Save $200
B. 18" Bali Naga woven sterling silver chain $149 +s&p
C. ΤΜ" Earrings (10 ctw) $299 * $99 +s&p Save $200
Complete Set** $747 * $249 +s&p Save $498
**Complete set includes pendant, chain and earrings. Necklace
enlarged
Call now and mention the offer code to receive your collection. to show
luxurious
1-800-333-2045 color
Offer Code STC900-09 Rating of A+

You must use the offer code to get our special price. S t a ue r … A f fo r d t h e E xt r ao r d in ar y .®
*Special price only for customers using the offer code versus the
price on Stauer.com without your offer code.
14091 Southcross Drive W., Dept. STC900-09,

Burnsville, Minnesota 55337 www.stauer.com
NEWS
THE LACQUERED HEAD unearthed at the Wuwangdun

tomb is the first such object found in a Chinese burial.
The Chu were noted masters of lacquerware, made by
painting a wooden base with the sap extracted from the
Chinese lacquer tree (Toxicodendron vernicifluum).
XINHUA
PRE-IMPERIAL CHINA
A Lavish Burial at the

C H I N A Beijing
Wuwangdun
TAIWAN
Birth of Chinese History
A cache of treasures, including a rare lacquered head, has been found in an
500 mi
ornate tomb built at the dawn of a united China. Who was the burial for?
C
500 km
ra m m e d w i t h the tomb’s occupant. Unof- Xicheng, head of the archaeo-
THE SITE OF Wuwang- exquisite objects, ficially, however, Chinese logical team, said the findings
dun lies near the city a 2,200-year-old scholars consider the tomb “enhance our understanding of
of Huainan in eastern
tomb is revealing was likely built for Kaolie, one the wider political landscape of
China. The site was
a few miles from the fresh insights into a period of of the last kings of Chu. Kaolie the Chu just before the estab-
last capital of the Chu upheaval and cultural flourish- ruled Chu during the tumul- lishment of the Qin dynasty.”
state, which by 260 b.c. ing that forged modern China. tuous endgame of the Warring
occupied a swath of Archaeologists working States period (475-221 b.c.). Last States Standing
southeastern China, on the site of Wuwangdun, a The tomb, whose excavation Spanning three centuries, the
with the Yangtze River cemetery complex in eastern began in 2020, is the largest Warring States period marks
at its heart.
China’s Anhui Province, have and most complex Chu-era the time when the seven
NGM MAPS
not made any statements on burial ever found. Gong autonomous states of Chu,
6 NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2024
THE CHU DYNASTY’S
FINAL MOVES
THE TOMB AT WUWANGDUN in eastern China lies a
few miles from the ruins of the state of Chu’s last
capital, Shouchun. The capital had previously been
at Ying, but in 277 b.c.—during the reign of Kaolie’s
father—it had fallen to the brilliant and merciless
Qin general, Bai Qi, and was destroyed. In moving
his seat of power to Shouchun, Kaolie was able to
mount a brief Chu comeback, holding the Qin at bay.
However, the attack on Ying had weakened the Chu,
whose extravagant artistic taste could not compen-
sate for their military weakness. The Qin, who had
eliminated most other warring states, turned their
forces on the Chu, who were finally defeated in 224 b.c.
and absorbed into a huge, new Qin-ruled state.
Bai Qi, a Qin general, in a Ming dynasty (14th to 17th centuries) painting
ARCHIVAH/ALAMY/ACI
Over a thousand objects were

found in the tomb at Wuwangdun
in eastern China, including three-
legged bronze cauldrons known as
ding, several of which can be seen
in this image. Begun in 2020, the
excavation of what is believed to
be a royal Chu burial is ongoing.
XINHUA
Qin, Han, Wei, Zhao, Qi, and Characterized by upheaval,

Yan all fought each other in a the Warring States era was
brutal war of elimination. also a time of economic and
The Chu state’s King Kaolie cultural expansion, when the
reigned from 262 to 238 b.c., ideas of Confucianism and culturally, was sliding toward “The tomb’s structure is
decades before the Qin finally Taoism were flourishing. military defeat. So far, more highly sophisticated,” Prüch
subdued the Chu (one of their Chu craftsmen excelled than a thousand artifacts have told History. Steps lead down
stronger opponents) to create in fine lacquerware, bronze been discovered in the tomb, to a central chamber and eight
a unified China. Radiocarbon casting, and silk embroidery. including bronze ritual ves- side chambers, which held the
dating reveals that the tomb The Wuwangdun tomb is sels and musical instruments. artifacts. Ink inscriptions on
was built around 220 b.c., characteristic of such crafts- Margarete Prüch, a post- the chambers’ lids explain
when Chu was being absorbed manship at a moment when doctoral a research associate each of their functions; one
into the new Qin state. the Chu state, while excelling at Heidelberg University, has been revealed to be dedi-
Germany, and a specialist cated to music.
in Chinese tombs and lac- Gong is confident that
Objects found include querware, reported that Chi- with further advanced tech-
lacquerware, bronzes, nese colleagues considered nology, the tomb will provide
the tomb to be that of King “an overall picture” of the Chu
and musical instruments. Kaolie. Prüch, who was not state a few decades before its
involved in the excavation, final defeat.
A lacquerware sculpture found in the Wuwangdun tomb also supports that view. —Anna Thorpe
XINHUA
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 7

NOW, DASHER! NOW, DANCER!
This illustration was produced
for an 1893 edition of the 1823
poem “A Visit From St. Nicholas,”
attributed to Clement Clarke Moore.
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
’Twas the Poem Behind

an American Christmas
“A Visit From St. Nicholas” contains the recipe for a classic American Christmas. Though the
festive words spawned a new holiday culture, they also sparked a centuries-long controversy.
T
he American obsession with “’Twas the night before Christmas” on depiction of a traditional Christmas.
Santa Claus and the tradition page 3. The poem was brief—just a few But its lines, claimed by Clement Clarke
of gift-giving merriment stanzas—and, at the time, anonymously Moore, didn’t just reflect Christmas—
have a more complicated authored. Originally titled “Account of a they shaped it. The poem would go on
background than one might think. A Visit From St. Nicholas,” the poem told to change the face of the holiday in the
peek at the December 23, 1823, issue of the tale of a father’s encounter with a United States and beyond.
the Troy Sentinel offers a clue. lively Santa Claus and his reindeer.
On that day, readers could peruse Modern readers, who know the A Holiday Recipe
ads for buffalo robes and local honey poem better by its first line, may see its It is not clear how the unsigned poem
or learn about the latest events in Con- account of Santa’s sojourn to a house made its way to the Troy Sentinel. Sent
gress. But those feeling the holiday filled with sleepy children and care- anonymously, it was just one of many
spirit may have been drawn to the words fully hung stockings as a comforting poems in the paper that day. Its origins
MILESTONES
A QUESTION OF AUTHORSHIP
CLEMENT CLARKE MOORE (below right) claimed he wrote the poem, but some
scholars and descendants of Dutch farmer and poet Henry Livingston, Jr.
(below left), say he is its true author. The controversy hinges on the memories
of Livingston’s children and the matter of personality. Livingston aficionados
allege a reportedly dry, humorless scholar like Moore could never have imag-
ined such an amiable St. Nick and pose that Livingston’s Dutch roots could
have informed the traditions depicted in the poem. Though the Livingston
theory holds water for his descendants—even winning a mock trial in New
York that litigated the issue—Livingston never claimed authorship of it during
his lifetime. Unless new evidence emerges conclusively tying the farmer
to the poem, the question of its authorship will likely remain unanswered.
BOTH: ALAMY/ACI
are contested, but Moore later claimed in the United States. Far from tra- the Christmas traditions of gener-
to have written it for his nine children dition, Moore’s poem contained all ations to come. Before the 1820s,
and to have read it out loud on Christmas the elements for a different kind of Smith explains, Christmas would
Eve 1822. Though the verses’ origins Christmas—one that, though relatively have been unrecognizable to modern
were murky, their appeal was clear to new, seems as normal as Easter eggs readers. Observation of the holiday—
editors, who passed it to other papers and Halloween jack-o’-lanterns today. when it was celebrated at all—varied
for republication, a common practice The poem spread, and readers widely from region to region and usu-
among 19th-century periodicals. besieged the Sentinel to ask who ally involved street festivities and
“It gives readers a perfect template authored it. Only with the publication of heavy drinking.
of what a domestic Christmas should The New-York Book of Poetry anthology 14 “Christmas isn’t widely celebrated
look like,” says Thomas Ruys Smith, a years later did an author, classics scholar in America at that point,” Smith tells
professor of American literature and Clement Clarke Moore, step forward. History. “When it is, it’s a rowdy street
culture at the University of East Anglia By then, the poem had beguiled a celebration drawing on old-world tra-
who studies the history of Christmas generation of children and influenced ditions.” Those customs had become
popular in western Europe, then spread
to the U.S. along with the first waves of
The poem beguiled a generation of immigrants to the new nation.
children and influenced Christmas Creating Christmas

traditions of generations to come. The traditions reflected in Moore’s
poem could not be more different.
A replica of the first page of the famous festive poem Instead of adult revelry, Moore’s Christ-
THE PICTURE ART COLLECTION/ALAMY mas involves sleeping children and

MILESTONES
A NEW SANTA
FOR AMERICA
THE REAL St. Nicholas was a
fourth-century bishop—not
exactly the image of Christmas
magic. The poem’s depiction
of a dimpled, fur-clad elf differs
greatly from Dutch tradition. In
Holland, Sinterklaas is tall, rail-
thin, and long-bearded. Accord-
ing to the Dutch, the saint’s
traditional homeland is Spain, not
the North Pole, and he has a con-
troversial sidekick, Zwarte Piet
(Black Pete). Even today, some
white revelers portray the figure,
a dark-skinned, demonic assis-
tant often depicted in blackface.
This courts contention about
the Netherlands’ colonial and
racial legacies, sparking ongoing
debates that pit tradition against
modern social attitudes.
St. Nicholas stands on a rooftop and
throws candy into a chimney in an 1866
colorized illustration from Holland.
PENTA SPRINGS LIMITED/ALAMY
a twinkling elf who sneaks into their know about the tradition from fan- Moore was not Dutch but he was a
homes at night to deliver gifts. Both toy- tastical stories by the likes of Moore’s New Yorker, and he borrowed prodi-
filled stockings and Santa himself are friend Washington Irving. Irving’s giously from Dutch traditions while
Dutch in origin, derived from the Neth- 1809 story, A History of New York, a writing the poem. He elaborated on
erlands’ annual feast celebrating Sinter- parody credited to a fictitious Dutch customs and mixed in others, such as
klaas, or St. Nicholas, on December 5. author, includes a dream in which a Santa’s legendary reliance on reindeer
Dutch New Yorkers recognized the pipe-smoking St. Nicholas astonishes to pull his sleigh, an idea taken from an
holiday in their homes. But those observers by flying through the sky in 1821 poem also anonymously published
without Dutch roots would only an enchanted wagon. in New York. Moore went one step fur-
ther, giving the reindeer names that
originally included Dunder and Blitzen
(“thunder” and “lightning” in Dutch).
Moore’s poem arrived at a crucial
STOCKING UP ON CANDY moment, says Smith: “It’s right at the
pivot point where Christmas becomes
THE TRADITIONS of Dutch New Yorkers who far more of a domestic celebration
inspired Moore had deep roots in northern focused on the family, the home,
European Christianity. Early stories about St. and children.” In the early days of the
Nicholas tell of the saint leaving deserving United States, celebrating Christmas
Dutch children gifts (such as candy and nuts) was controversial, especially to those
in their clogs, items of footwear later replaced who subscribed to the austere Calvin-
by stockings. ism of America’s early white settlers.
But changes were afoot by the early
An engraving from the late 1800s illustrates Moore’s poem.
LANMAS/ALAMY
FIRST LADY JILL BIDEN and President Joe Biden read “A Visit From St. Nicholas” to children in December 2023. Festive
presidential readings have a long history: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt read from Charles Dickens’s A Christmas
Carol to children in 1940. In recent decades, most presidents have opted for Moore’s classic poem.
BLOOMBERG/GETTY
1800s. As cities matured and indus- reindeer was the recipe, Americans the basis of many parodies. Maybe its
trialization beckoned, Americans followed it to a tee. The poem’s popu- appeal lies in its sing-song rhymes,
began associating the holiday with thelarity led families without Dutch roots so easy for both children and parents
comforts of home. Assisted by a grow- to try hanging up their stockings and to memorize, or the idea of a rotund,
ing mass media that gave the poem a giving gifts, posing as a mysterious St. mischievous Santa whose secretive
wider audience, Christmas became a Nick. Soon, Americans were adopting work happens each Christmas Eve.
time for family and childlike wonder. the traditions of other cultures too, Regardless, the poem is still one of
That magic didn’t include what somefrom decorating German Christmas the most widely read American poems
trees to sending and receiving Christ-
considered a critical part of Christmas: of all time—and an appealing tem-
Christianity. The poem sidesteps reli-mas cards, a practice inaugurated by plate onto which Americans can proj-
gion, depicting a secular holiday thatEngland’s Queen Victoria in 1843. ect their whims and worries about the
This was accelerated by retailers who
offers a “Happy Christmas to all.” That meaning of the ever-evolving holiday.
contrasted with the opinions of many encouraged Christmas consumption Perhaps its greatest gift is its whimsi-
with the Calvinist view that Christmasand even made up traditions of their cal, benevolent Santa Claus, described
own, such as Rudolph the red-nosed
be a solemn holiday, if celebrated at all. in the poem’s original introduction as
reindeer, an invention of advertiser and
It also fueled an ongoing dispute about “that homely, but delightful personifi-
how religious Christmas should be—a department store scion Robert L. May. cation of parental kindness.” Even if a
Along the way, “A Visit From St.
debate that, Smith notes, still rages today. Moore-influenced Santa Claus has long
Nicholas” persisted. It has been set to since passed your chimney by, there’s
New Traditions music by artists like Louis Armstrong no escaping the holiday he helped
If Moore’s mix of Dutch tradition and and Perry Como, recited in films from create—or the nearly universal appeal
magic including stockings, super- The Santa Clause to National Lam- of a silent house.
natural chimney descents, and flying poon’s Christmas Vacation, and formed —Erin Blakemore

DA I LY L I F E
Ancient Egypt’s
Dance to the
Music of Time
Ancient Egyptian tomb art reflects the importance and evolution
of dance in that culture, a history that still influences dance today.
F
rom easing the passage of the unification around 3100 b.c., when
deceased into the afterlife to cel-Egypt’s first dynasties fused Upper
ebrating the joys of life on Earth,and Lower Egypt. This union led to the
dance was integral to the daily establishment of the Old Kingdom
lives of ancient Egyptians. Depictions (ca 2575-2150 b.c.), a period of polit-
of dancers on tombs and in temples ical stability that saw great advances
dating across two millennia helped in art and architecture, including the
Egyptologists piece together the rit- building of the Giza Pyramids. Depic-
uals surrounding Egyptian dance and tions of dance at this time come from
how dancing evolved through time. tomb scenes, mostly showing female
In its early stages, formal dancing dancers and musicians performing at
was performed by priests and ritual a funeral procession or grave site.
performers to celebrate gods at reli- These highly organized groups of
gious festivals or processions. Later, professional dancers and musicians,
dance was used in a variety of more known as khener, were affiliated with
secular settings, such as performances specific temples or funerary settings,
to entertain guests at banquets. led by a director, and performed
Throughout its long history, the rep- mainly in ceremonies such as funerals.
ertoire of Egyptian dance was enriched As a rule, early ancient Egyptian
by new styles and moves. art depicts mostly female dancers,
but there are exceptions. A well-
A Ritual Performance preserved depiction from the third
Conventions governing ritual millennium b.c. comes from the early prior to the start of the Old Kingdom.
dance developed after Egypt’s 2nd-dynasty tomb of Nynetjer at Giza, It shows male dancers holding throw
sticks used to hunt birds, accompa-
nied by female musicians and followed
by a female dwarf. Dwarfs were often
DANCING MONKEYS depicted participating in dances, as
they were associated with Bes, god of
ARCHAEOLOGISTS have found numerous ancient
music and childbirth, who was rep-
Egyptian depictions of monkeys playing instru- resented as a dwarf and frequently
ments or dancing. While some see this as evidence shown dancing.
that animals were involved in performances, others Tomb art often shows the dancers
suggest that the images are satires of human be- accompanied by Egyptian instru-
havior, perhaps mocking nobles—even the king. ments. One notable instrument
A monkey playing the aulos, 13th century b.c., Louvre, Paris was the sistrum, which was made of
DEA/GETTY IMAGES bars loaded with small metal disks
and played like a kind of rattle. The
THIS FRAGMENT of a relief
showing dancers and
musicians was found in a
19th-dynasty tomb within the
necropolis of Saqqara, near
the ancient Egyptian capital of
Memphis in Lower Egypt.
A. JEMOLO/DEA/GETTY IMAGES
The Rhythm of Castanets

sistrum was often used in dances
and Tambourines
dedicated to Hathor, goddess of joy, DURING FUNERAL CEREMONIES, dances were seen as rituals to
love, music, and beauty. facilitate the rebirth and regeneration of the deceased. They were
At funeral ceremonies, Hathor, who performed at the procession and final banquet held at the graveside.
was believed to have power over fer- One such dance is depicted in the fragment of a funerary relief (above)
tility, was invoked to bring about the that was found in a private tomb instruments. Next to them, two
rebirth and revival of the deceased in in the necropolis of Saqqara, younger dancers play castanet-like
the afterlife. Female dancers waved home to the royal and nonroyal instruments as they dance. To the
sistrums to evoke the noise Hathor tombs for Egyptians living in right, two soldiers, three priests,
made as she walked through the reed the ancient capital of Memphis. and (at the edge of the fragment
beds. The rattling sounds they pro- In this depiction of a funeral reproduced here) three dignitaries
duced were thought to be pleasing to procession during the New King- raise their arms in jubilation. The
the divinities. dom, the left side shows a group limestone relief, which dates to
The association of Hathor with of female dancers of different the 19th dynasty, circa 1250 b.c.,
dance would persist throughout Egyp- ages beating tambourine-like is now in the Egyptian Museum.
tian history. The Temple of Hathor at

DA I LY L I F E
Performers in a 17th-dynasty painting from the tomb of the dancers at Dra Abu el Naga are thought to be honoring Hathor. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, England
HERITAGE/GETTY IMAGES
Dendera, a structure dating from the A Joyful Turn divine image was taken from its tem-
Ptolemaic period (332-30 b.c.), bears A time of turbulence and weakened ple and paraded to visit other deities
the following inscription: central rule known as the First Inter- at their temples. The public was able
mediate Period followed the Old King- to join in, and dancing became less
We beat the drum to her spirit, dom. After that, the Middle Kingdom inhibited. In a far leap from its sol-
we dance to her Grace. We raise (ca 1975-1640 b.c.) was characterized emn beginnings, dancing turned into
her image up to the heavenly by a flourishing of the arts under a joyous, lively act.
skies. She is the lady of the sis- renewed central government. The Story of Sinuhe, one of the old-
trum, the mistress of jingling In this period, the structured nature est Egyptian literary texts recovered
necklaces. of ritual dance performances, which from the Middle Kingdom, includes
had been confined to the sanctity of passages that are testaments to the
the temples and only seen by a select joyful turn that dance took. The tale
group of priests, changed. Dances were recounts how an Egyptian man fled
brought into the open for processions his kingdom and lived as a foreigner
held at public rituals, such as when a for some time but became desperate
to return to Egypt. When the king
welcomed Sinuhe back and agreed
In a far leap from its solemn to allow him to be buried in Egypt,
beginnings, dancing turned into a Sinuhe spontaneously broke into a
dance of joy: “I roved round my camp,
joyous act in the Middle Kingdom. shouting and singing.” His town, too,
was “in a festive mood, my young
Painting of a lute player and a harpist, tomb of Nakht, 15th century b.c. people rejoicing with dance.”
GETTY IMAGES
1
1 Star dance and 2 mirror dance are seen inside the mastaba of Mereruka in Saqqara, 6th dynasty, 24th to 22nd centuries, b.c.
AKG/ALBUM
Dance scenes created during the their own steps into the dance. meaning. Their disk shape resembled
Middle Kingdom show increasingly Even as it evolved, dance remained the sun on the horizon, and the sun
sophisticated acrobatic routines. an important part of religious ritu- god Re represented rebirth, which is
Dancers are portrayed lying on their als. Tomb art in the New Kingdom what Egyptians sought after death.
stomachs and reaching back until depicts the male funerary dancers The dance of the stars symbolized
their hands touch their feet, and male known as the muu. With their vege- the sun’s passage from east to west,
dancers, by then depicted more fre- table fiber headdresses reminiscent of a metaphor for the cycle of life and
quently, are shown doing pirouettes. the pharaonic crown of Upper Egypt, death. As depicted above, the stron-
During the New Kingdom (ca 1539- they represented incarnations of the gest dancer would stand in the center
1075 b.c.), when ancient Egypt reached gods of the necropolis who helped and hold two lighter dance partners by
the zenith of its regional power, the transport the deceased to the afterlife. the wrists, one in each hand.
appearance of dancers transformed. Far from being relegated to rites of Scholars link the movements of
They swapped skirts or dresses for passage, religion in ancient Egypt ancient Egyptian dance to a wealth of
scarves or bands around their hips, was integral to life. The presence of modern Mediterranean dance tradi-
let their hair loose, wore sophisticated the spiritual in the physical world tions, such as flamenco, as well as the
jewelry, such as anklets, and outlined was reflected in artistic symbolism, arabesques and pirouettes of ballet. In
their eyes with a large quantity of kohl. including in the art of dance. The mir- this way, and through their depictions
The music evolved as well. A ror dance featured dancers moving in in ancient Egyptian tomb art, dances
greater variety of stringed instru- pairs, carrying wooden slapsticks or meant to ensure life after death for
ments accompanied dancers, which castanets in one hand and a mirror Egyptians have achieved their own
is thought to have influenced the in the other. Along with being prac- kind of immortality.
movements. Nubian dancers, from the tical items and casting light during
region south of Egypt, also brought the dance, mirrors had a symbolic —Elisa Castel

Honoring Gods
and the Pharaoh
MANY DANCES appear in depictions on ancient
Egyptian tombs and temples, reflecting the
solemn and celebratory role of dance in life
and death. 1 This image depicts a dance
to bring blessings onto a pharaoh’s continu-
ing rule. 2 A scene shows the iba dance,
associated with pleasures of daily life once
enjoyed by the deceased, such as eating.
3 This acrobatic dance is from a relief
found in the Red Chapel at Karnak. 4 The
tomb of Antefoker, in Thebes, contains repre-
sentations of dances honoring 1 A hair-covering dance, part of a Heb-Sed feast celebrating the continued rule of a pharaoh (in this
Hathor; Antefoker’s wife case Amenhotep III), is at the tomb of Kheruef, steward of Amenhotep’s wife. Thebes, 14th century b.c.
or mother, Senet, who ALAIN GUILLEUX/ALAMY/ACI
is buried near him, was

a priestess to Hathor.
Finally, 5 a detail of
a relief from the Old
Kingdom tomb
of a high official
shows dancers
contorted beyond
what is humanly
possible.
A musician
playing the
aulos (double
flute). Tomb
of Nebamun,
Thebes, 14th 2 Iba dance. The dancers, wearing braids weighted with a ball-rattle, make a diamond shape
century b.c. with arms raised. Tomb of vizier Mereruka, 24th century b.c., Saqquara
ALBUM DEA/GETTY IMAGES
3 Dancers perform backbends, their loose hair trailing on the ground. This is a reconstruction of a
relief
16 at the Red Chapel2024
NOVEMBER/DECEMBER of Hatshepsut, Karnak, 15th century b.c. Museum of Karnak, Egypt
DEA/GETTY IMAGES
4 The broad collars signify this is a dance in honor of the goddess Hathor. The scene is part of the 12th-dynasty tomb of Antefoker and Senet
in Thebes. An inscription reads: “The doors of heaven open. Behold, the Golden One has come.”
ALAMY/ACI
5 Dancers lean backward, raising both arms and one leg, balancing in a way that would be impossible. Found in the necropolis at Saqqara, the
relief adorns the mastaba of Kagemni, a senior official of Pharaoh Teti in the 24th century b.c. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 17
PRISMA/ALBUM
WORK OF ART
How The Nutcracker

Conquered the
Christmas Season
The timeless ballet is a holiday stalwart and a major source of
revenue for ballet companies. But it wasn’t always so successful.
H
ave you ever been to the ballet? strict control over artistic expression.
If you answer yes, chances are Tchaikovsky collaborated with Marius
you saw The Nutcracker—a Petipa, ballet master and choreogra-
production so iconic it is often pher, writing music to order. He based
an audience member’s first (and the score on “The Nutcracker and the
sometimes only) exposure to ballet. Mouse King,” an 1816 novella by Prus-
The classic, with music by Russian sian author E.T.A. Hoffmann.
composer Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky, is The ballet adaptation tells the story
much more than tutus and Christmas of a German family’s Christmas party
trees. It changed—maybe even saved— where a family friend gives the children
American ballet more than six decades a nutcracker. After the family falls
after its first performance. asleep, Clara (sometimes called Marie
depending on the production) sneaks
Russian Roots back to the Christmas tree to see her
In 1891 The Nutcracker was commis- presents but gets lost in an imaginary
sioned by one of Russia’s imperial the- world involving a battle between a
aters, state-owned performance venues heroic life-size nutcracker and an evil
and companies that held a monopoly mouse king. After winning the battle,
over theatrical performances in Rus- the nutcracker turns into a prince and
sia’s largest cities. Financed by the tsar, takes Clara into a snowy forest.
these theaters showcased the sophis- In the second act, Clara and the Prince
tication and power watch a cavalcade of anthropomor-
of Russian culture phized sweets and treats, including performance, the Sugar Plum Fairy per-
while ensuring the Chinese tea, ginger, and chocolate, pay forms a duet with a cavalier, and Clara
empire maintained tribute through dance. At the end of the leaves with the Prince in a flying sleigh.
Although Tchaikovsky had found
success presenting an abbreviated
version of the score months before the
RESTLESS CREATIVITY ballet’s debut, audiences seemed indif-
ferent to the first performances in
TCHAIKOVSKY composed much of The Nutcracker St. Petersburg. Critics disliked the
traveling between Russia, France, and the United child-centered storyline and the “heavy
States. On June 27, 1891, having returned to and wooden” steps of the dancers.
St. Petersburg, he wrote that he had completed Part of the issue, writes musicolo-
the ballet “with feverish haste and constant gist Damien Mahiet, is that the work
doubts” about his authorial strength and talent. was conceived as a ballet-féerie, a fairy
Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky, an 1893 portrait IANDAGNALL COMPUTING/ALAMY/ACI story that was light on plot and heavy
on musical influences. Unlike other
DUELING DUET
James Streeter as the Mouse King
(left) spars with Junor Souza,
playing the Nutcracker, in a 2010
production of Tchaikovsky’s classic
ballet presented by the English
National Ballet at the London
Coliseum, England.
DONALD COOPER/ALAMY
Seasonal but Sinister

ballets of its time, The Nutcracker THE BALLET’S child-centered tale is drawn from “The Nutcracker and
emphasized fun and magic, and lacked the Mouse King,” the 1816 novella by E.T.A. Hoffmann, a much more
the tragic majesty of Tchaikovsky’s grotesque story. Like his contemporaries the brothers Grimm, Hoffmann
earlier masterpiece Swan Lake. But often included as much horror as magic in his tales. In the original, for
later audiences responded to imagina- example, Clara suffers a severe cut during the mouse battle and is found
tive transformations and human in a swoon the morn- began working on the
embodiment of natural phenomena— ing after. Elsewhere, a score in 1891, he and
such as snow and flowers—magic princess is bitten by a choreographer Petipa
that added up to what Mahiet calls gigantic mouse, and struck a lighter tone,
its “spectacle of wonder.” As a result, during battle, riflemen basing the ballet on
The Nutcracker took off during later bite off their own legs “The Story of a Nut-
productions. to fall, crush, and kill cracker,” a happier
the nutcracker’s army. adaptation by Alex-
A New Take When Tchaikovsky andre Dumas père.
The slow-burning success of the ballet Manuscript of the score of Tchaikovsky’s Nutcracker
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
prompted its first performance in the

WORK OF ART
THE SUCCESS of the New York City Ballet’s 1954 production of The Nutcracker, with new choreography by George Balanchine,
turned Tchaikovsky’s ballet into a mainstay. Its nationwide popularity was boosted by the 1957 televised version, broad-
cast on CBS. This photo shows the New York City Ballet’s 1962 production of what was, by then, an enduring classic.
CORDON PRESS
United States in 1944, staged by the San steps and exacting stage directions. In the 1970s, the American Ballet
Francisco Ballet under director William With the help of a spectacular set and Theater took it a step further with a
Christensen. The show rekindled inter- with Balanchine’s ex-wife, prima balle- made-for-television staging, this time
est in the ballet. But The Nutcracker’s rina Maria Tallchief, originating the new choreographed and reimagined with a
most indelible mark on the Sugar Plum Fairy, it was a smash hit. darker, more psychologically complex
fledgling American ballet “Everyone in New York was against tone by preeminent ballet dancer
scene was left by the New it, including the critics,” recalled Tall- Mikhail Baryshnikov. “I’d never choreo-
York City Ballet in 1954. chief. “The company was struggling graphed or even staged a ballet before,”
Reimagined by choreog- financially . . . well, thank God we did he later told Time. “But [the company]
rapher George Bal- [stage it], because it saved the company.” needed a commercial success, and that
anchine, who had grown The Nutcracker became a mainstay for meant a Nutcracker.”
up dancing it in Russia, the the New York City Ballet, and was staged
production ditched the tra- by other ballets over time. It also became A Holiday Must-Have
ditional Petipa choreography synonymous with American ballet, While most companies stage a wider
for Balanchine’s soaring creating a pipeline of new fans. repertoire throughout the year, The
Nutcracker is now a permanent part of
The Nutcracker is an essential—and American ballet. In 2021, the National
Endowment for the Arts reported that
sometimes inescapable—ballet ticket sales for The Nutcracker account
for a company of any size. for about an average of 48 percent of
a ballet company’s season revenue—
Chinese dancer Chun Wai Chan playing the Cavalier in a 2021 New and it is staged hundreds of times
York City Ballet production of The Nutcracker IMAGO/ALAMY/ACI each year.
Sugary PLUM ROLE
Andy Durante
as the Sugar
Sounds Plum Fairy in the
Vienna Festival
Ballet’s 1981
TCHAIKOVSKY’S scores relied on production of The
Nutcracker.
the newest musical technology.
ALBUM/© PETER
The composer not only used toy MARES/BRIDGEMAN
instruments but also included
the celesta. Invented in 1886
by French harmonium builder
Victor Mustel, the device
uses piano-like keys to sound
a spectrum of delicate bells.
Tchaikovsky chose it for the
brittle, ringing theme of the
Sugar Plum Fairy. The celesta
is still a part of
ballet. Contin-
ued demand
for perfor-
mances of the
holiday favor-
ite have made
it an orchestral
must-have.
A celesta from
circa 1900
GAINEW GALLERY/ALAMY
“There’s a certain amount of code- and flickering,” she says. “One flake, two normally considered lucky in Chinese
pendency there,” says Deborah Damast, flakes, and then a blizzard starts. It’s culture, to the Scottish National Ballet’s
program director and artistic adviser of complex. It’s beautiful. It’s just magical.” use of traditional Chinese dances
the graduate dance education program during the tea scene. Other produc-
at NYU Steinhardt. A ballerina and cho- Sweets and Stereotypes tions, like Debbie Allen’s Hot Chocolate
reographer, Damast tells History it is an But the ballet is not all magic, especially Nutcracker and the Hip-Hop Nutcracker,
essential—and sometimes inescap- for those who point out its racial ste- update the score with the likes of
able—ballet for a company of any size. reotyping and outdated conceptions of Mariah Carey or feature guest artists
“It has all the elements, right? It’s got nationality and gender. The second act such as legendary emcee, Kurtis Blow.
intrigue. It’s got magic. It’s got candy.” is particularly controversial, given ballet Such revisions are criticized by pur-
Because of its innate appeal to children, companies’ practice of casting white ists who say it is inappropriate to cast
its Christmastime setting, and its dancers to perform the Chinese tea seg- modern sensibilities onto ballet. But
showcase of talented dancers in roles ment in yellowface. While some com- they are proof of the true flexibility of
like the Sugar Plum Fairy and the Snow panies have chosen to keep the segment Tchaikovsky’s masterpiece. “The beauty
Queen, The Nutcracker is often the in, movements like Final Bow for of The Nutcracker is that it can be imag-
first—or only—ballet the public sees. Yellowface are challenging directors to ined and reimagined somewhat like
The ballet also enchants dancers who portray China through movement, cos- Shakespeare,” Damast, says. Perhaps
have performed in it. “One of my favor- tume, and characterization without these new renditions will prompt audi-
ite roles to dance was the snow scene,” racist and demonizing symbols. ences to attend other ballets, helping
Damast says. Tchaikovsky’s music Many companies have followed suit, dance companies—and the holiday
mimics the movements of real snow— from Pacific Northwest Ballet’s replace- magic they create—endure year after year.
and in many productions, fake snow- ment of a male dancer in yellowface
flakes flutter down. “You see swirling with the Green Tea Cricket, an insect —Erin Blakemore

MONSTER OR MISUNDERSTOOD?
Ancient authors depicted the Roman

emperor Nero as a psychopath, but, at times, his
people loved him. Is his bad reputation fair, or
is it the result of a bitter conflict between Nero
and the aristocracy who dominated the Senate?
ELENA CASTILLO
SMOLDERING GAZE
Accompanied by a pet tiger, Nero
stares impassively from his throne
over the Roman resort of Baiae,
while the volcano Vesuvius smokes
ominously in the background. Polish
artist Jan Styka’s circa 1900 painting,
now in a private collection, reflects
Nero’s reputation for cruelty.
ALBUM
NERO’S GOLDEN PALACE
Following the Great Fire of Rome in a.d. 64,
Nero expropriated land to build the Domus
Aurea (“golden residence”), angering the
aristocrats whose property he seized.
These ruins of the villa stand on the site of
the Colosseum, but few of the extravagant
wall paintings Pliny the Elder wrote about
have survived. The Nymphaeum Suite, with
an arched ceiling adorned with images of
nymphs and other mythological figures, was
once filled with fountains.
LUCIANO ROMANO/SCALA, FLORENCE
heartless tyrant and narcissist who ordered the
murder of his own relatives to cling to power: This is
the profile most usually associated with Nero, the
fifth and last emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
It’s not surprising that this image prevails. Classical
sources presented Nero as a depraved, oversexed tyrant with an
erratic personality, who lived and ruled under the thumb of his
ambitious mother, Agrippina the Younger. and then to allow Nero to marry Claudius’s
But curiously, while the ancient authors focused daughter Octavia in a.d. 53. According to
on his ruthless egotism, the political propaganda accounts of ancient Roman writers, the following
of Nero’s time also highlighted the emperor’s year, once Agrippina was confident Nero’s suc- A GOOD
clemency. Despite the fact that Nero’s govern- cession was assured, she had Claudius poisoned. IMPRESSION
ment, especially in its final years, systematically The ancient authors who depicted Agrip- This marble bust
of Nero was carved
persecuted Christians and wiped out dissidents, pina as a murderess and framed Nero as a cruel
around a.d. 60,
the Roman Empire under Nero also experienced tyrant may have had their own agendas. They when the ruler, in
some of its greatest moments of economic and resented the fact that Nero’s bureaucratization his early 20s, still
cultural dynamism. of the imperial administration took power out of enjoyed public
support. Now in
the hands of the senatorial class to which those the Capitoline
An Unworthy Emperor? authors belonged. His suppression of indirect Museums, it was
When Emperor Claudius died suddenly in taxes in a.d. 58 resulted in greater participation restored in the
a.d. 54, Nero succeeded him to the throne of the common people in trade, which also dis- 17th century.
ALAMY/ACI
at only 16 years old, leapfrogging over other pleased the aristocracy.
members of the Julio-Claudian ruling dynasty. Given these grievances, it is likely that ancient
Claudius had adopted Nero after marrying authors amplified narratives to discredit him.
Nero’s mother (and Claudius’s own niece), Among other misdeeds, the sources attribute
Agrippina the Younger. By naming Nero his dozens of homicides to Nero. While he, like many
heir, Claudius overlooked his biological son Roman emperors, undoubtedly caused deaths,
Britannicus, but Nero enjoyed popular favor many of the murders he is accused of seem
and the support of the Praetorian Guard. improbable if the circumstances surrounding
It was Agrippina, Claudius’s second wife, who them are analyzed.
had maneuvered her son into pole position. She For example, according to Tacitus, the Roman
had persuaded Claudius to adopt Nero in a.d. 50, orator, politician, and historian writing around
a.d. 54 a.d. 62 a.d. 64-65 a.d. 68

Nero succeeds Having ordered After fire devas- Declared a
SHORT Claudius. He the murder of tates Rome, Nero’s public enemy,
AND has his mother, his wife Octavia, unpopularity Nero flees Rome.
Agrippina, Nero marries his grows, and plots He kills himself
BITTER murdered five lover Poppaea against him to escape
years later. Sabina. intensify. execution.
Poppaea Sabina, second wife of Nero, 16th century, Museum of Art and History, Geneva
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
ROCKING THE CRADLE
Nero’s mother, Agrippina
the Younger, brought him
to power, then tried to
remove him from it—for
which he had her killed.
This Roman bust is now
in the Acropolis Museum
in Athens.
ALBUM/PRISMA
a.d. 100, Nero murdered his half brother Britan-
nicus out of fear that Agrippina would form an
alliance with him. Tacitus adds that Nero and his
wife Octavia watched impassively as Britannicus
died dramatically in the middle of dinner, while
the other diners were in uproar. But when this ill-
fated dinner happened in a.d. 55, Agrippina was
at the height of her power and had no motive to
support a pro-Britannicus change of government.
Historian Anthony Barrett of the University of
British Columbia argues that, in fact, Britannicus
died as a result of an epileptic seizure.
Another gruesome episode attributed to Nero
was the death of 400 people enslaved by the sena-
tor Lucius Pedanius Secundus. When one of them
murdered Secundus, all 400 were sentenced to
death. Some Romans rioted, demanding that the
innocents be spared. Nero quelled the rebellion
and ensured that the mass execution took place.
But it was the Senate that had passed this law;
LIFE OF THE PARTY
Nero simply enforced it. And when some sena- ACCORDING TO ROMAN historian Suetonius, the young Nero was prone
tors suggested that freedmen who had formerly to acts of “wantonness, lust, extravagance, and cruelty.” With age,
been enslaved by Secundus be exiled from Rome he wrote, the emperor’s vices only grew stronger:
as an additional measure of communal punish- He prolonged his revels from midday to midnight . . . Sometimes too
ment, Nero refused. His position irritated the he closed the inlets and banqueted in public in the great tank, in the
Campus Martius, or in the Circus Maximus, waited on by harlots
aristocracy, many of whom he had displaced from
and dancing girls from all over the city.
key positions in the imperial administration,
A colored lithograph from 1881 depicts Nero participating in a bacchanal.
replacing them with formerly enslaved freed- UNIVERSAL HISTORY ARCHIVE/GETTY
men in whom he placed his trust.
Nero offered other examples of level-headed
rule. Early in his reign, to avoid abuses of power
by the sovereign and the Senate, he eliminated (the great-grandson of Emperor Tiberius). Nero CLASSICAL
secret trials held intra cubiculum principiss (literally forgave his mother and her accomplice, and he SOURCES
Historians Suetonius
“inside the prince’s chamber”), which involved exiled others involved in the plot.
and Tacitus (the
the arbitrary condemnation or acquittal of apris- However, when Agrippina again took action latter shown in this
oner. Such private hearings had been common in against her son three years later, one of Nero’s 1830 engraving)
the time of Claudius, and their suppression was advisers encouraged him to have her killed while both provide key
information on
recommended by Nero’s former tutor and men- making it look like an accident at sea. According Nero’s rule.
tor, the philosopher Seneca. to Tacitus, it was the freedman Anicetus who MARY EVANS/SCALA, FLORENCE
dreamed up the boat plot, but senator and his-
Popular With the Plebs torian Cassius Dio wrote that Seneca and
By the age of 20, Nero had already forged his own Nero came up with the idea together. Either
political style and instituted judicial and fiscal way, Nero gave orders to scupper the ship his
reforms benefiting the common people (ple- mother was sailing on off the coast of Naples.
beians). But his political vision was hampered Miraculously, Agrippina survived the ship-
by his mother Agrippina, who, after getting rid wreck. Then, on March 23, a.d. 59, she was
of all her rivals, threatened to remove her son finally assassinated by Nero’s henchmen at
from power. The first time that Agrippina was her villa in Bauli.
accused of plotting a coup d’état against her son, It’s said that a well-known comic actor
in a.d.55, Nero showed clemency. Agrippina had made a daring allusion in song to the murder.
allied herself with Nero’s rival Rubellius Plautus He sang: “Farewell to thee, father; farewell
UP IN FLAMES
This oil painting from 1771
by French artist Hubert
Robert dramatically evokes
the devastating Great Fire
of Rome in a.d. 64. André
Malraux Museum of Modern
Art, Le Havre, France
ALBUM
WHILE ROME BURNS
ONE LEGEND ABOUT Nero recounts that, during the Great Fire of
Rome in a.d. 64, he “fiddled while Rome burned,” an expression
still used to describe leaders responding frivolously to a crisis. The
origin of the phrase reveals much about the evolution of Nero’s
reputation. When the blaze began, Nero was not in Rome; accord-
ing to Tacitus, he returned to help the victims, a gesture that was
well received by the populace. However, Tacitus also chronicled
rumors that the music-loving Nero spent the time “in song.” These
rumors were later presented as fact, and, a century and a half
later, Cassius Dio reported Nero singing while strumming on a
kythara, or lyre. Later still, in English sources, this instrument was
called a fiddle, whose other meaning in English, of aimless activity,
helped cement the damning legend. The perception of Nero as a
cruel tyrant was already established in the Christian European
imagination. Tacitus recounted that Nero had blamed Christians
for starting the fire. On his orders they were “covered with wild
beasts’ skins and torn to death by dogs; or they were fastened on
crosses, and were burned to serve as lamps by night.”

A COLOSSAL CHANGE
Following Nero’s death in
a.d. 68, his sprawling Domus
Aurea complex was stripped of
its artworks and partially buried.
Emperor Vespasian drained its
boating lake to begin building
the Colosseum, completed under
Emperor Titus in a.d. 80.
ANTONINO BARTUCCIO/FOTOTECA 9X12
to thee, mother,” while doing a mime of eating
and swimming. Claudius had been poisoned
while eating dinner, and Agrippina had narrowly
escaped being drowned.
Despite these lurid events, which overshad-
owed Nero’s reign and detracted from his general
policy of clemency, Nero retained considerable
popularity by providing the people with bread and
circuses. But the support of the common people
began to wane when Poppaea Sabina, a beautiful
Pompeian woman, appeared on the scene.
In a.d. 62, when Poppaea became pregnant
several months into an adulterous relationship
with Nero, the emperor decided to divorce his
wife Octavia and marry Poppaea. To justify these
actions, Nero accused Octavia of adultery with an
enslaved person and exiled her to Campania, on
the southwest coast. Outraged, the people began
to destroy the public images of Poppaea in soli- LEARNING HOW TO DIE
darity with the exiled empress. The revolt forced
Nero to bring Octavia back to Rome, but he was “IT TAKES A LIFETIME to learn how to die,” wrote the Stoic philosopher
now determined to sentence her to death. After Seneca, whose wisdom led to his appointment as mentor to the
young Nero in a.d. 54. At first, Seneca guided Nero toward measured
facing a second false accusation of adultery, this
policies but later lost influence over him. In a.d. 65 Nero ordered
time with Nero’s former accomplice Anicetus, Seneca to kill himself by opening his veins. Officially, Seneca was
the commander of the Misenum fleet, Octavia accused of involvement in a conspiracy, but it is more likely that
was sent to the island of Pandataria. There, some Nero resented the aged philosopher for having witnessed his crimes.
of the emperor’s assassins murdered her by slash- “The Death of Seneca” by Manuel Domínguez Sánchez, 1871, Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain
ing her veins and immersing her in boiling water. ALBUM
The animosity the Roman people showed
toward Poppaea wasn’t shared in other parts of
the empire. In the Campania region, where Pop-
paea was born in the city of Pompeii, the imperial Their games had been banned for 10 years, as DOOMED WIFE
couple enjoyed popular support. On the walls of punishment for a brawl that had broken out in The likeness of
Pompeian houses (destroyed by the eruption of the crowd at a gladiatorial contest when locals Nero’s wife Octavia
appears on a coin
Vesuvius in a.d. 79) archaeologists uncovered clashed violently with spectators from neigh- minted around
graffiti reading “Hail Nero,” “Long Live Poppaea,” boring Nuceria. To cement the loyalty of the a.d. 56–57. Nero
and “Hurray for the Emperor and Empress.” Pompeians, Nero reopened it after just five years. banished Octavia
to the remote
In fact, there was more Pompeian graffiti in
Mediterranean island
favor of Nero than for any previous emperor, Not Unique of Pandataria, where
and the messages remained visible even after The violence of Nero’s reign, as depicted by the he had her killed.
Nero had been sentenced to damnatio memoriae, ancient biographers, intensified in the a.d. 60s. BRIDGEMAN/ACI
the removal of all his public and private images Ongoing conflict between the Senate and the
and inscriptions after his death. Nero’s special emperor fueled conspiracies, and Nero
popularity in Pompeii can be explained not only ramped up surveillance. Ofonius Tigel-
by Poppaea’s Pompeian origin but also by the linus, prefect of the Praetorian Guard
favors that Nero granted the city. He contrib- in a.d. 62, led an effective team of
uted to Pompeii’s recovery after an earthquake spies, who rooted out alleged con-
devastated it in a.d. 62, and he visited in per- spirators. Accused of defaming
son to make offerings at the temple of Venus. Nero, the most dangerous rivals of
Nero also gained popularity by allowing Pom- the emperor met untimely deaths:
peians to return to their amphitheater early. Rubellius Plautus, Faustus Cornelius
THE PRIDE OF POMPEII
In this contemporary photo, the
volcano of Vesuvius looms beyond
a street in the ancient city of
Pompeii. Inscriptions celebrating
Nero and his wife Poppaea Sabina
were found on walls at the site.
VITTORIO SCIOSIA/FOTOTECA 9X12
Sulla, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, Seneca, and many
of their co-conspirators.
But Nero’s policy of eliminating adversaries
does not differ much from the behavior of the
rulers who preceded him. Augustus, who was
celebrated as a great emperor, was arguably as
aggressive as Nero when it came to dealing with
political opponents, ordering all the heirs of his
rival Mark Antony killed, for example.
Whether an emperor was deemed a champion
of the people or a bloodthirsty tyrant depended
on the relationship he had with the senatorial
class of landowners who wrote the history books.
While Augustus safeguarded the privileges of the
aristocracy, Nero squeezed them. But the repu-
tations of the two emperors were also shaped
by their differing attitudes toward the culture,
institutions, and deeply rooted customs of Rome.
DEATH OF THE ARTIST
Nero the Innovator
While Augustus maintained a very conservative “WHAT AN ARTIST dies in me.” According to Suetonius’s account of the
policy regarding Roman traditions, Nero tried to emperor’s dying moments, these were Nero’s last words. This 1888
replace them with new rituals inspired by Helle- painting by Vasily Smirnov, now in the State Russian Museum in Saint
Petersburg, shows Nero lying dead. Having realized that soldiers had
nistic culture, which he viewed as more civilized.
come to haul him to execution, Nero committed suicide with the help
The changes Nero wrought could be considered a of his attendant, Epaphroditus, who stabbed him in the neck. Epaph-
cultural revolution. He built gymnasiums, arenas, roditus looks on, alongside Nero’s enslaved lover Sporus, a young man
and imperial schools for teaching the new tradi- Nero treated as his “empress” after Poppaea’s death.
tions, where young, aristocratic men were trained AKG/ALBUM
to compete in gymnastic and musical contests
that were incorporated into Roman festivities.
The aristocracy generally rejected what they
saw as cultural Neroism. They criticized his spec- fled Rome with his trusted freedmen Phaon and
tacles and poetry recitals, and they ridiculed Nero Epaphroditus and his male lover Sporus.
as a narcissistic megalomaniac who craved pub- On June 9 the Senate sentenced Nero to death
lic acclaim with his zither playing and singing, as a public enemy of the state. Punishment
increasingly out of touch with the people he ruled. entailed being beaten to death with rods, so Nero
The end of Nero’s reign was marked by his decided to commit suicide. Lacking the resolve to
costly attempt to have a canal at Corinth dug by take his own life, he asked Epaphroditus to guide
6,000 prisoners. By a.d. 66 things were unrav- his hands by plunging a dagger into his neck.
eling. Discontent surged among the people, the Nero’s suicide brought the Julio-Claudian
army, and the senatorial class due to misman- dynasty to an end. Given his reputation, one
agement of the distribution of wheat and pub- might anticipate that his death would prove to
lic finances. Nero’s long trip to Greece that year be good for Rome. But the power vacuum he
compounded the resentment. Against this back- left ushered in the “year of the four emperors,” a
drop, two provincial governors rebelled against bloody civil war that took place as four would-be
him: Gaius Julius Vindex of Gaul and Servius rulers jostled for power from June 68 to Decem-
Sulpicius Galba, Nero’s soon-to-be successor. ber 69. It was, according to Tacitus, “a period
In a.d. 68 Nero reluctantly returned to Rome, rich in disasters, frightful in its wars, torn by civil
by now very detached from reality. On June 8, with strife, and even in peace full of horrors.”
Galba’s rebellion gaining strength, the Praeto-
HISTORIAN AND AUTHOR ELENA CASTILLO HAS WRITTEN EXTENSIVELY
rian Guard finally abandoned Nero. The emperor ON ROME’S IMPERIAL PERIOD.

OCTAVIA’S
ACCORDING TO THE ACCOUNT by Tacitus in the
second century, Poppaea Sabina, Nero’s lover,
drove the murder of his wife Octavia, convincing
GRUESOME Nero that divorcing his wife to marry her would

not be enough. As the daughter of Emperor
MURDER
Claudius, Octavia was popular with the masses,
which made her a threat to both Nero and his
new wife. Octavia, therefore, also needed to be
discredited and eliminated. To achieve this, Nero
One of the episodes that most damaged falsely accused Octavia of committing adultery
with the prefect Anicetus, whom he persuaded to
Nero’s reputation was the murder of his “confess” to the affair. She was also accused of
first wife, Claudia Octavia. aborting a child she had conceived with Anicetus,
DEA/ALBUM
a practice that was not illegal but was disap- The oil painting “Revenge of Poppea” by the 19th-
proved of. As punishment, Tacitus writes, Nero century Italian artist Giovanni Muzzioli depicts
confined her to the island of Pandataria (modern- the moment that Poppaea gloats over the sev-
day Ventotene), off the west coast of Italy: ered head of Octavia, presented to her on a plat-
No exile ever filled the eyes of beholders with tears of ter. Nero’s new wife reclines on a couch, leaning
greater compassion . . . After a few days, she received against the emperor, who appears markedly indif-
an order that she was to die . . . She was then tightly ferent to the gruesome sight of his ex-wife’s disem-
bound with cords, and the veins of every limb were bodied head. By contrast, two senators to his right
opened; but as her blood was congealed by terror are visibly shocked. The clothing, furniture, and art
and flowed too slowly, she was killed outright by the that decorate the walls in this painting were care-
steam of an intensely hot bath. To this was added fully designed by the artist to depict Rome in the
the yet more appalling horror of Poppaea beholding a.d. 60s It is now displayed in the Civic Museum
the severed head which was conveyed to Rome. of Modena, Italy.
THE TOMB
OF ST. PETER
MYSTERY BENEATH THE VATICAN
THE KEYS TO HEAVEN
Beneath Michelangelo’s great dome, the
high altar of the Basilica of St. Peter in
Rome is covered by a baldachin, a bronze
canopy designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
The altar is built over an underground
monument identified as the tomb of the
apostle. Below, a 13th-century statue in the
basilica depicts St. Peter holding the keys
to the Kingdom of Heaven.
PHOTO: PIETRO CANALI/FOTOTECA 9X12;
STATUE: ALAMY/CORDON PRESS
Tradition holds that the martyred remains of

St. Peter were honored—and obscured—by the
basilicas raised over them on Vatican Hill. In the
1940s, an early Christian tomb was found. Was
this truly the first pope’s final resting place?
ELENA CASTILLO
MARTYRDOM
Accounts state that Peter was being devoured by wild animals in front of an
crucified upside down. This audience. It’s likely that Peter and Paul were
painting was completed in
1485 by Filippino Lippi and is among those who died in these gory specta-
the last in the fresco cycle of cles. According to the noted Roman historian
the “Life of St. Peter” in the
Cappella Brancacci, Santa Tacitus, the executions were staged in the
Maria del Carmine, Florence. circus that had been begun by Caligula
SCALA, FLORENCE
(r. a.d. 37–41) on the Via Cornelia. This was
outside the city walls to the west, at a place
known as the Vatican. A different tradition
records that Peter was killed by crucifixion,
placed upside down by his own choice, as a
symbol that he had not been worthy to die the
same way as the Lord. Whatever the details of
Peter’s death, the question of what then hap-
pened to his body has been a vexed one.
One early church source provides a lead.
According to the apocryphal text Acts of Peter
and Paul, written by Pseudo-Marcellus around
the year 400, some men from Jerusalem who
were “glorious and strange in appearance”
joined Marcellus, a follower of Peter, and
“took up [Peter’s] body secretly, and put it
under the terebinth near the naumaquia [place
for the exhibition of sea fights] in the place
called the Vatican.” This suggests that Peter
was buried near where he was martyred, in a
TRANSITIONAL ccording to church history, the pagan necropolis on the Via Cornelia near the
ERA
apostles Peter and Paul arrived in Circus of Caligula. This is the area known as
This third-century
funerary stele found Rome at the time of Nero the Vatican necropolis.
near St. Peter’s is (r. a.d. 54–68). There they found
dedicated to Licinia a small but committed group of Veneration of the Apostle
Amias. Marking a
Christians established among the Jewish com- Although at first the tomb of Peter was probably
transitional era, it
contains a mixture munities of the city. On Saturdays, Peter and a simple one and almost anonymous, the growth
of pagan text Paul would visit the synagogues, and on Sun- of the Christian community in Rome soon made
and the Christian days they preached in various homes around it a focus for the faithful. In an effort to preserve
symbol of the fish.
National Roman the city that doubled as churches. But this way the tomb, it was covered with new stone slabs
Museum, Rome of life was interrupted by the infamous Great as the ground level of the site rose. Then, in the
BRIDGEMAN/ACI Fire of Rome in a.d. 64, which Nero accused mid-second century, a small commemorative
the Christians of starting. The emperor had monument was built on top. Something similar
many Christians condemned to death for the happened with the tomb of Paul, located, at least
blaze. They were executed according to tradition, to the south of the city,
by crucifixion, burning, or in the necropolis of the Via Ostiense.
IN SEARCH OF A ca a.d. 67
Peter, apostle of Jesus, dies
FIRST-CENTURY as a martyr in Rome at the

time of Nero and is thought
to be buried in the necropolis
TOMB near the Circus of Caligula
and Nero.
THE VATICAN
Caligula built a chariot-racing circus near Vatican Hill. Many
Christians were martyred in the circus, including Peter around
a.d. 67. In the fourth century a.d., the first St. Peter’s Basilica was built
over the necropolis to the north of the circus, where it is believed
Peter was interred. The basilica was rebuilt in the 16th century.
St. Peter’s Basilica The Tomb of St. Peter

was erected on the (also known as the
axis of the Vatican Trophy of Gaius) stood
necropolis. in the middle of the VATICAN NECROPOLIS
Vatican necropolis. In the mid-second century a.d., the Vatican
necropolis comprised mausoleums placed along
the street known as Via Cornelia. Although
originally pagan, the necropolis was Christianized
at the end of the third century.
ILLUSTRATION: FRANCESO CORNI
In the first century a.d.,

Vatican Hill was still
outside the city, an
area of farmland and
aristocratic estates.
ALAMY/CORDON PRESS
VATICAN HILL
The obelisk from
the Circus of Caligula
was placed in the
center of St. Peter’s
Circus of Square in 1586.
Caligula
ROMAN FORUM
ca a.d 160 ca a.d 320 1506 1940–1957

Known as the Trophy A massive platform is Construction of the Archaeologists uncover
of Gaius, a monument built over the top of the Renaissance basilica of the remains of the Vatican
is erected over what is Vatican necropolis. On St. Peter begins. A vaulted necropolis, including a
believed to be Peter’s this platform, construction area that becomes known structure that matches a
resting place in the of the first Constantinian as the Vatican Grottoes is description of the Trophy of
necropolis. basilica of St. Peter begins. created in the basement. Gaius under the altar.

ENTERING HEAVEN
“Christ Handing the Keys of the
Kingdom to St. Peter,” the late 15th-
century fresco by Pietro Perugino,
adorns the northern wall of the
Sistine Chapel in the Vatican.
SCALA, FLORENCE
ROMAN APOSTLES The earliest written reference to the funer- Although not all the churches accepted
Below, a copy ary monuments of Peter and Paul dates to this claim, it nonetheless added potency to
of a Roman around the year 200, when Gaius, a presbyter, Peter’s tomb.
tombstone from
a.d. 313 depicts or bishop, of the Church of Rome, stated that So when the emperor Constantine I
the apostles Peter the “trophies” of both apostles could be seen (r. a.d. 306–337) ordered the construction of
and Paul. The in Rome, one in the Vatican and the other on a great Christian basilica in Rome as part of his
monogram is an
the Via Ostiense. The word “trophy” was used policy of promoting Christianity as the domi-
early Christian
symbol consisting for tombs erected to Christian martyrs, since nant religion of the empire, he chose the site
of the first two martyrdom was equated to a triumph of faith of Peter’s tomb. Knowing that the new temple
letters (chi and over death. was built around the tomb of such an important
rho) of the name
Christ in Greek. Interest in the tomb of St. Peter grew as it figure in the Christian tradition would surely
ALAMY/ACI became widely accepted that the Church of attract believers. Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea,
Rome held primacy over all the other Chris- in his text Theophany (a.d. 333), wrote that the
tian churches. According to the Petrine theory apostle had been honored with “a splendid
developed in the second century, Peter had tomb before the city, a tomb to which innumer-
received from Jesus Christ himself the keys able hordes flock from every part of the Roman
to the Kingdom of Heaven. So, having estab- empire, as a great Shrine and temple of God.”
lishing himself in Rome as the first bishop of
the city, Peter was believed to transmit to his A Colossal Basilica
successors the The decision to erect the basilica over the pre-
highest pos- existing tomb had enormous implications for
sible author- the construction process. Since the Vatican
i ty ove r t h e was an area of uneven hilly terrain, a huge plat-
whole Christian form, nearly 800 feet long and almost 300 feet
c o m m u n i t y. wide, was built on top of the ancient Vatican
THE FIRST ST. PETER’S
In this early 17th-century
painting, Giovanni Battista
Ricci da Novara re-created
the St. Peter’s Basilica erected
by Emperor Constantine I
in the fourth century, which
was replaced by the present
structure in the 1500s.
SCALA, FLORENCE
ILLUMINATED
This detail from the 1520–1524 The Trophy and Peter’s tomb beneath it were
painting “The Donation of further buried in the 16th century, when the
Constantine” shows the
interior of the first basilica of old basilica was demolished and rebuilt to a
St. Peter. Under the high altar, Renaissance design.
the latticed door provided
access to the place where The new Renaissance building was erected
the remains of the apostle on a second platform, some 10 feet above the
were venerated. Apostolic
Palace, Vatican first, and supported by a system of vaults. These
SCALA, FLORENCE vaults created a space between the fourth-
century basilica and the Renaissance one, the
so-called Vatican Grottoes that were used as
burial places for the popes. The bones of St.
Peter, believed to be buried beneath, were left
in peace at this point. In 1626, the remains of
various tombs and burial mounds were dis-
turbed unintentionally during work to put in
place the bronze columns of the famous balda-
chin designed by sculptor and architect Gian
Lorenzo Bernini. But Pope Urban VIII ordered
the uncovering of the tombs to be kept quiet as
the remains belonged to pagans who had been
buried in the ancient necropolis.
The Archaeologists Arrive

It wasn’t until the 20th century that the oldest
stratum of St. Peter’s Basilica finally came to
light. In 1939, Pope Pius XII decided to open
the Vatican Grottoes to the public. To make
AN EMPEROR’S necropolis on the Via Cornelia to support the this practical, it was necessary to increase the
FAMILY PORTRAIT basilica. A huge volume of earth had to be height of the interior space by lowering the
Found in Samagher,
removed in order to create the platform that floor level of the original paving some two and a
Croatia, this fifth-
century casket depicts reached a depth of some 30 feet. Despite the half feet. As soon as the workers began digging,
Constantine I and ambitious construction work, the surrounding they uncovered several Roman tombs belong-
his family in the first necropolis couldn’t be destroyed as the tombs ing to the ancient Vatican necropolis. For the
basilica of St. Peter.
It is the only visual and mausoleums were protected by sacred law. church, an archaeological investigation of these
depiction of the So Constantine I ordered that instead of remov- remains was a highly sensitive undertaking. It
Memoria Petri, the ing the tombs completely, the roofs should be involved determining whether the tomb of St.
structure that once taken off, their vaults broken, and the interior Peter with his mortal remains inside really was
encased Peter’s tomb.
SCALA, FLORENCE
space filled with earth. The bones would remain under the altar of the basilica. This tradition,
buried under the new basilica. which had been so important to the identity
The building was con- of the Church of Rome, had been challenged by
structed so that a monu- Protestants in the 16th century. Martin Luther
ment, later known as the wrote that according to sources in Rome, “it is
Trophy of Gaius, was built unknown where in the city the bodies of Saint
over the original tomb and Peter and Paul are located, or even whether they
located under the apse. Its are there at all. Even the Pope and the cardinals
site was marked inside the know very well that they do not know.”
temple with a square marble Despite the controversy, Pius XII commis-
structure covered by a cibo- sioned a major archaeological investigation.
rium with four Solomonic The excavation, directed by the archaeolo-
columns. But the Trophy gist Antonio Ferrua under the supervision
itself was buried under the of Monsignor Ludwig Kaas, lasted for more
platform of the basilica. than a decade and made it possible to identify
UNDER THE HIGH ALTAR
Known as the confessio, this sunken
space allows the faithful to look
down on the section below the
high altar where Peter’s tomb is
believed to be located. For centuries,
the central Niche of the Pallia (on
the far wall of the confessio) was
venerated for its proximity to Peter’s
tomb, a structure described in early
Christian documents as the Trophy
of Gaius but whose location had long
been lost. Following excavations in
the 1940s, a structure believed to
be the Trophy of Gaius was found
immediately behind the niche.
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
A MYSTIC
VERSUS THE
VATICAN
IN THE 1940S, Maria Valtorta, an Italian
Catholic mystic and lay Franciscan, de-
scribed a series of visions in which Jesus
appeared to her. According to her account,
Jesus confirmed that Peter had been in
Rome and had suffered martyrdom under
Nero. His remains, however, were buried not
on Vatican Hill but passed through several
resting places before being interred in the
catacombs of Marcellinus and Peter (named
for Peter the Exorcist, a later saint). Emerg-
ing during the excavations at the Vatican,
Valtorta’s revelations contradicted the
Vatican line, from 1950, that Peter’s tomb lay
under the basilica. Pope Pius XII initially gave
a sympathetic audience to Valtorta but later
criticized her. Her visions were published in
The Poem of the Man-God, which in 1959 was
placed on the Church’s Index of Prohibited
Books (abolished in 1966).
PAPAL and restore 22 tombs belonging to the Roman discovery of a modest “venerated tomb,”
ARCHAEOLOGY necropolis of the Via Cornelia, adjacent to which had been almost completely destroyed.
On December 23,
the Circus of Caligula. The tombs, having lain Although Christian symbols and graffiti were
1950, Pope Pius XII
(above, photo- undisturbed and buried in the earth for cen- found, they were hard to read and interpret. In
graphed during turies had been extremely well preserved, and any case, they seemed to date to the time of the
World War II) their stuccos and paintings were found in an Constantinian construction.
announced to
the world that, excellent state of repair. The excavation ordered by Pius XII had set its
following excavations A construction discovered exactly beneath sights on finding the tomb of St. Peter and, even
at the Vatican, the vertical axis of the altar in the basilica more important, his bones. Given the impor-
human remains of attracted the most attention. It was a struc- tance of the relics within the Catholic Church,
achaeological interest
had been found. ture with two niches, one above the other, being able to identify the mortal remains of
DAGLI ORTI/AURIMAGES attached to a red stuccoed wall. Archaeologists Jesus’ right-hand man would have been an
identified it as the Trophy of Gaius, the monu- extraordinary event. While excavating under
ment mentioned in the sources as having been the two niches that formed the Trophy of Gaius,
built in the second century to mark Peter’s the archaeologists came across an underground
tomb. On December 23, 1950, in his Christmas cavity some three feet deep. If there were bones
radio address, Pius XII announced the discov- inside, surely there was a chance that they
ery in unequivocal terms: “Has the tomb of belonged to the apostle? But initially, all the
St. Peter really been found? To that question, archaeologists found was a large number of coins,
the answer is beyond all doubt: Yes. The tomb probably left by pilgrims. During the excavation,
of the Prince of the Apostles has been found.” some skeletal remains were uncovered but not
inside the tomb. At the time, the bones didn’t
Papal Announcements arouse particular interest and so were removed
The scientific reports on the excavation were and stored in a wooden box in the warehouse of
more cautious, however. They described the the Vatican Grottoes.
REST IN PEACE, EMILIA
The photograph shows the
interior of Tomb F, the first to
be discovered in the Vatican
necropolis in 1939. Near the
pagan burial of a theater troupe
leader lie the later remains
of Emilia Gorgonia, a young,
fourth-century a.d. Christian.
Her inscription reads Dormit in
Pace, an early formulation of
Requiescat in Pace: Rest in Peace.
GIULIANO VALSECCHI/BRIDGEMAN/ACI
1
Vault that might

have been used as
St. Peter’s tomb
ST. PETER: FROM NECROPOLIS

TO BASILICA
1 The Trophy of Gaius (named for a three feet deep. This space has been iden- four Solomonic columns. In the seventh
Roman Christian theologian) was con- tified with the oldest and simplest tomb century, the main altar of the basilica was
structed in the second century a.d., and of the apostle. placed above the Memoria Petri.
is believed to mark Peter’s burial near
the circus where he died a martyr. It 2 In the fourth century, the Vatican 3 The current basilica replaced the
was located in the center of the Vatican necropolis was buried under the first medieval basilica in the 16th century. A
necropolis in an open space bounded on basilica of St. Peter. The Memoria Petri sunken space, known as the confessio,
the eastern side by a stuccoed wall about was built over the Trophy of Gaius. was created in front of the high altar, to
eight feet high. The monument is formed The only known visual depiction of this allow worshippers proximity to where the
by two niches, one above the other. The monument appears on the fifth-century tomb of Peter was thought to be. In the
niche at ground level was demarcated by reliquary known as the Samagher casket. 1940s, a structure resembling the Tro-
two small columns, nearly five feet high, It is depicted as a square structure. It was phy of Gaius was found below the altar.
supporting a corbel made of marble. surrounded by a balustrade and covered A loculus, or cavity, in the wall contained
Below was a subterranean space around by a ciborium or baldachin, supported by human bones.
ILLUSTRATIONS 1 AND 2: DIREZIONE SCIENTIFICA ANDREA CARANDINI. ILLUSTRAZIONE DI INKLINK MUSEI. ILLUSTRATION 3: FABBRICA DI SAN PIETRO IN VATICANO
3
High altar
Confessio
Loculus
or cavity
containing
bones
Vatican
necropolis
Guarducci managed to track down the bones
within the warehouse and asked the pope if she
could have them analyzed by a renowned foren-
sic doctor. The results came back in 1963 and
indicated that the skeletal remains all belonged
to one man.
According to the analysis, he had been
corpulent and had died at an advanced age,
between 60 and 70 years old. The analysis also
revealed traces of a wool fabric dyed purple and
interwoven with gold. This suggested that the
bones had been carefully wrapped before being
placed in the loculus. The conclusion seemed
obvious, at least to Guarducci: The bones
belonged to St. Peter. Based on these results,
in 1968, Pope Paul VI solemnly announced that
the bones of the apostle had been found.
Here Is Peter
During the excavations, Ferrua noticed a frag-
ment of the graffiti wall had become detached,
and on it he made out some Greek letters.
Although the text was incomplete, the archae-
ologist restored it as PETROS ENI (Here is Peter).
This was the first textual indication that the
Trophy of Gaius was indeed Peter’s tomb.
However, not all scholars agreed with Fer-
THE BONES OF In his radio address of December 1950, Pope rua’s interpretation. For example, it’s possible
THE APOSTLE Pius XII referred to these bones but stopped to understand the opposite meaning from the
Margherita Guarducci
short of claiming they belonged to Peter: “At inscription: PETROS ENDEI (Peter is not here).
points out on a
photograph the the side of the tomb, the remains of human Guarducci later managed to decipher other
cavity (loculus) in bones have been found. However, it is impos- graffiti on the wall and, after a long study, came
which bones were sible to prove with certainty that they belong to the conclusion that they were messages
found that she claims
belong to St. Peter. to the body of the apostle. This still leaves from faithful Christians, written in code at
On the table are intact the historical reality of the tomb itself.” the time of the anti-Christian persecutions.
photos and tracings The subsequent investigation of those bones She identified and interpreted about 20 sym-
of inscriptions on the was driven by epigrapher Margherita Guarducci. bols as references to St. Peter. Decades later,
graffiti wall.
TOPFOTO / AURIMAGES
She personally asked permission from the pope the identification of the bones and the inter-
to undertake a study of all the graffiti associ- pretation of the graffiti are still hotly debated.
ated with the Trophy of Gaius. The inscriptions, Given that Peter was martyred somewhere in
scribbled in charcoal or engraved with a stylus on the area where a basilica was later consecrated
the ruins of the monument, were concentrated to him, it seems logical that the Trophy of
on a wall that, as a buttress, had been built per- Gaius was built over a modest memorial for
pendicular to the red stucco wall of the Trophy the apostle. Over the centuries, this special
of Gaius, to shore it up. enclave of the Vatican necropolis has become
On this wall (known as wall G or the graffiti a space of Christian veneration. What’s harder
wall), Guarducci noticed a small loculus, or to be sure about is whether the bones discov-
cavity, that had not been investigated. During ered here truly belonged to Peter.
their work in the grottoes, one of the excava-
tion workers told Guarducci that this loculus
in wall G was where the bones mentioned by
AUTHOR AND HISTORIAN ELENA CASTILLO IS A SPECIALIST ON EARLY IMPERIAL
the pope had originally been found. ROME AND THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF CHRISTIAN SITES FROM THIS PERIOD.
NICHE OF THE PALLIA
Behind this niche, in the sunken
space of the confessio below the
high altar of St. Peter, lies the
Trophy of Gaius, thought to mark
the tomb of Peter. The niche houses
a casket containing the pallia
(ornamental sashes) that the pope
bestows on new archbishops in an
annual ceremony.
G. CIGOLINI/DEA/ALBUM
A WELCOMING SPACE
The eastern facade of St. Peter’s Basilica is the focal point for visitors arriving in the
huge oval space of St. Peter’s Square. Bounded by two colonnaded hemicycles, the
square was designed by sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini and completed in 1667. Five
million people a year pass through the square, many timing their visit to hear the
weekly address given by the pope from the window of the papal apartments.
PAOLO GIOCOSO/FOTOTECA 9X12
THE AGE OF CASTLES
FORTRESSES OF
FEUDAL EUROPE
Appearing as early as the ninth century in the form of
simple wooden towers, medieval castles developed into
imposing fortifications designed to withstand long
sieges and symbolize the status and power of their lords.
J. SANTIAGO PALACIOS ONTALVA
WORTH FIGHTING FOR
Looming over the Dordogne River
in central France, Castelnaud (“new
castle”) was destroyed in the
wars between Catholics and the
splinter Cathar group, and rebuilt
in its current form in the 1200s.
In the following century, during
the Hundred Years’ War between
England and France, Castelnaud
was fought over repeatedly.
DE LAGASNERIE/GTRES
KEEPING POWER
At 82 feet tall, the square keep of
Arques rises over the countryside
near Carcassonne in southwest
France. The castle was built in
the late 1200s after the village
was razed during the Albigensian
Crusade. Only the keep managed to
survive a Protestant attack in 1575.
ARNAUD SPANI/GTRES
he human instinct to seek protection behind walls
or trenches or on top of natural elevations goes back
millennia. But it was during the Middle Ages, and
in response to the evolution of weaponry and war-
fare, that this drive led to the building of fortified
castles. In this golden era of their construction, castles reached
a degree of perfection and complexity unparalleled in history.
The first medieval fortifications were very dif- these castles, as inhabitants benefited from the
ferent from the imposing castles that appeared protection offered by the moats, raised earth-
later. In the ninth and 10th centuries, the castles works, and wooden palisades.
being constructed across Christian Europe were The wooden forts that topped these mottes GRAND DESIGNS
generally wooden structures built on top of arti- were soon replaced by large, usually square, This castle sketch
ficial mounds that, after the Norman conquest, stone towers. This central tower of a medieval was found in 13th-
were called mottes. Typically, the motte would castle was called a keep in English, a donjon in century French
architect Villard
be surrounded by a defensive moat. The earth French, a bergfried in German, and a maschio de Honnecourt’s
excavated to form the moat was then used to in Italian. But its Spanish name, torre del hom- portfolio, which
create defensive embankments that were topped enaje (tower of homage) speaks to one of its is now in the
Bibliothèque
with a wooden palisade. A wooden drawbridge functions. From the middle of the 10th cen-
Nationale, Paris.
provided access across the moat. tury, after the fall of the Carolingian Empire, BRIDGEMAN/ACI
By the 11th and 12th centuries, these imperial power in western and central Europe
mottes were proliferating across France and was being replaced by a large number of feudal
Anglo-Saxon and Norman England. As the lords, who were practically sovereign in their
Reconquista military campaign that European territories. The towers of homage provided
Christian kingdoms waged against the Mus- places where vassals could come to pay obei-
lim kingdoms (who had been occupying much sance to their lords.
of the Iberian Peninsula since the early eighth The stone castles that we recognize today
century) advanced, similar mottes were erected as emblematically medieval appeared from
on the plains of Castile between the 10th and the 11th and 12th centuries onward, having
11th centuries. One was the Mota de Muñó in developed out of the comparatively simple
Burgos, Spain, which became the center of a earlier fortifications. The main impetus for
busy community in the 10th and 11th centuries. this evolution from simple wooden keeps to
It was common for towns to develop around formidable stone castles was the changing
10th century 11th century 12th century 13th century

Spain’s Muslim- Following The tensions Religious wars
THE Christian wars the Norman between between French
AGE OF prompt fort- invasion, motte Normans and Catholics and
building in and bailey French lead to Cathars drive
CASTLES Castile, “land castles are built castle building castle building
of castles.” across England. in Normandy. in France.
Fortifications at Rennes, Brittany, depicted in the 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry

Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Normandy, France
BRIDGEMAN/ACI
A VIOLENT HISTORY
William the Conqueror’s takeover of
England in 1066 provoked fierce revolts,
notably in York, in northern England. To
maintain his grip over the city, William
constructed the motte seen here. The
Norman timber fort that first topped it
burned down during deadly anti-Jewish
riots in 1190; it was replaced by Clifford’s
Tower, the stone structure that still stands.
IMAGEBROKER/ACI
nature of warfare. Other than a few pitched
battles, medieval warfare tended to focus
most of its operations on the attempt to con-
trol the fortresses of a given territory. As the
techniques and technology of those mount-
ing sieges became more sophisticated, castle
builders were driven to new heights of ingenu-
ity. Castle design began to incorporate a series
of concentric defensive walls. At the center
of these, the old keep would be enlarged to
become a last defensive stronghold. These
imposing-looking fortresses proved remarkably
effective in resisting assaults and invasions.
Building a Castle
The first task of the castle builder was to choose
a suitable site. The castle’s position in the land-
scape with respect to other fortified enclaves
was key. It was essential to have a clear view of
other fortifications in order to receive strategic
INTERNATIONAL STYLE
messages—fiery beacons by night or smoke IN 1283 EDWARD I, the English king, ordered a series of 18 castles
signals by day, which could warn of imminent built to pacify the newly conquered region of Wales. James of Saint
danger, such as the incursion of an enemy army. George, a master castle builder from the Duchy of Savoy on the
The locale chosen had to command the sur- Italy-France border, built most of Edward’s Welsh castles, including
rounding area, especially strategic elements Harlech Castle, shown here. Its layout incorporated drum towers,
such as roads, bridges, and fords, while also still intact, as well as defensive features the architect had noted on
Muslim fortifications he had seen in the Holy Land. Some 2,500
offering access to agricultural and other
craftsmen toiled on Harlech’s construction between 1283 and 1290.
resources. Other factors to consider were the PAUL WHITE AERIAL VIEWS/ALAMY/ACI
availability of building materials and a water
supply for filling wells, pools, and cisterns. The
castle’s defenders needed to stockpile enough
food and water to allow them to hold out in the Beyond the moat stood the outer walls of MAKING AN
case of a prolonged siege. the castle complex. Sometimes several walls ENTRANCE
The 12th-century
The next task was to secure the outer perim- were erected around the main enclosure, usu- Ayyubid dynasty
eter. This meant building defenses around the ally arranged concentrically. This meant that, built a particularly
access points as well as strategic locations, even if the enemy managed to break through dramatic barbican,
such as bridges and water sources. If large the first line of defense, they could at least be or outer fortification,
for the Citadel of
enough, a moat made it difficult for the enemy ambushed before they reached the second. Aleppo in Syria.
to get close enough to the walls to do damage The walls were built high, making it difficult RMN-GRAND PALAIS
with projectiles or battering rams. In places to fire arrows and other projectiles into
with dry climates and rocky terrain, the moats the castle from outside. The height
were usually dry, narrow, and deep. In temper- also served to deter climbers who
ate climes and in flat areas with claylike soil, might try to slip in by stealth
wide, shallow moats were dug and flooded with at night using ladders and
water. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Calatrava la take the castles by surprise.
Vieja Castle, which was fought over by Moor- While challenging, this type
ish and Christian forces throughout the 12th of sneak attack was, appar-
century, was built to turn the Guadiana River ently, not uncommon.
into a natural moat on its north side. A ditch According to the Andalu-
dug around the rest of the castle was filled with sian chronicler and historian
water from the river. Ibn Sahib al-Salat, writing
THE SXXXXXXXXXDER
Durinad est etur, sum
eumquis eaturecab ipsum
et quiature re repeliti
dolorrovid ut vollaut lab
ilique delic tet maximus
animus, natibe xxx xx xxx xx
xxx xx xxx xxx xxr umquas
vellupi ciliquiam sitat.
MOTTE AND BAILEY

TO CONSOLIDATE his conquest of England in 1066, William the
Conqueror built a series of fortresses and installed garrisons in them.
The keep-plus-enclosed-courtyard design came to be known as a motte
and bailey fortress.. Nothing is left of the original wooden castle at
Pickering, in northeastern England, but the remains of a 13th-century
stone fortress on the site give an idea of what the first Norman castle
looked like, as shown in this illustration. The 1 wooden keep stands on a
65-foot-high motte surrounded by a palisade. In the 2 inner courtyard, 4
or bailey, also protected by a palisade, are huts for soldiers, servants, and
artisans. On a lower level is a 3 fortified outer courtyard that serves as
a defensive barrier or barbican. Workers are finishing construction of
the 4 wooden palisade that will enclose the complex. In front of this,
a 5 defensive moat has been dug.
ILLUSTRATION BY JAIME GARCÍA CARPINTERO; BASED ON RESEARCH BY JESÚS MOLERO, DAVID
GALLEGO, AND CRISTINA PEÑA
1
5
CLASHING KINGS
Gaillard Castle in Normandy
was built in 1196 by Richard I of
England, whose inheritance of
Normandy raised tensions with
the French king, Philip II. Built
to fend off a French attack, it
contained innovations such as
machicolations, openings within
battlements from which missiles
could be dropped on attackers.
FRANCES CORMON/GTRES
sometime before the end of the 12th century:
“On rainy and very dark nights,” Gerald the
Fearless, a Portuguese Christian adventurer,
“prepared his very long wooden ladders” and
scaled castle walls and tower “in person.” Ger-
ald was said to have climbed into numerous
Almohad castles in present-day western Spain
and Portugal by using this method.
This mode of attack was such a concern that
the law code Las Siete Partidas, written in the
mid-13th century by King Alfonso X of Cas-
tile, warned that castle walls must be built tall
enough so that anyone attempting to enter via
a ladder would be deterred.
None Can Enter

Although the keep had pride of place as a cas-
tle’s main fortified tower, smaller towers were
attached to the fortress walls and also rose above
them. Square, circular, or pentagonal in shape,
A ROYAL HIDING PLACE
the smaller towers protected the base of the FOLLOWING THE FALL of Muslim Toledo to Christian forces in the
walls and acted as buttresses, strengthening the 11th century, a Muslim fort on this site was replaced by the castle of
fortification. Any opening in the castle wall was San Martín de Montalbán and controlled by the Knights Templar.
a weak point, so any arrow slits or windows that They left their stamp on the structure with its pentagon-shaped
did exist were kept small and high up. floor plan, a typical feature of the order. It was later passed to the
The main entrance to a castle complex had Castilian crown. In 1420, 14-year-old John II of Castile escaped a
palace coup with the help of nobleman Álvaro de Luna, who brought
to be large enough to allow access to the enclo-
him to the castle for safety.
sure, but since any opening created a vulner- JMN/GETTY IMAGES
able spot, both builders and garrisons took
special care to reinforce the defenses of a cas-
tle’s entryway. Castle gates would be made of
heavy wood, often reinforced with metal plates walkway high up behind the battlements. FORTRESS UNDER
and fastened with strong bolts. Backup came This walkway connected all parts of the castle, CONSTRUCTION
The miniature
in the form of a portcullis, a heavy metal or was sometimes covered, and was protected by
below shows
wooden grille that could be lowered to block a parapet, a low wall above the main wall, with workers building
the entrance. In addition, the gateways usu- openings through which one could see—and a castle to honor
ally had a small gatehouse, the better to see, shoot arrows or other weapons. the feudal lord,
who is depicted at
trap, and counterattack any invading forces. From this shielded vantage point, defend- bottom right.
Some castles had an enclosed space called a ers could send down a lethal rain of projectiles JOSSE/SCALA, FLORENCE
barbican in front of the gate. Would-be attack- on their attackers. They would hurl
ers wanting to reach the entrance had to risk rocks, boiling water or wine, and hot
entering this space, where they might be sand, which penetrated cracks in the
ambushed. The same purpose was served by assailants’ armor. Incendiary pro-
bent entrances, where the passageway through jectiles such as firepots filled with
the gate included at least one 90-degree turn. oil or tar could wreak havoc in the
Strong stone walls and cleverly laid traps approaching enemy lines. The bat-
were not enough to keep a castle wholly safe tlements, arrow slits, and loopholes
from attack. Through smart design, the building provided protected openings from
itself had to become a complex war machine. which to shoot arrows. As artillery
Instruments of defense were concentrated developed in the 14th and 15th cen-
in the chemin de ronde, a protected, elevated turies, cannons were fired from here
2
1 3
5
6
A NEW STAR RISING

EL CASTILLO DE LA ESTRELLA (“the castle of the star”) in Ciudad Real in
central-southern Spain reflects the transition from Islamic to Christian
rule on the Iberian Peninsula. Built during the Islamic period in the ninth
century, the original castle included a fortified enclosure (alcazaba)
at the top of a hill and houses on the hillside. The Christian Order of
Santiago captured the castle in 1228 after a long siege, then rebuilt it,
populating a settlement that included the church of Our Lady of the
Star, which was used into the 15th century before falling into ruin. The
illustration shows the complex in the middle of the 14th century. At
the top is 1 the keep, 2 the main fortress, and 3 the large wall that
incorporates the original Islamic defenses. On the hillside stands 4
the enclosed village dominated by 5 the church of Our Lady of the
Star. Population growth led to 6 building outside the settlement.
ILLUSTRATION BY JAIME GARCÍA CARPINTERO; BASED ON RESEARCH BY JESÚS MOLERO,
DAVID GALLEGO, AND CRISTINA PEÑA
NORMAN MONUMENT
Caen Castle in Normandy, France,
was first built in 1060 by William
the Conqueror, six years before the
Norman invasion of England. One
of the biggest medieval castles
in western Europe, it had many
features added over the centuries,
including this 13th-century gateway.
HERVÉ HUGHES/GTRES
too. Murder holes (or meurtrières) above doors
and cut into the ceilings of gatehouses allowed
the defenders to drop projectiles or burning
liquid down onto any attacker who managed
to get that close.
By exploiting the castle’s potential as a kill-
ing machine, a small number of defenders were
able to keep large contingents of enemies at
bay. As a result, full-force assaults were infre-
quent, although they could occur when the
attackers had sufficient resources, men, and
siege engines. One such assault took place in
1147, when an expeditionary force of European
Crusaders on their way to the Second Crusade
arrived at the gates of Lisbon, a city then in
Muslim hands. There, the Crusaders deployed
battering rams, mangonels (a siege weapon
for catapulting projectiles), and mobile siege
towers to launch an attack. They also used a
technique called undermining, or digging tun-
TOWER TOPPLING
nels under the walls then setting fires in them THIS ENGRAVING shows the undermining, in 1216, of Dover Castle,
to cause the walls, which had timber frames, to which remained loyal to King John of England during a revolt of
collapse. Within four months, the Crusaders the nobles. The miners, posing a huge risk to themselves, have dug
had forced the surrender of the city. under one of the castle’s towers, loaded the cavity with timber soaked
Given the cost and scarcity of manpower and in hog fat, then set that on fire. Once the tower’s wooden supports
resources, however, raiding parties were often burn, it will come tumbling down. The practice of undermining
continued for another century, until gunpowder was introduced
unsuccessful. It was more common for medi-
to Europe.
eval armies to blockade or encircle a castle with HERITAGE IMAGES/AURIMAGES
the aim of exhausting the defenders into sub-
mission via siege. This type of operation could
be dragged out for many months, as happened
in the siege of Algeciras in southern Spain. The gather up all the stone balls they could find for THE STUFF OF MYTH
military operation began in 1342 and lasted 21 reuse in the bombardment of Málaga. This 15th-century
months, as Christian forces under Alfonso XI French miniature from
a book about Greek
besieged the Muslim-held city. It was a com- Life on the Inside mythology has a
plex operation involving numerous forces and The community living within the castle com- distinctly late medieval
innovative war machinery on both sides. plex was sometimes quite large, although num- setting, with a castle in
the background.
The Muslim defenders were armed with bers varied greatly depending on the place and
RMN-GRAND PALAIS
rudimentary cannons the Spanish called period. For example, the Templar Crusader castle
truenos (Spanish for “thunder”) because they of Safed in northern Israel, which was
made a terrifying noise. To strengthen his rebuilt around 1260, had a capacity for
attack, Alfonso called for the delivery of enge- 2,200 soldiers in wartime and a perma-
ños, a kind of catapult, to breach the walls of nent garrison in peacetime of 1,700 men.
the city. On the other hand, in the 15th century,
Every night, those inside the city tried to many castles run by Spanish military
patch up the damage wrought during the day. orders saw their communities dwindle
Such was the quantity of projectiles launched to just one or two knights and a few ser-
against the walls of Algeciras that almost a vants. Provided that they were far away
century and a half later, in 1487 during the from the border with al-Andalus, the area
conquest of Granada (1481-1492), Ferdinand of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim
the Catholic sent a contingent to the city to rule, these castles had little to threaten
DEFENSE, COMFORT,
AND POWER 2
IN THE MID-12TH CENTURY, Henry II of

England rebuilt an existing castle in
Scarborough in northeastern England, 1
turning it into a mighty royal fortress.
Located on a coastal promontory high
above the North Sea, the complex was
built around an imposing keep with
walls over 12 feet thick, topped by
1 a rampart and 2 four turrets that
brought the height of the tower up
to nearly 100 feet. The English kings
used it as their residence during visits
to the area. The various floors were
connected by stairs and passages and
included: 3 a storeroom; two halls,
4 one for receptions and 5 another
for banquets; and 6 a chapel. The
reconstruction here shows how the
building may have looked around 1400.
HERITAGE IMAGE/ACI
3
them, and, therefore, little need for defenders.
Even before this, in 1271, King James I of Ara-
gon had authorized the warden of the strategic
fortress of Biar in Alicante, on the border with
Castile, to remain there with just 12 men, one
woman, one mule, and three dogs.
Whether the castle community was large
or small, its members needed space to live; to
store food, water, and livestock; and to carry
out domestic and artisanal activities. The old-
est fortresses, those located in volatile border
areas, or those that had faced the vicissitudes
of war were generally not very comfortable
environments given their military emphasis.
Other castles, meanwhile, offered all kinds
of comforts to their occupants, including
latrines, cisterns, wells, hearths, kitchens,
ovens, and, of course, chapels. As they served
as centers for collecting feudal rents, generally
paid in kind, some complexes had extensive
storerooms for keeping these goods. It was
not uncommon for castles to have their own
bakeries, distilleries, and forges.
Some major fortresses included large recep-
tion rooms, where kings, nobles, and prelates
could flaunt their status. While the furniture
in these rooms tended to be austere, the deco-
ration was elaborate. The walls and ceilings
were often adorned with paintings or hung
with tapestries which, as well as being decora-
tive, provided insulation from damp and drafts. previously impenetrable walls, added facili- ARTHURIAN
ties, and perhaps even gardens. The Alcázar ECHOES
This 13th-century
Decline and Fall de Segovia in Spain, for example, was built as
Great Hall is one of
For over 500 years, medieval castles provided a fort in the 12th century and later became a the last surviving
defense and bragging rights for their inhabit- palace for the Castilian monarchs. Many old structures at
ants. But by the 16th century, the development castles, however, were abandoned. In mod- Winchester Castle,
in southern England.
of modern artillery had rendered many medi- ern times, some have been converted into On its wall hangs
eval castles obsolete. Cannonballs had the museums and monuments—Caen Castle a 14th-century
power to damage castle walls, making their is now home to the Normandy museum, reconstruction of
design impractical and ineffective. and Scarborough Castle, while in ruins, is a the legendary King
Arthur’s Round Table.
Over time, the traditional castle design with tourist attraction in North Yorkshire. Hav- PETER NOYCE/ALAMY/ACI
high walls surrounding a stone keep perched ing withstood violent battles, technological
high on a motte was slowly replaced by a new advances, and the weight of several centuries,
model of fortification built to withstand cannon these crumbling but still majestic structures
fire. These new fortifications were cannon- stand as silent witnesses to, and symbols of,
proofed with bastions and thick angular an era in which they played a central role in the
walls that were sunk into the ground. history of Europe.
As for the existing castles, some were
converted into palaces, lightly fortified resi-
A SPECIALIST OF THE MEDIEVAL HISTORY OF SPAIN, J. SANTIAGO PALACIOS
dences with large windows knocked into the ONTALVA TEACHES AT THE AUTONOMOUS UNIVERSITY OF MADRID, SPAIN.

A FAMILY BUSINESS
Surrounded by the elite of Europe,
Pope Alexander VI (center), né
Rodrigo Borgia, dominates this
detail of a 1500 painting by Cola da
Orte. Among the men behind him
stands his son Cesare and among
the women on the right, his daughter
Lucrezia. Museo Diocesano d’Arte
Sacra, Orte, Italy
DEA / SCALA, FLORENCE
BEYOND THE BLACK LEGEND OF THE

Enemies of Pope Alexander VI
portrayed the pontiff and his children
as depraved, but their behavior was
fairly typical of other great families of
the time.
ISABEL BARCELÓ CHICO

n the searing heat of Rome, August 1492, a large and lavish ceremony
took place to crown a new pope who had bribed his way into office:
the Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia of Valencia, Spain, known from then on as
Alexander VI. At 60 years old, the new pope was an imposing man with
exquisite manners and an affable charm. He had served as dean of the College
of Cardinals and vice-chancellor of the Church for five papacies, surpass-
ing all other prelates in authority, knowledge, experience, and influence.
But Rodrigo was a man of the secular world too. This laid a solid base in Rodrigo’s native kingdom
He had already fathered a boy and two girls by of Valencia (he was born in Xàtiva), from where
the time he met Vannozza Cattanei, his lover he could establish the secular power of the Borgia
for more than three decades. With Cattanei, he family. Three years later, Pier Luigi died, and his
had four more children—Cesare, Juan, Lucre- half brother Juan became the Duke of Gandía. Juan
zia, and Goffredo–each of whom he openly would also marry Pier Luigi’s betrothed. By this
claimed and all of them brilliant and controver- time, Rodrigo had already lost one daughter and
sial in their own right. They were star players the other had been married to a nobleman from
in the scandalous events that surrounded the Rome, so he concentrated all his expectations and
MOTHER OF THE Borgia family. The highly unfavorable “black paternal love on the children he had with Cattanei.
POPE’S CHILDREN
Below, an undated
legend” was created by their enemies, and Cesare, Juan, Lucrezia, and Goffredo had
portrait of Mantuan although much of it was built on nothing more spent their early years with their mother in a
noblewoman than malicious gossip, it continues to fascinate. house located next to the Borgia palace, the most
Vannozza Cattanei, beautiful and sumptuous residence in Rome.
Cardinal Rodrigo
Borgia’s mistress. A Loving Father Notorious for his extreme wealth, Rodrigo had
Before Borgia Rodrigo was a devoted and attentive father. But been severely rebuked by Pope Pius II for his
became pope in plans for his children combined affection with indulgence with mistresses. Despite Cattanei’s
1492, she had pragmatism. Each family member had to play successive marriages also complicating the pic-
four children with
him: Cesare, Juan, their role in the joint project that was increas- ture, the Borgia-Cattanei dynamic was, for many
Lucrezia, and ing the existing power, influence, and wealth years at least, intense and affectionate. By the
Goffredo. of the House of Borgia. In 1485 Rodrigo bought time Goffredo, their youngest child, was born,
SCALA, FLORENCE
the duchy of Gandía in eastern Spain from King the romance between Rodrigo and Cattanei had
Ferdinand II of Aragon, and promised marriage cooled. Still, their relationship remained amicable.
between his firstborn son, Pier Luigi, and the Rodrigo’s papal election significantly impacted
king’s first cousin, María Enríquez de Luna. the whole Borgia family, bringing an increase of
DYNASTIC 1492
Cardinal Rodrigo Borgia is
1493
At age 13, Lucrezia marries
POWER elected Pope Alexander VI.
He recognizes Cesare,
Milanese nobleman Giovanni
Sforza. Juan, 19, marries
Juan, Lucrezia, and Spanish noblewoman María
Goffredo as his children. Enríquez de Luna.
PAPAL CONTEMPLATION
This 1494 fresco was painted
by Pinturicchio for the
Borgia Apartment’s Room of
Mysteries in the Vatican’s
Apostolic Palace. Pope
Alexander VI (at lower left)
contemplates the resurrected
Christ, while his papal miter
rests on the floor.
SCALA, FLORENCE
1494 1497 1498-1499 1502

Goffredo, 13, marries Juan is mysteriously Lucrezia marries Alfon- Lucrezia marries
a Neapolitan noble- killed while fighting the so of Aragon, Sancha’s Alfonso d’Este. In 1503
woman, Sancha of rival Orsinis. Lucrezia’s brother. Cesare marries the pope dies, and the
Aragon. Cesare, 19, is marriage to the weak- French noblewoman Borgias’ power, espe-
named cardinal. ened Sforza is annulled. Charlotte of Albret. cially Cesare’s, declines.
KEEPING IT IN DOMÈNEC DE
BORJA
FRANCINA
LLANÇOL
THE FAMILY
(later Italianized to Borgia)
A wealthy trader from
Xàtiva, Kingdom of Valencia
(Spain)
THE FOUNDER of the dynasty that pro-

duced two popes (Calixtus III and Alex- ALFONSO BORGIA (b. 1378) CATALINA JUAN ISABEL JOFRÉ
ander VI) was Domènec de Borja, a minor POPE CALIXTUS III BORGIA DE MILÁ BORGIA LLANÇOL
Reign: 1455–1458
nobleman from Valencia in eastern Spain.
Valencia was a key port under the Crown LUIS DE MILÁ BORGIA
Appointed cardinal in 1456 by
of Aragon, which controlled a Mediter- his uncle, Pope Calixtus III
ranean empire that included the kingdom
of Naples. Domènec’s grandson Rodrigo
VANNOZZA DEI RODRIGO BORGIA (b. 1431)
became pope in 1492, the year Aragon, CATTANEI POPE ALEXANDER VI
Reign: 1492–1503
Castile, and other kingdoms united to (b. 1442)
Other offspring: Pier Luigi (b. 1458, of
an unknown mother); two daughters;
create a Spanish monarchy. Through and a boy known as Infans Romanus (b.
1498), who may have been Rodrigo’s son.
his children’s marriages, Pope Alexander
VI forged alliances that
LUCREZIA GIOVANNI MARÍA JUAN
spanned Italy, France, BORGIA SFORZA ENRÍQUEZ BORGIA
(b. 1480) House of Sforza DE LUNA (b. 1476)
and resurgent Spain. Spanish Appointed captain general
ALFONSO OF noblewoman
But after his death ARAGON
1493, aged 18; Duke of
Gandía
Son of the King
in 1503, Borgia of Naples
influence waned. ALFONSO
D’ESTE GOFFREDO SANCHA CHARLOTTE CESARE
Duke of Ferrara BORGIA OF OF ALBRET BORGIA
(b. 1481) ARAGON French (b. 1475)
Pope Calixtus III (Alfonso Daughter of the noblewoman Appointed cardinal in
Borgia) on a bronze king of Naples 1493, age 18
medal minted in 1455
ALBUM
BITTER LEGACY power, wealth, and enemies. He was immensely murdered. The home of the Borgias was a place
Below, a 16th- proud of his children, who by then were all in of happiness and misfortune for 11 years.
century portrait their prime. He loved their youth, their grace
of Charles VIII of
France, whose and beauty, their lively wits, good manners, and Mixing Politics and Family
1494 invasion joy. He wanted them nearby so he could enjoy Rodrigo’s accession to the papal throne intro-
triggered decades their company and show them off. He installed duced a new element to his plans: The careers
of fighting known
Lucrezia in the Palazzo Santa Maria in Portico, and marriages of his children would need to do
as the Italian Wars.
DEA/ALBUM
which was attached to St. Peter’s Basilica, and more than simply satisfy the Borgia family’s
housed his sons either in the Vatican’s Apostolic personal interests. Nepotistic appointments
Palace (the pope’s residence) or close by. were quite common for the Church. Rodrigo was
The so-called secret rooms of the Borgia appointed a cardinal when his uncle reigned as
Apartment, intended for the pontiff’s private Pope Calixtus III. Likewise, Pope Alexander VI
use, became the family meeting place. It was bestowed his son Cesare with the same appoint-
here where Lucrezia celebrated her first marriage, ment. Any marital match would also shore up
among hundreds of guests, as well as the party for the Papal States, the Church’s dominions on
her second wedding. For one of the occasions, the Italian soil, which were under threat from France
rooms were lavishly decorated, with a fountain and the Catholic Monarchs of Spain.
and entertainers dressed as animals emerging Between 1493 and 1494, Pope Alexander VI
from foliage to dance with guests. One afternoon, sealed three important alliances. Juan, Duke of
a ceiling of one room collapsed onto the throne Gandía, was married to María Enríquez de Luna,
of Alexander VI while he waited for his children. a cousin of Ferdinand II’s. Lucrezia was married
(The strength of the canopy that covered the to Giovanni Sforza, a relative of the powerful
seat saved his life.) In another nearby Duke of Milan. And Goffredo was married to
chamber, Alfonso of Aragon, Sancha of Aragon, the illegitimate daughter
Lucrezia’s second husband, was of King Alfonso II of Naples (also a relative of
The Black Legend
of the Borgias
THE GREAT ITALIAN families were accustomed to
holding the papacy and railed against the “intru-
sion” of the Borgias, whom they saw as outsiders.
Two years after Rodrigo’s accession to the papacy,
France and Spain invaded Italy. Blaming the native
of Valencia, Spain, for this aggression was a way for
the pope’s rivals to undermine his authority. Many
accusations were pure invention, including the claim
that he used poison to gain the papacy. The Borgias
could certainly be ruthless in their quest for power,
but this ferocity was normal for the Renaissance and
exaggerated by their enemies. The most scandal-
ous defamation—incest between daughter Lucrezia
and her father or her brothers—was propagated by
Lucrezia’s first husband, Giovanni Sforza, following
the pope’s annulment of their marriage. The arrival
of a mystery baby at the Borgia household fueled the
rumors. The child’s parentage was veiled in secrecy.
Legitimized as the son of Cesare and then, in a secret
bull, as the offspring of the pope himself, the child
could have been a natural son of Lucrezia’s. Perhaps
the family wanted to protect her by integrating the
child with the Borgia surname.
Milan’s Castello Sforzesco was the residence of the Sforza

dukes of Milan. Lucrezia Borgia’s first husband, Giovanni
Sforza, was from a parallel line of the Sforza family.
BUENA VISTA IMAGES/GETTY IMAGES
Who Murdered the third marriage to the future Duke of Ferrara, a
match deemed acceptable by the whole family.
Duke of Gandía?
Father and Children
W
HAT BEFELL the pope’s son on a summer’s night in The children of Alexander VI did not question
1497 is an enduring Renaissance murder mystery. their father’s decisions. He was the source of
Three years before, Juan Borgia’s father sent him
their power and wealth. They owed him obe-
to Spain, where it was hoped Juan would use the
influence of his wife, a cousin of King Ferdinand II’s, to further dience both as a parent and as the supreme
Borgia fortunes in Spain and Aragon-controlled Naples. A pontiff. But Alexander’s behavior could be
pleasure-seeker, Juan returned to Rome at his troubling, and it took a toll on his children and
father’s request following the French their relationships with each other. Although
invasion of Italy in 1496. He was he loved them all, the pope did not hide his
appointed the Vatican’s military preferences. Goffredo, the youngest, was not
commander to seize the rival the favorite. More than once, Alexander even
Orsini’s lands as punish-
questioned whether Goffredo, who was timid by
ment for their siding with
the French. In June 1497, nature, was actually his son. Alexander’s rela-
at the age of 21, Juan disap- tive detachment from Goffredo led to heated
peared. His body was later pulled from confrontations between the pope and Gof-
the Tiber River covered in stab wounds, fredo’s wife, Sancha. While Goffredo tended
but his purse was intact. This was no com- to keep his head down and obey his father’s
mon robbery. Had the Orsinis done the commands, she wasn’t one to bite her tongue.
deed? Or was this the revenge of his
Juan, on the other hand, was adored by the
rumor-spreading brother-in-law
pope. At the request of the Catholic Monarchs,
Giovanni Sforza, whose mar-
riage to Juan’s sister Lucrezia Juan was sent to Spain to be invested as Duke
had just been annulled? of Gandía and to seal the marriage arranged for
him with Ferdinand II’s cousin. Alexander pre-
A 16th-century portrait of pared an even more splendid future for Juan on
a man believed to be Juan Italian soil. He showered him with titles, hon-
Borgia. Civic Art Gallery, Forlì
ors, territories, and wealth. And Juan, though
SERGIO ANELLI/MONDADORI/ALBUM
he didn’t always follow his father’s advice, knew
how to talk him round. But in 1497, when Juan
returned to Rome, disaster struck. He was
Ferdinand II’s). Despite the pope’s strong oppo- stabbed to death by unknown assassins and
sition, the French king invaded Italy in 1494 with thrown into the Tiber River. Alexander’s deso-
the help of the Duke of Milan. After three years, lation was absolute: “If we had seven papacies,
this resulted in the annulment of Lucrezia’s we would give them all to restore him to life,” he
marriage to Sforza, and she subsequently mar- declared, weeping before the consistory.
ried Alfonso of Aragon, Sancha’s brother. The As cardinal, Cesare from the beginning offered
union reinforced the pope’s Neapolitan alliance. the pope firm support in affairs of both Church
During this turbulent period, political events and state. An ambassador Gianandrea Boccac-
led Cardinal Cesare to abandon his ecclesias- cio wrote of Cesare, “He is a man of great tal-
tical career and, in agreement with his father, ent and of an excellent nature; his manners are
marry a sister of the king of Navarre, a relative those of the son of a great prince . . .” Perhaps his
of the French monarch. This alliance clashed father saw in him the potential for a third Borgia
with the interests of the king of Naples and pope. In any case, Alexander did not immedi-
his relatives, the Catholic Monarchs, Queen ately give in to Cesare’s repeated requests that
Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Ara- he be allowed to abandon his own ecclesiastical
The shield of Alexander VI gon. Tension arose within the Borgia family, as career, for which Cesare claimed he felt no voca-
features a bull (his heraldic Lucrezia and Cesare found themselves, through tion. The pope only accepted Cesare’s resigna-
animal), the papal miter, and
the keys to Heaven, which, their spouses, on opposing sides of the war until tion as cardinal a year after Juan’s death.
according to the Gospels,
Jesus entrusted to St. Peter. Lucrezia’s husband was murdered in 1500. The Cesare recognized his father as a great master in
MONDADORI/ALBUM strain was ultimately assuaged by Lucrezia’s the art of politics and the changing alliances that
LEAVING THEIR MARK
The Borgia pope Calixtus III
was one of the first pontiffs to
reside in the 15th-century palace
at the Vatican. Subsequent popes
left their mark on the building,
including Calixtus’s nephew,
Alexander VI, who built the Borgia
Apartment. The room shown here
is the Gallery of Maps, created
during the 16th century.
SCALA, FLORENCE
Pinturicchio paints this A monumental triumphal
scene of court life, with arch, inspired by the
a multitude of lavishly Arch of Constantine
dressed figures, in the in Rome, dominates
style of portraiture. the composition. It is
Among those depicted topped by a statue of a
is the architect Giuliano bull, the heraldic symbol
da Sangallo carrying a of Alexander VI. The
compass, in reference inscription pacis cultori
to the work he had (“he who loves peace”)
undertaken for Pope also refers to the pope.
Alexander VI at Rome’s
Basilica di Santa Maria
Maggiore. At his side is
Pinturicchio himself.
St. Catherine of Alexandria

has a strong resemblance
to the pope’s daughter
Lucrezia Borgia, who was
in her mid-teens when the
scene was painted.
Luxury Apartments
THE BORGIA APARTMENT at the Vatican was created during
the papacy of Alexander VI (r. 1492–1503). Its rooms were
painted by Pinturicchio (“The little painter”), né Bernardino di
Betto. The Room of the Sibyls and the Room of the Creed are
in the Borgia Tower. Adjoining these are the Room of Liberal
Arts; the Room of Mysteries, depicting Pope Alexander VI
kneeling at the feet of the resurrected Christ; and the Room
of the Saints, shown here. Likely used as the pope’s private
study, the room is dedicated to seven saints, with numerous
visual references to Pope Alexander VI and the Borgias. The
scene here depicts the Disputation of St. Catherine of Alex-
andria. Refusing to make sacrifices to pagan gods, Catherine,
a young Christian woman (center), defeats 50 scholars in a
religious dispute. Although the governor of Egypt (enthroned),
is impressed by her reasoning, he nevertheless orders Cath-
erine to be put to death. Several figures in the painting are
likenesses of people from Alexander VI’s circle, including
some of his own children.
ORONOZ/ALBUM
The model for the man wearing the white

turban could be Djem, the brother and
rival of the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II.
Djem had been a prisoner of the
French and used as a bargaining chip in
negotiations with the Ottomans, passing
into the custody of Pope Alexander VI’s
predecessor, Pope Innocent VIII, in 1489.
Alexander agreed to hold Djem hostage
if the Ottomans left Europe. Djem
became a friend of Cesare Borgia.
Holy
Roman
EUROPE Empire
FRANCHE-
COMTÉ ASIA
SWITZERLAND AUS T R I A MAP
MARQUISATE AREA
OF MANTOVA AFRICA
and for Lucrezia there was a bitter epilogue. Sforza
DUCHY OF Milan
insinuated that she had engaged in an incestuous
SAVOY Venice
R E KINGDOM OF relationship with her father. Rumors spread to
P U HUNGARY
Asti DUCHY OF Mantua
B implicate her brothers too. Although the claim
MARQUISATE MILAN DUCHY OF L
OF SALUZZO DUCHY FERRARA I
Genoa OF C was refuted time and again, it still lingered.
REP. OF MODENA Bologna Ravenna OTTOMAN
KINGDOM GENOA REPUBLIC OF Zara EMPIRE Despite their familial affection, Lucrezia soon
OF SAN MARINO O
REP. OF Florence F
FRANCE LUCCA Pisa REP. OF Pesaro discovered that her father had as much capacity
Gradara REP. OF
MARQUISATE FLORENCE A V RAGUSA to hurt her as he had to love her, and it would be
OF MONTFERRAT REP. PA PA L d E
OF
ri impossible to find peace so long as he could inter-
S TAT E S at N
SIENA I Cattaro
Corsica REP. DUCHY OF
ic C fere in her life. So, after the murder of her second
PIOMBINO Se E
OF a husband, Alfonso of Aragon, she married for a
GENOA
Rome
KINGDOM third time, to Alfonso d’Este, heir to the duchies
of Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio. This allowed her
Benevento OF
Naples
to move far from Rome. Aware of her reasons for
Sardinia leaving, and of the union’s convenience for the
NAPLES
T yrrhenian entire family, her father accepted the separation.
K
N
Sea Of the pope’s regard for his daughter, the Duke of
I
Cagliari G Ferrara’s secretary remarked, “His Holiness loves

D
O her more than any other person of his blood.”
M
O
F Messina
A R Palermo Sibling Rivalries
Mediterranean Sea A G
O N
Sicily Wherever the Borgia-Cattanei met, laughter, gal-
lantry, wit, and music abounded. But it wasn’t all
smooth sailing. Some of the natural squabbles
among siblings hardened into bitterness. Lucrezia
was, in a way, the one who held them together.
Italy during the accession of Pope Alexander VI Goffredo was particularly close to Lucrezia: They
By 1492, the Italian peninsula Holy Roman Empire 100 mi went everywhere together, and she was protec-
was divided among many 100 km
independent states.
Papal States, controlled tive of him. They grew even closer when Lucrezia
by Borgia family NGM MAPS
married Alfonso of Aragon, the brother of Goffre-
do’s wife, Sancha. Lucrezia and Sancha were great
DUKE OF characterized the time. They had several shared friends and neither the failure of Sancha and Gof-
FERRARA objectives, but Cesare was aware that given his fredo’s marriage nor the death of Alfonso broke
Lucrezia’s third
father’s age and failing health, time was running the bond of friendship between the two sisters-
husband, Alfonso
d’Este, was painted out. As commander of the papal army, Cesare in-law. It was Goffredo who protected Lucrezia
by Battista Dossi conquered cities in an attempt to carve out a Borgia and Alfonso’s two-year-old son, Rodrigo, during
in 1530. Estense state. Even his allies despised his growing power, the violent acts unleashed in Rome after the death
Gallery, Modena
and after his father’s passing, Cesare struggled of the pope. Little Rodrigo’s father, Alfonso of
DEA/ALBUM
to maintain control without papal support. Aragon, was already dead by this point.
But the brother for whom Lucrezia had the
Lucrezia, the Most Favored most affinity was Juan. Between Juan and Ce-
Among all his children, the pope most sare, however, the relationship was strained.
favored Lucrezia, the jewel of the family, for Alexander had maneuvered for Juan to receive
her beauty, sweet nature, and refinement. all sorts of titles and territories, believing that
There was a strong bond of affection this was in the best interest of the wider fam-
between father and daughter. Lucrezia’s ily. Meanwhile, Cesare, despite outshining his
first husband was Giovanni Sforza, a brother intellectually, had been forced to fol-
relative of the Duke of Milan. That low an ecclesiastical path that he hated. Perhaps
marriage failed on not only a per- Cesare considered himself more qualified than
sonal level but also a political one. his brother to become a great prince. That per-
The marriage ended in annulment, ception was emphasized when Juan returned to
SAINTLY MODEL?
Around 1510, Bartolomeo Veneto
painted this portrait of Beatrice
d’Este, a pious 13th-century
ancestor of Alfonso d’Este, Duke
of Ferrara, who was Lucrezia’s
third husband. Art historians still
debate whether Veneto used the
likeness of Lucrezia for this and
at least one other of his portraits.
SNITE MUSEUM OF ART, UNIVERSITY
OF NOTRE DAME
A Fortress for a Pope
DURING HIS PAPACY, Alexander VI commissioned the architect
Antonio da Sangallo the Elder to reinforce the Castel Sant’Angelo
with more modern fortifications, making it capable of weathering
artillery attacks. Warehouses and water deposits were included to
allow those inside to withstand potential sieges. The pope’s suc-
cessors removed his private rooms from the castle but retained the
dungeons. To celebrate the jubilee year of 1500, various splendid
churches and palaces were erected in Rome. Pope Alexander VI
commissioned some important urban works such as the Via Ales-
sandrina (today the Borgo Nuovo), which at that time linked the
castle with Old St. Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican.
FRANCK GUIZIOU/GTRES
On the Borgia City Trail Borgia in Italy and the kingdom of Valencia.
MANY PLACES IN ROME are linked to the Borgias. Next to Juan’s heir was not yet three years old, showing
the Piazza Campo de’ Fiori is one of several hostels in Rome the vulnerability of the pontiff.
formerly owned and run by Vannozza Cattanei, the mother
of Pope Alexander VI’s children. The facade displays the Bor-
gia coat of arms. Farther west, near the Colosseum, are the Lucrezia and Cesare
Borgia Stairs (pictured) the siblings would have climbed to The relationship between Cesare and Lucre-
visit their mother at her house near the Basilica of St. Peter zia lurched between affection to rivalry. At
in Chains. After a family dinner in summer 1497, Juan Borgia one point, their respective marriages placed
descended these steps one final time before he was killed. them in rival camps: Lucrezia’s second husband
ALAMY/ACI
Alfonso of Aragon was the son of the new king
of Naples, while Cesare married a sister of the
king of France. As the French and Neapolitan
monarchs prepared to go to war, the pope main-
tained his alliance with Naples.
The antagonism between Cesare and Lucre-
zia’s short-lived second husband, Alfonso of
Aragon, was palpable. And, in the summer of
1500, while convalescing from a serious attack,
Alfonso was murdered in his bed by Cesare’s hit
men. Cesare alleged that Alfonso had attacked
him first by shooting at him with a crossbow bolt
from his sickroom. The details of what really
happened are shrouded in mystery. Shortly after,
Alexander VI switched his allegiances to France.
For Lucrezia, the murder of her husband was
difficult to forgive. And yet, when Cesare was in
trouble after the death of Alexander, she helped
him with weapons and money. By that time
A RELIC OF Rome and demonstrated mediocre skills on the she was the Duchess of Ferrara, and was able to
LUCREZIA battlefield. Though Cesare lacked Juan’s titles, intercede on his behalf, appealing to Ferdinand
As Duchess of
Ferrara, Lucrezia
his influence in the political and ecclesiastical II, who was holding him captive. Cesare man-
Borgia gave a lock realms went beyond that of the duke’s power. aged to escape and reach the kingdom of Navarra,
of her hair to the In fact, as the pope’s cardinal legate, Cesare was where he died in Viana fighting at the head of the
humanist and preparing to crown the new king of Naples, Fred- Navarrese army. This deeply affected Lucrezia
cardinal Pietro
Bembo, with erick II. It was a level of authority that was dif- because she loved him like a mother.
whom she kept a ficult to surpass. The Borgias tended to form a united front in
close friendship. Malicious rumors circulated that both Cesare both their successes and failures. Their behavior,
Ambrosiana and Juan were vying for their sister-in-law, San- though similar to that of other noble households
Library, Milan
MARCO ANSALONI
cha of Aragon. It is impossible to know whether of the era, was scrutinized intently, and enemies
or not there was any truth to the gossip. Juan did of the family and the papacy seized upon and dis-
have a reputation for being a womanizer, but the torted any unusual detail as they laid the ground-
story could also have been an invention of the work for the black legend of the Borgias. Even as
so-called black legend. The later accusations historical evidence contradicts the legend, this
that Cesare murdered Juan because of sexual “soap opera” has penetrated deep into popular
jealousy over Sancha are also hard to imagination, and there it has remained.
prove. Such gossip, however, worked
to obscure an obvious political AUTHOR ISABEL BARCELÓ CHICO HAS WRITTEN AN INTIMATE STUDY
OF LUCREZIA BORGIA BASED ON HER LETTERS .
motive for the crime. Juan had
achieved enormous power on Ital- Learn more
ian soil, and his death dealt a severe
Lucrezia Borgia: Life, Love, and Death in Renaissance Italy
blow to the power of the House the Sarah Bradford, Penguin Books, 2005.
BIG BROTHER
This painting by
Altobello Melone,
titled “Portrait of a
Gentleman,” is accepted
by many historians as
a depiction of Cesare
Borgia. It was painted in
circa 1513, six years after
Cesare’s death. Carrara
Academy, Bergamo, Italy
FINE ART/ALBUM
VISUAL HISTORY
Y
GATEWAY
TO AMERICA
Between 1892 and 1954, most immigrants
arriving in the United States passed through
New York’s Ellis Island control center. For
those fleeing poverty and war, the “island of
tears” was also an island of hope—and the
beginning of a new life.
EDITORS OF NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
ARRIVAL IN AMERICA
Looking toward Manhattan, this 1930s photograph
of Ellis Island shows the copper-domed towers of the
main building, built in 1900 after the previous structure
burned down. The ferry slip can be seen cutting into
the island from the right. On the near side of the ferry
slip is the hospital, and in the foreground are the
administration blocks. Ellis Island was converted into
an immigrant-processing center in 1892, following
an 1891 law that gave the federal government control
of immigration, previously in the hands of individual
states. Although other cities also received immigrants,
New York was the nation’s principal port of entry.
During the 62 years it operated, the Ellis Island center
hosted millions of immigrants on their journey to a
new life. From the mid-1920s, the bulk of immigrant
reception was transferred to Manhattan, and the Ellis
Island center was finally closed in 1954. Following
extensive restoration, the Ellis Island Immigration
Museum opened in 1990.
BETTMANN/GETTY IMAGES
VISUAL HISTORY
Y
THE SIX-SECOND CHECK

A woman and her children are given a medical exam in this 1907
photograph. Only immigrants who had traveled in the often
unsanitary conditions of third class (steerage) were subjected to the
Ellis Island inspections; wealthier passengers from first and second
class were presumed to not represent a health threat. Annual
arrivals at Ellis Island grew from 200,000 in 1896 to 900,000
by 1905, requiring ever more doctors to perform exams. These
took place after the new arrivals had deposited their luggage and
undergone preliminary interviews. Although the checks were rushed,
sometimes lasting only six seconds, doctors had the opportunity
to observe immigrants as they climbed the stairs, identifying those
who limped or suffered breathlessness. A small number would be
sent to the Ellis Island hospital. Between 1896 and 1920, only a tiny
proportion of immigrants were repatriated because of ill health.
SMITH COLLECTION/GETTY IMAGES
VISUAL HISTORY
Y
NEW FOOD IN A NEW LAND
This image of immigrants in the Ellis Island dining room was
taken around 1900. Many arrivals would have had no need to
eat here, as the medical check and legal interview took between
three and four hours. But for those obliged to stay in the facility to
resolve problems with their application, the dining room was an
important focus of daily life. An assistant commissioner’s report
on conditions on the island stated that on Monday, November 19,
1906, the midday meal consisted of beef stew with potatoes,
bread, and “smoked or pickled herring” for Jewish arrivals. For
many internees, much of the food was an early introduction to
the American diet. Italian immigrant Oreste Teglia recalled her
bewilderment at encountering oatmeal on Ellis Island as a child in
1916: “I didn’t know what it was . . . I couldn’t get myself to eat it.
So I put it on the windowsill, let the birds eat it.”
VISUAL HISTORY
Y
BUILDERS OF AMERICA
This unidentified family, gazing from Ellis Island to their future life
in Manhattan and beyond, were photographed in 1925. By this
time, opposition to immigration had resulted in laws imposing
quotas on arrivals, and immigration levels declined. From 1924,
only a few immigrants were arriving at Ellis Island, which would
be principally used as a detention center for deportees until its
eventual closure in 1954. Despite the joy many immigrants felt on
being admitted into the United States, many experienced years of
poverty and discrimination. Studies show that the migrant influx
of the early 20th century provided the workforce essential to
America’s successful transition from an agricultural to industrial
economy, and many of those who arrived via Ellis Island also went
on to make major contributions to America’s global brand. They
include composer and lyricist Irving Berlin (from Belarus); film
director Frank Capra (from Italy); cosmetician Max Factor (from
Poland); author Isaac Asimov (from Russia); and New York City
mayor Abraham Beame (Jewish refugee from England).
DISCOVERIES
Dandan-Oilik,
the Lost Oasis Town
on the Silk Road
The ruins of a once thriving complex full of painted Buddhist temples
were discovered in a Chinese desert in 1896. Why did it disappear?
W
hen geographer the Yurungkax River before
Sven Hedin set managing to cross it at a
out from the frozen ford. Soon after, they
city of Khotan entered the immense Tak-
(today Hotan) in western Dandan-Oilik Beijing limakan Desert with its
C H IN A
China, he expected to find treacherous, shifting dunes.
ruins from an ancient town— From there, their progress
but much more lay hidden in TAIWAN became as slow as it was
the desert sands. 500 mi arduous. Six hours walking a
500 km
The name of Khotan reso- day was the most they could
NGM MAPS
nated with Western explorers endure as they negotiated the A BUDDHIST temple at
in the 19th century because Nicknamed “the Stanley high dunes, spurring on their Dandan-Oilik was first
famous Venetian explorer of the Central Asian deserts” reluctant beasts of burden. excavated by Marc
Marco Polo visited it in 1274. (after explorer Henry Mor- Hedin, meanwhile, made Aurel Stein in 1900. It
consists of a central
In his writings, Polo noted ton Stanley), the Swedish- notes in his field diary, which cella nested in a larger
Khotan’s wealth as an out- born Hedin was a polymath later became the basis of square structure.
post on the Silk Road, the and intrepid adventurer. On his memoirs. ALBUM
route that once carried trade arriving in Khotan, he over- On January 23 the party
between China and the Med- heard men talking of a ruined came to a depression in the
iterranean world. town out in the desert and desert “abounding in köttek,
On January 14, 1896, a car- immediately hired them as i.e. dead forest,” Hedin wrote. be on the ancient course of a
avan left from the city. The guides to lead him to the ruins. “Short tree stems and trunks, river called the Keriya-daria,
five-man party was accompa- gray and brittle as glass, an area that had once been
nied by mules and loaded with A Town Under Sand branches twisted like cork- fertile enough to support
provisions to last 50 days. For several days, Hedin screws from the drought.” habitation. Hedin’s guides
Riding ahead, perched on a and his companions fol- Hedin, well versed in geogra- told him that the ruins they
camel, was their leader, Hedin. lowed the western bank of phy, deduced that they must were looking for were nearby.
BUDDHIST 1896 1898 1900 2002

Sven Hedin locates the Hedin publishes a Inspired by Hedin, A joint China-Japan
ENCLAVE ruins of a trading town memoir that includes a British-Hungarian excavation of the
known as Dandan- description of Dandan- scholar Marc Aurel site discovers a new
Oilik in the Taklimakan Oilik, a place not known Stein begins a major Buddhist temple, rich
Desert. to Western scholars. survey of the site. with artworks.
WEALTH AND FAITH
DANDAN-OILIK was a center of trade and Bud-
dhist worship in the Taklimakan Desert of
western China that flourished from the sixth
Fragments of pottery corrob- by locals as Dandan-Oilik, century a.d. On finding the
orated this. meaning “houses of ivory.” site in 1896, Swedish
The next day they left As he made his way explorer Sven Hedin
the camp and headed to the through the site, Hedin dis- realized that its wooden-
ruins, Hedin’s men carrying cerned the outline of square- framed Buddhist shrines
spades and hatchets. Of all and oblong-shaped buildings, once dominated a major
the sites Hedin had seen in the interior of each divided settlement. Four years
his expeditions across Asia, into several rooms. later, scholar Marc Aurel
none resembled what he saw Poles up to 10 feet high Stein theorized what had
there. The settlement whose were still standing where led to the town’s aban-
ruins lay before him had been they once would have sup- donment in the eighth
built using a framework of ported a roof or even a second century.
poplar trunks, which gave floor. The group found traces Sven Hedin in
a photograph taken
the buildings a distinctive of many dwellings, covering around 1903
whitish color. For this reason, an estimated area of about AKG/ALBUM
the place had become known one and a half square miles.
DISCOVERIES
HEDIN poses alongside a Bactrian

camel during an expedition
through Central Asia around
1900. Four years earlier, he had
been the first European to explore
the site of Dandan-Oilik, in
western China.
ALBUM
But it was impossible to draw sand-dune must be entirely Revealing Images writing later: “All these finds
up a plan of the town because removed before it will give Most remarkable of all and many other relics, were
the patterns of streets and up the secrets that lie hidden Hedin’s findings were the wrapped up carefully and
squares were hidden under beneath it; and that is a task exquisite Indo-Persian-style packed in my boxes; and the
the sand dunes. beyond human power.” paintings decorating some of fullest possible notes on the
Hedin knew all too well Neve r t h e l es s , He d i n the interiors. Hedin identified ancient city . . . were entered
that he lacked the means to acquired a general idea of what these structures, larger than in my diary.”
investigate further. “Exca- the ancient enclave would the rest, as Buddhist temples. Despite the wonders he
vating in the dry sand is have been like. Musing on its The paintings flaked off had glimpsed, Hedin decided
desperate work,” he erasure by the dunes, Hedin at the slightest touch. Hedin to move on: “For me it was
wrote. “As fast as referred to it as “this God- sketched them as best he sufficient to have made the
you dig it out, it accursed city, this second could and, in keeping with important discovery, and to
runs in again Sodom in the desert” and the colonialist mindset of the have won in the heart of the
and fills up believed, erroneously, that era, took other objects such as desert a new field for archae-
the hole. Each it was some 2,000 years old. sculptures and stucco reliefs, ology.” The morning after
writing this, he left Dandan-
Oilik and plunged back into
Hedin’s most remarkable finds were the the shifting sands of the
magnificent paintings adorning the shrines. Taklimakan Desert.
Around the same time
that Hedin was undertaking
Two horsemen on a painted wooden panel from Dandan-Oilik, sixth century a.d.
BRITISH MUSEUM/SCALA, FLORENCE
his desert journeys, a young
You’ll Be Smitten with This Kitten!
BALTIC AMBER
FELINE COLLECTION
Graceful Cat Design
Solid 925 Sterling Silver
Luxurious 18k Gold Plating
Cognac Baltic Amber
Matching Amber Feline Earrings
Matching Baltic Amber
Complimentary 22” Chain
Cat Earrings
1.57” Length
This exquisite feline pendant sits gracefully, This amber’s ability to preserve organic tissues
fashioned from 925 sterling silver and plated provides invaluable insights for scientists and
in 18k yellow gold. Two radiant Baltic Amber gem collectors alike. Order this exceptional
stones form the body of this charming kitty, pendant today for the exclusive price of $99
complete with a bow tie collar. Beautifully craft- plus S&H. Or better yet, treat yourself or a
ed, this piece is a delight for all who appreci- loved one to the complete Baltic Amber
ate fine jewelry. Amber, fossilized tree resin Feline Collection for the offer price of just
from over 40 million years ago, is not just $159 plus S&H and save an extra $40!
a gem; it’s a window into the past. Re-
Call us toll-free or visit our online
vered for its beauty and healing prop-
store and use your promo code
erties, Baltic Amber contains a high
NG4NBC to secure this offer. We’ll
percentage of succinite, known for
ship directly to your door, making
its anti-inflammatory and analgesic
it a perfect, hassle-free gift. If you’re
benefits when worn against the skin.
not completely satisfied, return it
The Baltic region holds the world’s within 30 days for a full refund.
largest amber deposit, dating back Celebrate the timeless elegance and
44 million years to the Eocene epoch. historical significance of Baltic Am-
This amber’s ability to preserve organ- ber with our beautifully designed
ic tissues provides invaluable insights cat pendant. Order now and secure
for scientists and gem collectors alike. your very own piece of natural history!
Original Price Without Code $249 - With Promo Code Now Only $99
Baltic Amber Feline Pendant - $99 plus S&H
Baltic Amber Feline Earrings - $99 plus S&H
Baltic Amber Feline Complete Collection - Now Only $159 (save an extra $40)
ORDER NOW TOLL FREE 24/7 ON: 1-800 733 8463

AND QUOTE PROMO CODE: NG4NBC
Or order online at: timepiecesusa.com and enter promo: NG4NBC
PAY BY CHECK: Timepieces International Inc. 10701 NW 140th Street, Suite 1, Hialeah Gardens, FL 33018
DISCOVERIES
ART IN
THE DESERT
NUMEROUS PAINTINGS, mainly
depicting sacred Buddhist sub-
jects, have been found at Dandan-
Oilik. They date to between the
sixth and eighth centuries a.d.
Hedin praised the mastery
of their execution and the
elegance of the figures. He
was struck by how similar
the costumes were to those
he had seen during his own
19th-century expeditions in
Persia and along the banks of
the Indus River. Some of the
paintings depict everyday sub-
jects, such as animals or lotus
flowers. The image to the
right, painted on a wooden
panel, is believed to depict
Ganesh, a Hindu deity also
associated with Buddhism. It was
painted sometime between the
seventh and eighth centuries.
ALBUM
Hungarian-born Briton, Marc freezing wastes of the Takli- core, which was nested inside and its prosperity on the Silk
Aurel Stein, was making a makan to arrive at Dandan- a larger structure. Road. Among the last datable
name for himself as a scholar Oilik in late December 1900. Among the artworks were items that Stein found were
of Persian and Sanskrit. His extensive knowledge of magnificent stucco figures of eighth-century coins. Stein
In 1898 Hedin’s memoir Buddhist art and scripture Buddhas and well-preserved theorized that the town’s
Through Asia was published. helped him establish the site paintings on wooden boards. decline must have been tied
The book had a huge influence as an abandoned oasis town To Stein’s excitement, he rec- to China losing administra-
on Stein, then in his late 30s. that had thrived from the ognized the themes of some tive control of the region in
Two years later, he embarked sixth century a.d. But what of the paintings, including that period. Later studies,
on the first of four expedi- had happened to the town that one illustrating the silkworm including a joint China-Japan
tions to Central Asia. Fol- forced its citizens to abandon legend. This tells the story excavation in 2002, corrob-
lowing in Hedin’s footsteps, its bustling streets and splen- of a young Chinese noble- orated this. In the 700s, as
Stein arrived in Khotan in didly adorned temples? woman wed to the king of geopolitics changed with
winter 1900. There, his guide Khotan. Flouting the rule that the rapidity of the dunes,
showed him objects from the Oasis Trade Hub silkworms cannot leave the the thriving town, with its
site, including fragments of After several weeks, Stein Chinese heartland, the young trade, art, and temples, was
frescoes from temples, some established that as many as bride smuggles mulberry abandoned, and the sands
with Brahmi script (a writing 14 Buddhist temples had seeds and silkworms to her swallowed the glory that had
system of ancient India). once dominated the town. husband in her headdress. been Dandan-Oilik.
Energized by this proof, They consisted of a cella (the The legend deftly links
Stein set off through the sacred part of a temple) at the the town’s Buddhist piety —Ángel Carlos Aguayo
A Better Way to hearTV®
Struggling to hear the TV?

Put on your ® and hear every word clearly
TV•Ears has helped millions of people with

hearing loss enjoy their favorite television
shows, movies and streaming content Ultra-soft ear tips
without disturbing others. Headset weighs 2 oz.
Rechargeable Battery
The Voice Clarifying Technology® reduces
background noise and clariﬁes hard to hear
television dialog making voices and words
understandable. 120db of volume makes
TV•Ears the most powerful television
listening system on the market!
Quiet TV mode lets others mute the

television or set the volume to their
preferred level while you listen as loud No more
as you want on the headset. loud TV!
For fastest service,

Call toll-free
1-800-379-7832 SPECIAL OFFER
Wireless TV Headset™ NOW $69.95
Use promo code 36614
TV dialog is clear and understandable
30-day risk free trial
Over 2.5 million satisﬁed customers Same day shipping
Top Selling Brand for 25 Years www.tvears.com
TVEARS | 2701 Via Orange Way, Suite 1 Spring Valley, CA 91978

National Geographic History - December 2024 USA

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

National Geographic History - December 2024 USA

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

National Geographic History - December 2024 USA

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

I

Your Insider Offer Code: TPW370-04

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC IMAGE COLLECTION

The holiday season is my favorite time of year. My

In this issue, we examine two holiday traditions that have surprising

Bridget E. Hamilton, Editorial Director

A SAINT AND SOME SINNERS

Deputy Editor JULIUS PURCELL

A. TOTAL COPIES PRINTED SENIOR MANAGEMENT

Printed on 100% PEFC-Certified Paper-PEFC/29-31-58. Please recycle.

Offer Code STC900-09 Rating of A+

14091 Southcross Drive W., Dept. STC900-09,

THE LACQUERED HEAD unearthed at the Wuwangdun

A Lavish Burial at the

Over a thousand objects were

Qin, Han, Wei, Zhao, Qi, and Characterized by upheaval,

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 7

’Twas the Poem Behind

children and influenced Christmas Creating Christmas

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 9

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 11

The Rhythm of Castanets

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 13

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 15

is buried near him, was

How The Nutcracker

Seasonal but Sinister

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 19

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 21

Ancient authors depicted the Roman

a.d. 54 a.d. 62 a.d. 64-65 a.d. 68

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 29

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 33

GRUESOME Nero that divorcing his wife to marry her would

Tradition holds that the martyred remains of

FIRST-CENTURY as a martyr in Rome at the

St. Peter’s Basilica The Tomb of St. Peter

In the first century a.d.,

ca a.d 160 ca a.d 320 1506 1940–1957

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 39

The Archaeologists Arrive

Vault that might

ST. PETER: FROM NECROPOLIS

10th century 11th century 12th century 13th century

Fortifications at Rennes, Brittany, depicted in the 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry

MOTTE AND BAILEY

None Can Enter

A NEW STAR RISING

IN THE MID-12TH CENTURY, Henry II of

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 67

BEYOND THE BLACK LEGEND OF THE

ISABEL BARCELÓ CHICO

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC HISTORY 69

1494 1497 1498-1499 1502

THE FOUNDER of the dynasty that pro-

Milan’s Castello Sforzesco was the residence of the Sforza

St. Catherine of Alexandria

The model for the man wearing the white

Cagliari G Ferrara’s secretary remarked, “His Holiness loves

THE SIX-SECOND CHECK