Module 5: Structures, Pointers and Preprocessors

Introduction
Sometimes, it is necessary for the programmers to store and process large volume of
dissimilar type of data elements in computer’s memory and is possible by using user defined
data type named structure.
Structure can be defined as a collection of data elements of dissimilar type of data elements.
It is user defined data type. Whereas array can be defined as a collection of data elements of
similar type of data elements.

What is structure?

A structure can be defined as a collection of data elements of dis-similar type of data

elements stored in computer’s memory. It is user defined data type.

Defining Structure
The structure must be defined in the declaration or global part of the C program before
defining structure variables.
Syntax:
struct <tag_name>
{
type1 member1;
type2 member2;
type3 member3;
…
type-n member-n;
};

Where,
struct  is a keyword
Tag_name  valid identifier or name of structure
type1, type2, type3,…, type-n  built-in data types like int, float, char, etc.
member1, member2, member3,..  are fields or components of a structure

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Example1. Structure to store and process employee information.
struct employee /* definition of structure*/
{
int eno;
char emp_name[25];
long int emp_salary;
};
structure student s;
structure student s1,s2,s3;
structure student s[100];

Example2. Structure to store and process book information.

struct book /* structure declaration*/
{
int book_no;
char book_name[25];
int book_price;
};
structure book b;
structure book b1,b2,b3;
structure book b[100];

Declaration of Structure Variables

The structure variables can be defined in the declaration or global part of the C program
before the structure variables are used in the main( ). The syntax is as follow.
Syntax:
struct <tag_name> <list of variables separated by comma>;

Where,
struct  is a keyword
tag_name  valid identifier or name of structure
variables_list  List of variables

Example1. Structure to store and process student information.

struct student /* definition of structure*/

{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
char grade;
};
struct student s; /* To store info. of 1 student*/
struct student s1,s2,s3; /* To store info. of 3 students*/
struct student s[50]; /* To store info. of 50 students*/

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Example2. Structure to store and process employee information.

struct employee /* definition of structure*/

{
int eno;
char emp_name[25];
long int emp_salary;
};

struct employee e; /* To store info. of 1 employee*/

struct employee e1,e2,e3; /* To store info. of 3 employee*/
struct employee e[50]; /* To store info. of 50 employee*/

Example3. Structure to store and process product information.

struct product /* definition of structure*/

{
int pno;
char pname[25];
float price, total;
int qty;
};

struct product p; /* p is variable to store information of one product*/

struct product p1,p2,p3; /* 3 variables of type struct product */
struct product p[100]; /* array of structure to store information of 100 products*/

Example 4. Structure to store and process book information.

struct book /* definition of structure*/

{
int bookno;
char bookname[25];
char author[25];
float price;
};
struct book b; /* b is variable to store information of one book */
struct book b1,b2,b3; /* 3 variables of type struct book */
struct book b[100]; /* array of structure to store information of 100 book*/

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 Three Ways to define structure variables

[1]
struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
char grade;
};
struct student s1,s2,s3; /* s1, s2, s3 are variables */

[2]
struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
char grade;
}s1,s2,s3; /* s1, s2, s3 are variables */

[3]
struct
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
char grade;
}s1,s2,s3; /* s1, s2, s3 are variables */

[3]
typedef struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
char grade;
}stud; /* here, stud is alternative name for struct student */

stud s1,s2,s3; /* s1, s2, s3 are variables */

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Initialization of Structure Variables
The structure variables can be assigned with values at compile or rum time. The syntax is as
follow.
Syntax:
struct tag_name variable={list of values};

At Compile Time:
struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
char grade;
};
struct student s={101,”John”,600,’A’};

At Run Time:
struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
};
struct student s;

printf(“Enter student roll number, name and marks:”);

scanf(“%d %s %d”, &s.rno, &s.name, &s.marks);

O/p:
Enter student roll number, name and marks:
rno name marks
101 Thomas 600 s 101 Thomas 600

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 Programming Examples on Structures
/* C program to read and display student information by using structure */
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
float avg;
};
struct student s;
clrscr();
printf("Enter student roll no:"); o/p:
scanf("%d",&s.rno); Enter student roll no: 101
printf("Enter student name:"); Enter student name: Thomas
scanf("%s",&s.name); Enter student average marks: 69
printf("Enter student average marks:"); STUDENT DETAILS
scanf("%f",&s.avg); Roll no= 101
printf("\n STUDENT DETAILS"); Name= Thomas
printf("\n Roll no=%d",s.rno); Average marks= 69
printf("\n Name=%s",s.name);
printf("\n Average marks=%f",s.avg);
return (0);
}
Write C program to read and display employee information (emp_no,name, designation &
salary) by using structure variable.
/* C program to read and display employee information by using structure */
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
struct employee
{
int no;
char name[25];
int salary;
};
struct employee e;
clrscr();
printf("Enter employee no:"); o/p:
scanf("%d",&e.no); Enter employee no: 207
printf("Enter employee name:"); Enter employee name: Bob
scanf("%s",&e.name); Enter employee salary: 30000
printf("Enter employee salary:"); EMPLOYEE DETAILS
scanf("%f",&e.salary); Employee No=207
printf("\n EMPLOYEE DETAILS"); Employee Name=Bob
printf("\n Employee No=%d",e.no); Employee Salary=30000
printf("\n Employee Name=%s",e.name);
printf("\n Employee Salary=%d",e.salary);
return (0);
}
/* C program to read and display student name,USN,subject and IA marks using structure*/
#include<stdio.h> o/p:
Enter student name: Jasmin
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Enter student USN: 2BL15CS001
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Enter subject name: Programming in C
Enter student IA marks: 20
STUDENT DETAILS
struct student
{
char name[25];
char usn[11];
char sub[50];
int ia;
};
int main()
{
struct student s;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter Student Name:");
scanf("%s",&s.name);
printf("\nEnter Student USN:");
scanf("%s",&s.usn);
printf("\nEnter Subject Name:");
scanf("%s",&s.sub);
fflush(stdin);
printf("\nEnter student IA Marks:");
scanf("%d",&s.ia);
printf("\n STUDENT DETAILS");
printf("\n Name: %s",s.name);
printf("\n USN: %s",s.usn);
printf("\n Subject Name: %s",s.sub);
printf("\n IA Marks: %d",s.ia);
return (0);
}

Accessing Structure Members:

The programmer makes the use of dot operator(.) to access the individual members of
structure variable. The syntax is as follow.
Syntax:
structure_variable . member_name;

Example:
struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
};
struct student s={101,”John”,600};
printf(“\n Student Roll Number =%d”,s.rno);
printf(“\n Student Name =%s”,s.name);
printf(“\n Student Marks =%d”,s.marks);

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Nested Structure:
The C language permits the programmers to nest structures within one another i.e.
structure can contain another structure member.
Example:

struct date
{
int dd, mm, yy;
};

struct student
{
char name[25];
struct date dob; /* nesting of structure member*/
}s;

strcpy(s.fname,”John”);

s.dob.dd=1;
s.dob.mm=6;
s.dob.yy=1960;

Array of Structures:
The programmers can define arrays of structures variables to store and process large volume
of data i.e. a group of related data elements of dissimilar type.
Syntax:
struct tag_name array_name[size];

Example:
To store student information(roll no, name & average marks) of ‘n’ students.
struct student
{
int rno;
char name[25];
int marks;
};
struct student s[25]; /* Array of size 25 */

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Array in Structures:
The programmers can use arrays as members of structure to store and process large volume
of data.
Example:
Write a c program read and display student name, USN and 5 subjects IA marks using
structure.

/* Example for arrays in structure */

#include<stdio.h>
struct student
{
char name[25];
char usn[11];
char sub[50];
int ia[5];
};
void main()
{
struct student s;
int i;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter Student Name:");
scanf("%s",&s.name);
printf("\nEnter Student USN:");
scanf("%s",&s.usn);
printf("\nEnter 5 subjects IA Marks:");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&s.ia[i]);
}
printf("\n STUDENT DETAILS");
printf("\n Name: %s",s.name);
printf("\n USN: %s",s.usn);
printf("\n IA Marks:");
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("\t %d",s.ia[i]);
}
getch();
}

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Structures and Functions
The programmers can pass the structure variables or structure members to user defined
functions to do specific task. The contents of structure variable can be passed as parameter
user defined function in the following three ways.

Way1 to pass parameters to structure: The individual members of a structure can be passed
as parameter to a function to do specific task.
e.g. result(s.avg);
Here, result is user defined function that receives s.avg as parameter to display student result
as per average marks scored.

Way2 to pass parameters: The whole structure variable can be passed as an argument or
parameter to user defined function to do specific task.
e.g. display(s);
Here, s is struct variable containing student’s information that will be passed to display to
display student’s information.

Way3 to pass parameters: The address of structure variable can be passed as an argument or
parameter to user defined function to do specific task. i.e. call by reference method.
e.g. display(&s);
Here, address of struct variable s is passed to user defined function to do specific task.

/* Programming Examples for Structure and Functions*/

#include<stdio.h>
struct student read(void);
void display(struct student s);
void result(float x);

struct student O/p:

{ Enter student roll no, name and average marks:
int rno; 101 Thomas 70
char name[25]; Roll No=101
float avg; Name=Thomas
}; Average Marks=70
Pass
void main()
{
struct student temp;

clrscr();
temp=read();
display(temp);
result(temp.avg);
getch();
}

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struct student read(void)
{
struct student s;
printf("Enter student roll no, name and average marks");
scanf("%d %s %f",&s.rno,&s.name,&s.avg);
return(s);
}

void display(struct student s)

{
printf("\n Roll No=%d \n Name=%s \n Average Marks=%f",s.rno,s.name,s.avg);
}

void result(float x)
{
if (x>35)
printf("\n Pass");
else
printf("\n Fail");
}

typedef statement:
The typedef stands for type definition. It is one of the built-in statement available in C. It
helps the programmer to give alternative name (possibly short and meaningful names) to the
basic data types (int, float, char) or user defined data type like structure.
Syntax:
typedef <data_type> < alternative new name>;
where,
typedef  is a keyword
data_type basic or user defined data type
new_name  alternative name

Examples:
typedef int whole_nos;
Whole_nos n1,n2,n3; /* variables of type int */

typedef int marks;

marks che,pcd,maths; /* variables of type int */

typedef float real_nos;

real_nos r1,r2; /* variables of type float */

typedef char letter;

letter grade; /* variables of type char */

. typedef unsigned short int ushort;

ushort age; /* age is variable of type unsigned short int */

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. typedef struct student stud;
stud s; /* s is variables of type struct student */

typedef struct employee emp;

emp e1,e2,e3; /* variables of type struct employee */

typedef struct student

{
int rno;
char name[25];
float avg;
}stud;
stud s1,s2,s3;

. typedef struct
{
int rno;
char name[25];
float avg;
}stud;
stud s1,s2,s3;

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 Viva-Voce
Can you answer these questions?

What is computer program?

What is stdio.h?
What is variable?
What is constant?
Can you name input and output functions available in C.
Can you name conditional statements available in C.
Can you name loop statements available in C.
What is the difference between while and do while?
What is the difference break and continue statements available n C?
What are the advantages of writing user defined functions?
What is an array?
What is structure?
What is the difference between array and structure?
What is pointer?
What is typedef?
What is dynamic memory allocation?
What are the benefits of learning computer programming languages like C?
Who developed the ‘C’ language?
What is structured programming language?
What is modular programming approach?
How do you develop software?
What is compiler?
Why do you compile the program?
What is the difference between syntax and logic errors?
What is meant by debugging?
What is an algorithm?
What is flowchart?
What is pseudocode?
What are C tokens?
What are data types?
What is computer?
What is your area of interest?
Why? Did you take admission for engineering?
Why? Do you write computer programs?
Good Luck!.......

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 Pointers
Introduction
A pointer is very powerful feature of C language. It helps the programmers to manipulate the
data at low level i.e. by using addresses of computer’s memories instead of identifiers. It
helps the programmers to write concise and efficient computer programs.
Q. What is pointer? Discuss its declaration and initialization with syntax and examples.
“A pointer is also a variable that stores only the ADDRESS of other variable”
It helps the programmers to efficient computer programs in terms of time and space
efficiency. i.e. the program that works with high speed and occupies less computer’s
memory.
Declaration of Pointer:
Pointers must be defined in the declaration part of the main program before they are used in
executable part by using following syntax.
Syntax
data_type *pointer_name;
where,
data_type : It may be any data type like int, float, char, double, structure type etc.
pointer name: valid identifier
Examples:
int n=7; /* normal or scalar variable */
int *ip; /* integer pointer ip to store address of n variable*/
ip=&n; /* Address of n variable will be stored in ip pointer*/

float ans=30.75; /* float type of variable */

float *fp; /* float pointer fp to store the address of ans variable*/
fp=&ans; /* address of ans will be stored in fp pointer*/

char ch=’a’; /* char type of variable */

char *cp; /* character pointer cp to store the address of ch variable*/
cp=&ch; /* address of ch will be stored in cp pointer*/

Initialization of Pointers:
The pointers can be assigned (initialized) with the address of other variables by using
the following syntax.
Syntax:
pointer=&variable
Where,
Pointer : valid pointer
& : ampersand sign (Meaning: address of)
Variable : Well defined variable.
Examples:
int n=7; /* Declaration of variable*/
int *ip; /* Declaration of integer pointer ip */
ip=&n; /* Initialization of pointer ip with the address of n variable */

float ans=30.75;
float *fp;
fp=&ans;

char ch=’a’;
char *cp;
cp=&ch;

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 Advantages of using pointers:
1. The use of pointers in programming results into concise and efficient programming.
2. Dynamic Memory Allocation (DMA) is possible by using pointers. i.e. the required number
of memory blocks can be allocated neither more nor less. The process of allocating the
computer’s memory during program execution is called DMA.
3. Using pointers, programmers can construct Advanced Data Structures (ADTs) like linked list,
queue, stack, tree, graph, set, etc. These ADTs are most commonly used during the design
and development of today’s real time applications.
4. The use of pointers with arrays, strings and user defined functions results into concise and
efficient programming.
Disadvantages of pointers:
1. Uninitialized pointers may create errors in program.
2. Pointer bugs (errors) are difficult to remove.
3. Dynamically allocated memory must be freed explicitly.
4. Pointers updated with incorrect values may lead to memory corruption.

Declaration of Pointers
The pointers can be defined in the declaration part of the main( ) function by using
dereference operator(*). The syntax is as follow.
Syntax:
data_type * ptr_variable;
where,
data_type  valid data types like int, float, char, struct type, etc.
asterisk (*)  dereference operator
ptr_ variable  valid identifier
1. Example to work with integer pointer
int n=7; /* integer variable */
int *ip; /* integer pointer*/
ip=&n; /* address of ‘n’ will be stored in ip */
Variable n Pointer  ip
Contents 7 Contents  0X800
Address 0X800
 ip=0x800
Without using pointers:
We can print address and contents of ‘n’ without using pointers as follows.
printf(“Address of n = %d”,&n);
o/p:
printf(“Contents of n=%d”,n);
Address of n=0x800
Contents of n= 7
Using pointers:
We can print the address and contents of ‘n’ using pointers as follows.
printf(“Address of n = %d”, ip); o/p:
printf(“Contents of n=%d”, *ip); /* value atAddress
address 0x800*/
of n=0x800
Contents of n= 7

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2. Example to work with float pointer
float avg=88.88; /* variable of type float */
float *fp; /* pointer of type float*/
fp=&avg; /* address of n will be stored in fp*/
printf(“Address of variable avg = %d”,fp);
printf(“Contents of avg is %d = ”,*fp);

Address Operator (&) and Dereference Operator(*)

To manipulate the data by using pointers, the C programmer makes the use of address
operator (&) and dereference operator (*).

ampersand (&) : The ampersand sign is used as address operators. It helps the
programmers to get the addresses of other variables.

asterisk (*) : The asterisk sign is used as deference operator. It helps the programmer to
define pointer variables and also to get the value at addresses.

e.g. To print the address and contents of ‘n’ using pointers.

int n=7;
int *ip;
ip=&n;
printf(“Address of n = %d”,ip);
printf(“Contents of n=%d”,*ip); /* value at address 0x800*/

Output :
Address of n=0x800
Contents of n= 7

e.g. To print the address and contents of ‘n’ using pointers.

float avg=88.88; /* variable of type float */
float *fp; /* pointer of type float*/
fp=&avg; /* address of n will be stored in fp*/
printf(“Address of variable avg = %d”,fp);
printf(“Contents of avg is %d = ”,*fp);

Output:
Address of variable avg = OX2300
Contents of avg is 88.88

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 Pointers and Functions Arguments (Call by address)
The call by reference method makes the use of pointers to pass the addresses
(references) of actual parameters to user defined function instead of values. In this method,
changes made to formal parameters will affect the actual parameters. This method is having
the capability to return multiple values back to called function, where as pass by value returns
only one value.

/* Example for call by reference or function to swap two values */

#include<stdio.h>
void swap(int *x,int *y);
void main()
{
int x=7,y=3;
clrscr();
printf("\n Before swap or Before calling function \n"); o/p:
printf("\n x=%d y=%d \n",x,y); Before swap
swap(&x,&y); x=7 y=3
printf("\n After Swap or After calling function \n"); After swap
X=3 y=7
printf("\n x=%d y=%d \n",x,y);
getch();
}
void swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int temp;
temp=*x;
*x=*y;
*y=temp;
}
Pointers and Arrays
An array can be defined as a collection of logically related data elements of similar
type. The programmers can make the use of pointers with arrays to write efficient programs.
The programmers can increment / decrement the pointers to interact with the array elements.
By default, array name will return the address of first memory allocated. (a is equals to
&a[0])
/* Pointers and Arrays */
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
Output:
{
The array elements:
int a[5]={10,20,30,40,50}; 10
int *ip,i; 20
ip=&a[0]; /* ip=a */ 30
clrscr(); 40
printf("The arrays elements:"); 50
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
printf("\n%d",*(ip+i));
}
getch();
}

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Increment/decrement pointers:
The pointer variables can be incremented or decremented to interact with next or
previous computers memory locations sequentially.

 Whenever, we increment/decrement the integer pointer that will be incremented /

decremented by 2 because that occupies 2 bytes.

 Whenever, we increment/decrement the float pointer that will be incremented /

decremented by 4 because that occupies 4 bytes.

 Whenever, we increment/decrement the character pointer that will be incremented /

decremented by 1 because that occupies 1 byte.

Pointers and Strings:

The programmers can use the pointers while working with string variables to write
concise and efficient programs.

Examples:
/* Example for pointers and strings to display string on monitor by using pointer*/
#include<stdio.h>
void main() Output:
{
Good Morning
char str[]="Good Morning";
char *cp; /* character pointer*/
int i;
cp=&str[0]; /* address of first array element will be stored in cp */
clrscr();
while (*cp!='\0') /* value at first address not equals to NULL repeats */
{
printf("%c",*cp); /* prints value at address i.e. G and so on..*/
cp++; /*pointer increments by 1 every time */
}
getch();
}

Arrays of Pointers: Programmers can define arrays of pointers to store and process
addresses on ‘n’ number of variables while solving complex problems. It results into efficient
program.

Example: To store addresses of three variables x, y and z, you can define one pointer array of
the size 3.
int x, y, y;
int *ip[3];
ip[0]=&x, ip[1]=&y, ip[2]=&y;

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Pointers to Pointers: While solving complex problems it is necessary for the programmer to
store and process the addresses of pointers and is possible by defining pointer to pointer.
Examples:
int n=7;
int *ip; /* pointer to normal variable n*/
int **ipp; /* it is the pointer to pointer to point ip */
ip=&n;
ipp=*ip;
Now, we display the contents of ‘n’ by using both pointer (ip) and pointer to pointer (ipp).
printf("\n n=%d",*ip); o/p: n=7
printf("\n n=%d",**ipp); o/p: n=7

Memory Management (Allocation)

The programmer needs to allocate the computer’s primary memory to store and
process the data to solve a problem by using a computer. For this purpose, the programmer
makes the use of following two techniques.
i. Compile time (static) Memory Allocation
ii. Dynamic (run-time) Memory Allocation (vimp)
Compile time memory allocation: As the name implies, the process of allocating the
computer’s primary memory well in advance before the execution of statements from
executable part of main() function in the declaration part is called compile time memory
allocation.
This technique has the following limitations.
 The allocated memory is limited in size that cannot be varied during program
execution.
 An array size must be defined with fixed size. i. e. size cannot be changed during
program execution.
 Programmers cannot create Abstract Data Types (ADTs) like linked lists, trees and
graphs, etc.
All these limitations can be solved by using Dynamic Memory Allocation technique.

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Dynamic (run-time) Memory Allocation (DMA):
Q. What is dynamic memory allocation? Explain in brief.
Ans. The process of allocating the required number of memory blocks during the program
execution is called dynamic or run-time memory allocation. This technique makes the use of
memory allocating functions like malloc(), calloc(), realloc() and free() with pointers.
Memory Allocation Functions: The alloc.h or stdlib.h file is having number of memory
allocating functions. Some of the important are as follows.
1. malloc()
2. calloc()
3. realloc() and
4. free()
malloc() : It allocates the required number of memory blocks during the program execution
and returns the address of first memory block. The other addresses of next allocated memory
blocks can be obtained by addition operation with a pointer. In case of failure of memory
allocation, the malloc() funcion returns NULL value.
Syntax:
pointer=(data_type *) malloc(byte size);
where,
pointer : Valid pointer
data type : Valid data type of which type memory could be allocated.
byte_size :Total number of bytes. i.e. n * sizeof(data type)

/* Programming example for dynamic memory allocation by malloc */

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<alloc.h> Output:
void main() Enter the value of n: 5
{ Enter 5 values
int n,i,*ip; 10 20 30 40 50
clrscr(); The values are
printf("Enter the value of n: "); 10 20 30 40 50
scanf("%d",&n);
ip=(int *) malloc (n*sizeof(int));
printf("\n Enter %d values ",n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",(ip+i));
}
printf("\n The values are ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t %d",*(ip+i));
}
free(ip);
getch();
}

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calloc() : It allocates the required number of memory blocks during the program execution
and returns the address of first memory block. The other addresses of next allocated memory
blocks can be obtained by addition operation with a pointer. The calloc() function initializes
the allocated memory blocks by zero, whereas, the malloc() stores garbage values. In case of
failure of memory allocation, the calloc() funcion returns NULL value.
Syntax:
pointer=(data_type *) calloc (n, byte_size);
where,
pointer : Valid pointer
data type : Valid data type of which type memory could be allocated.
n : Number of memory blocks required
byte_size : Total number of bytes.
/* Programming example for dynamic memory allocation by calloc */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<alloc.h> Output:
void main() Enter the value of n: 5
{ Enter 5 values
int n,i,*ip; 10 20 30 40 50
clrscr(); The values are
printf("Enter the value of n: "); 10 20 30 40 50
scanf("%d",&n);
ip=(int *) calloc(n,2);
printf("\n Enter %d values ",n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
scanf("%d",(ip+i));
}
printf("\n The values are ");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("\t %d",*(ip+i));
}
free(ip);
getch();
}

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realloc(): This is another memory allocation function available in alloc.h. It helps the
programmer to allocate new memory space for the previously allocated memory by malloc()
or calloc().
Syntax:
pointer=realloc(pointer, new_size);
Where,
Pointer : Address of previously allocated memory
New_Size : New memory spaced needed in terms of bytes.

Example:
int *ip; /* integer pointer*/
int n;
printf(“Enter the value of n: ”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
ip=(int *) malloc(n*sizeof(int));
printf(“\n %d memory blocks are allocated ”,n);
…
…
printf(“Enter the new value of n: ”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
ip=realloc(ip, n*sizeof(int));
printf(“\n %d memory blocks are newly allocated ”,n);

Output:
Enter the value of n: 5
5 memory blocks are allocated
Enter the new value of n: 7
7 memory blocks are allocated

free(): It de allocates the dynamically allocated memory by malloc() , calloc() or realloc()

functions. The programmer needs to de allocate the memory allocated by DMA (Dynamic
Memory Allocation) technique explicitly.
Syntax
free (pointer);

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 The Preprocessors

What are preprocessors? Explain in brief.

The preprocessor is another unique feature of C language. The preprocessor can be
defined as a small program that runs before the compilation of main( ) program. All the
preprocessors begin with pound(#) symbol and do not end with semicolon.
The #include and #define are most commonly used preprocessor directives. These are
used to include external files and to define symbolic constants.
Advantages of using preprocessors
1. Written programs are easy to read
2. Written programs are easy to modify
3. Written programs are easy to portable
Types of preprocessors
1. Macro substitution directives
(a) Simple (b) argumented (c) nested
2. File inclusion directives
3. Compiler control directives
1. Macro substitution directives: These are used to replace an identifier (symbolic constant)
with equivalent strings. These are used to define symbolic constants by using #define
directive.
Syntax:
# define <identifier> <equivalent string>
Examples:
# define N 100
# define MAX 50
# define MIN 0
# define PI 3.1452
Examples for macros with arguments
# define SQUARE(x) ( x * x)
# define CUBE(x) ( x * x * x)
# define MAX(a,b) ( ( (a) > (b) ) ? (a) : (b) )

Examples for nested macros

# define M 5
# define N M + 1
Undefining macros:
A defined macro can be undefined by using #undef statement.
Syntax:
# undef <identifier>
Example:
# define N 500
# undef N

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2. File inclusion directives:
The file inclusion directives help the programmers to include external header files or
C files in to C program by using # include directive. We are able to access functions and
macro from the included external files.

Syntax:
# include “filename” or # include <filename>

If, we use double quote to include external file, then the specified file will be searched
from working directory.

If, we use angle brackets to include external file, then the specified file will be
searched from standard directory like c:\tc\include.

Examples:
# include <stdio.h>
# include <conio.h>
# include “p1.c”
# include “p2.c”
# include “D:\myself\p3.c”
3. Compiler control directives:
The compiler control directives help the programmers to define or undefined macros
based on given condition. These can be used to write portable programs.(program written for
one machine works on another machine)

Directives Explanation
#ifdef It will test, whether macro is defined
#endif It is the end of if
#ifndef It will test, whether macro is not defined
#if the if … else sequence
#else
#elif the else … if sequence

Examples:
# include “define.h” # include “define.h”
# ifndef TEST # ifdef TEST
# define TEST 1 # undef TEST
# endif # endif

We can use compiler control directives to write portable program as follow

#if MACHINE = = HCL

# define FILE “hcl.h”
# elif MACHINE = = WIPRO
# define FILE “wipro.h”
# elif MACHINE = = DELL
# define FILE “dell.h”
# endif

#include FILE

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Tips to score more marks in VTU Examinations (Engineering)
Dear students,
You are clever and intelligent, do not lose your confidence. Yes, you can do well in exams.
Move towards examination hall with positive thoughts in such a way that, this time I do well.
Your's one positive thought helps you lot.
Be happier on examination day.
Be cool, try to feel weight less...be calm and cool in all situations...do not be over confident...
Move towards exam hall with all necessary things like Hall Ticket, 2 Dark Blank Ink Pens,
Calculator.
Be independent; do not depend on others for asking pen, pencil, rubber, scale, etc.
Be well dressed i.e. formal.
Do prayer....before coming to exam; as well as before answering questions...in your peaceful
soul....
Better; attempt that question first, in which you are perfect....
Very important is that, write question number correctly.
Underline important points in your answer.
Highlight the important word.
Give more examples.
Quality points are more important than quantity.
We need to have the habit of increasing quantity of quality; that comes by practice.
Wherever necessary, draw figure..
For every question; one page answer is compulsory.
For 10 marks minimum 2 to 3 pages (front and back)
Yours signature and supervisor signature on Answer booklet is compulsory...
Handwriting must be readable.....
Good luck....
All the best...
Chidanand S. Kusur
Asst. Prof., Dept. of CSE
BLDEA's CET, Vijayapur-03.
cs.kusur@gmail.com
9739762682
Dear Student,
You are hereby requested to visit the blog cskusur.blogspot.in and send your
suggestions/feedback about class notes to e.mail id cs.kusur@gmail.com
Visit the blog: cskusur.blogspot.in
“Good Luck for Annual Examination”
Mr. C. S. Kusur Asst. Prof., Dept. of Computer Science and Engineering
B.L.D.E.A’s Vachana Pitamaha Dr. P. G. Halakatti College of Engineering and
Technology, Vijayapur-586 103, Karnataka, India.

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