Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Research in Globalization
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resglo

Municipal waste management in the era of COVID-19: Perceptions, practices,

and potentials for research in developing countries
Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun a,⇑, Oluwasinaayomi Faith Kasim a,b, Ayomide Famewo b,
Temitayo Deborah Oyedotun c, Stephan Moonsammy d, Nasrudeen Ally a, Donna-Marie Renn-Moonsammy e
a
Department of Geography, Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Guyana, P. O. Box 10 1110, Turkeyen Campus, Georgetown, Guyana
b
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Ibadan, Nigeria
c
Faculty of Education and Humanities, University of Guyana, P. O. Box 10 1110, Turkeyen Campus, Georgetown, Guyana
d
Department of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Guyana, P. O. Box 10 1110, Turkeyen Campus, Georgetown, Guyana
e
Pensa Fuori Concepts, #4 Parakeet Street, Trincity, West Indies, Trinidad and Tobago

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The novel COVID‐19 pandemic has significantly impacted all facets of society globally. Often overlooked is the
Solid wastes potential contamination of the waste disposed by individuals diagnosed with the virus. The proliferation of
COVID‐19 contaminated waste is expected to increase as cases increase. The pandemic has caused a surge in waste mate-
Waste collection rial stemming from the widespread use of disposable personal protective equipment at the household level. In
Waste dumps
the developing countries where waste management measures are relatively inadequate, the vulnerability of
Contamination
Household wastes
COVID‐19 contraction from contaminated waste is high. This study intended to unravel the susceptibility of
PPE communities in the developing countries of Guyana and Nigeria to the potential spread of the virus through
Guyana waste. The study explored the possibility of cross‐contamination between residents and landfill scavengers,
Nigeria the community perception on the effectiveness of their solid waste practices, the notable changes in waste col-
lection and waste disposal patterns, and also, the potential knowledge / policy gaps that exist. An online survey
was administered within all the districts of the two countries and the qualitative assessment was conducted
demonstrating the proportional trends in the responses of the participants. Findings showed that the commu-
nities were relatively perceptive about the issue of waste disposal and the potential contamination of COVID‐
19. The communities readily recognized the inefficiencies of the waste management systems and the need for
policy intervention. Tackling the issue of COVID‐19 and waste management in the developing countries of
Guyana and Nigeria requires policies that are holistic and participatory involving stakeholder at all levels.

1. Introduction products, protective gears, personal protective equipment (PPE), dis-

posable life support equipment and general plastic supplies like syr-
Since the declaration of coronavirus infectious disease 19 (COVID‐ inges (Klemeš et al., 2020; Kampf et al., 2020; Nzediegwu & Chang,
19) as a global pandemic (WHO, 2020a), its progression in countries 2020), all used in the prevention and treatment of the virus. Before
around the world has been rapid and the daily reported statistics of the COVID‐19 pandemic, pollution of the terrestrial and marine envi-
the cases and casualties have been alarming (MacLean et al., 2020; ronment as a result of increasing waste generation and poor waste
Worldometers, 2020; WHO, 2020b). Notably, the effects of this pan- management was already a growing issue globally (Yousif & Scott,
demic have greatly impacted the social, economic, health, education, 2007; Cecilia, 2012; Marshall & Farahbakhsh, 2013; Mukama et al.,
environmental and tourism sectors of society (AWWA, 2020; Fine, 2016; Boucher & Billard, 2019; Rajmohan et al., 2019). With the emer-
Reichle & Lord, 2020; CCSA, 2020; Wuyts et al., 2020). In the last gence of the pandemic, these concerns are now extended (Clark, 2020;
few months, one of the areas where the environmental impacts of Dente & Hashimoto, 2020; Nghiem et al., 2020; Ro, 2020).
COVID‐19 are most pronounced is in waste management (Klemeš To mitigate the spread of the COVID‐19, countries around the
et al., 2020; Nzediegwu & Chang, 2020). This is a major environmental world adopted and enforced many unprecedented measures (closure
concern because of the surge in the demand for and the use of plastic of schools, social and physical distancing, restrictions of a local and

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: temitope.oyedotun@uog.edu.gy (Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resglo.2020.100033
Received 15 August 2020; Revised 17 October 2020; Accepted 18 November 2020
Available online 23 November 2020
2590-051X/© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

international movement, workplace closures). Despite these adopted tries relating to waste management. Considering these observations
methods, the advanced countries had to maintain priority in delivering and coupled with the impact of COVID‐19, this paper fills the gap in
essential services which play a vital role in curbing the spread of documenting the understanding of how COVID‐19 is impacting waste
COVID‐19. Such indispensable essential services include waste collec- handling and management in the developing countries.
tion and management (AWWA, 2020; Lodder, & de Roda Husman, This paper aims to 1) investigate the perceptions of residents living
2020; Mallapaty, 2020; Nghiem et al., 2020; CDC, 2020; WHO, in Guyana and Nigeria on waste management systems and practices in
2020c). Within developed countries, green, and sustainable waste place amidst COVID‐19; and 2) identify and contribute to potential
management is a common practice (Nzediegwu & Chang, 2020), and research gaps that can help in the policies strategized at addressing
as a result, the established management structure contributes to the or mitigating the challenges of the pandemic. In this study, we exam-
capacity to reduce the threats of spreading of the virus through the ined the potential of the existing waste management practices in
increasing waste generated at the household level. However, the poor spreading or encouraging the spread of the SARS‐CoV‐2. We recognise
and inadequate waste management strategies within developing and that developing countries, especially Nigeria and Guyana sampled for
least developed countries contribute to a higher threat of community this survey, have socio‐economic and environmental difficulties that
spread of COVID‐19 (Nzediegwu & Chang, 2020). Examples of such precede the COVID‐19 pandemic. It is, therefore, hoped that this paper
poor or inadequate waste management practices are: open and poorly presents the needed information that can guide the policymakers
managed landfills where both human and animal scavengers can roam across the sampled and similar countries in the planning on how to
freely and interact with possible contaminated waste, reuse of poten- address the challenges that preceded but which are now exacerbated
tially contaminated bottles, packages, and materials (Butot et al., by the pandemic and thereby, chart a new course of action for individ-
2007; World Bank, 2019; Nzediegwu & Chang, 2020). ual countries and environments.
Given the morphology and structure of Severe Acute Respiratory
Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2; the viral name for COVID‐
19), the virus has a three‐hour lifespan in the air as part of aerosols, 2. Materials and methods
a four (4) hour lifespan on copper surfaces, a twenty‐four (24) hour
lifespan on cardboards; a two to three (2–3) day lifespan on stainless 2.1. Survey methods and contents
steel materials, three (3) day lifespan on plastics and sewage, and a
three to four (3–4) day lifespan on solid faeces (van Doremalen The primary sources for the data used in this study were generated
et al., 2020; Ye et al., 2016; Chin et al., 2020; Nghiem et al., 2020). through random questions prepared and presented in Google Forms
Hence, the structure and lifespan of SARS‐CoV‐2 on some mediums and administered through social media to households of Guyana in
or surfaces that are found in waste are of tremendous concern in the South America and Nigeria in Africa (Fig. 1). The questionnaires were
increasing spread of COVID‐19 (Qu et al., 2020). Proper waste collec- completed by a total of 489 households between 29th May and 7th
tion from households, quarantine facilities, hospitals, and structural June 2020. A three (3) step approach was used in data collection:
management is, therefore, critical in the efforts to curb the spread of 1) The creation of data collection form using Google Form (Mansor,
the disease through environmental media. 2012; Wiemken et al., 2018). The form that contained the questions
There are currently a significant number of documented and pub- for the survey was created and linked to one of the authors’ Google
lished impacts of COVID‐19 on Nigeria (Akintunde, Chen & Di., user’s accounts. The data and information on the survey were not
2020; Edomah & Ndulue, 2020; Okuonghae & Omame, 2020; Ohia, made public until co‐authors reviewed, edited, and corrected the ques-
Bakarey & Ahmad, 2020; Mogaji, 2020; MacLean et al., 2020), while tions where necessary. The Google Form created had 25 fields includ-
there are only a few references for Guyana in some of the published ing but not limited to date/time stamp, location of the respondents’
research works of the Caribbean and South America regions households, socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents and
(Oyedotun & Moonsammy, 2020; WHO, 2020b). However, in all the their households including their age, gender, etc., current situation
publications for the two countries researched and as at the time of and observation regarding general waste generation in their area,
the writing of this paper, there is neither a published work on the and some specific questions that related to waste management prac-
impacts of COVID‐19 on waste management for the two countries tices at the time of the pandemic in the respondent’s community.
nor a published work on the perception of residents in the two coun- The structure of the form provided flexibility with both open‐ended

Fig. 1. Study areas indicating where there are household responses to the survey.

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Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

and closed‐ended questions. The flexibility provided with the survey 13th March 2020 (WHO, 2020a; Oyedotun & Moonsammy, 2020).
ensured that respondents could input text where necessary, while From the dates of these confirmations to 7th August 2020, the number
dropdown lists were also made available in addition to radio button of confirmed cases and deaths that resulted from COVID‐19 has
provision for the selection of some variables and parameters. increased significantly across the two countries. As of 7th August
2) The administration of the created form was published, and the 2020, the total cumulative confirmed cases for Nigeria stood at
links provided to individual households to help to respond the survey. 45,244 and the total number of mortalities from the virus was 930;
We utilised several options for this task including sending the link while, confirmed positive cases for Guyana were 509 and cumulative
through WhatsApp, Facebook, emails and professional networks. Due deaths from the virus were 22, respectively. For these two developing
to the government‐enforced lockdown restrictions and the social dis- countries sampled in South America/Caribbean (Guyana) and Africa
tancing regulations, a convenience sampling technique was used in (Nigeria), confirmed cases of COVID‐19 continue to rise as its spread
this study. The campaign for this survey lasted for ten days. could be attributed to both symptomatic and asymptomatic cases
3) The transfer of the collected data from Google Form to a spread- (Rutayisire et al., 2020).
sheet for synthesis and qualitative analysis of the responses. Responses At the inception of this pandemic in developing countries, there
to the survey were automatically saved and stored in Google Forms. was a paucity of data for its projection and impacts (Ayinde et al.,
Google Forms allow direct linking of input with Google spreadsheets 2020). However, over the months, many statistical models have been
through the “responses” tab on the form (Mansor, 2012; Wiemken developed to project and confirm the active nature of COVID‐19 in
et al., 2018). The spreadsheets containing the data were downloaded both developed and developing countries (Abdulmajeed, Adeleke &
and analysed using Microsoft Excel. For the findings presented in this Popoola, 2020; Ademir, 2020; Ayinde et al., 2020; Giordano et al.,
paper, descriptive and exploratory analyses were performed. 2020; Khan & Atangana, 2020; Yonar et al., 2020; Oyedotun &
Moonsammy, 2020).
2.2. Study area and survey overview: states and regions where the The primary waste management concerns are largely unexplored
respondents’ households are located and the overview of the survey but pose the greatest challenge in spreading the virus with the prolif-
eration of disposable PPE. The rampant increase in confirmed cases
Out of the 489 households who responded to the survey, 273 worldwide indicates a significant portion of the population undiag-
households completed the questionnaires in Nigeria. The country has nosed using and disposing of PPE daily. The governments of many
36 states and questionnaires were gathered from respondents living developing countries and their developed counterparts are taking mea-
in 21 states and the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. Out of the ten sures to contain and reduce the spread of COVID‐19. One of such mea-
(10) regions in Guyana, 216 households completed the survey and sures adopted in Nigeria and Guyana is the use of face masks which is
were principally from eight (08) out of the ten (10) regions (Fig. 1). compulsory in public places with a fine charged on offenders (Rover,
From each household, one member was requested to respond to the 2020; Africa Check, 2020). Because of this mandate and enforcement
survey. Household respondents to the survey conducted in Nigeria in these two countries, hundreds of thousands of PPE are manufac-
were based in states such as: Lagos, Oyo, Ondo, Osun, Ekiti, Ogun, tured and used daily (refer to Table 1 for the estimate). There is a pos-
Edo, Rivers, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, Benue, Kwara, Kaduna, Niger, sibility that the high volume of PPE disposed daily can be
Jigawa, Plateau, Kano, Bauchi, Zamfara and Federal Capital. Similarly, contaminated and a greater possibility of the contaminated PPE ending
respondents to the survey in Guyana are domiciled in all the regions up as waste poses serious environmental and health risks (Kampf et al.,
apart from Regions 8 and 9 (Fig. 1). From the survey, Oyo State has 2020; Nzediegwu & Chang, 2020).
the largest share of respondents both in the south‐western part of Nige-
ria and in the survey generally, as it accounted for about two‐fifths
(39.7%) of the total respondents. This was followed by Lagos State 3. Results and discussion
which accounted for about one‐fifth (21.7%) of the responses. In
south‐eastern Nigeria, Enugu had the largest share of respondents 3.1. Socio-demographic background and household perception
which accounted for about 3.3% of the total sampled respondent;
while in mid‐western Nigeria, the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja, Table 2 presents the socio‐demographic characteristics of the
had the highest number of households that responded to the survey, respondents. The study revealed that in Nigeria a majority of respon-
as this accounted for about 4.0% of the respondents sampled. From dents (73.3%) were above 28 years while about 45.8% of the same
the responses to the survey (mapped and represented in Fig. 1), there age‐bracket participated in the survey in Guyana. Thus, it can be
are no responses from most of the states in the north west and north implied that the majority of respondents in the two countries were
east of Nigeria. One of the reasons accounted for is that many house- above 28. Broadly, as revealed in Table 2, more than two thirds
holds in these regions do not have access to online surveys like it was (63.7%) of respondents in Nigeria were male and about one‐third
in the south. (36.3%) were female; while in Guyana, about one‐third (31.9%) were
In Guyana, Region 4 (Demerara‐Mahaica) had more than half male and about two‐thirds (68.1%) were female.
(51.4%), of the households that responded to the survey. This is fol- Presented in Table 3 is the summary of the household’s perception
lowed by Region 10 (Upper Demerara‐Upper Berbice) which of their waste generation when compared with the waste generated
accounted for about one third (26.9%), of the respondents, while before and at this time of COVID‐19 pandemic and the resultant lock-
Region 1 (Barima‐Waini) has the least number of respondents at down that followed. In Nigeria, about two‐thirds (60.8%) of house-
0.9%. However, there were no respondents from Regions 8 (Potaro‐ holds averred that there were increases in the quantity of their
Siparuni) and 9 (Upper Takutu – Upper Essequibo). Lack of internet waste when the COVID‐19 pandemic began, while over one‐third
access in these two regions might have accounted for the inability of (39.2%) believed that their waste did not increase as a result of
households in providing their response to the survey. COVID‐19 pandemic. Similarly, in Guyana, two‐thirds (63.4%) of
respondents also affirmed that there was an increase in the waste gen-
2.3. COVID-19 situation and PPE in the study areas erated as a result of the pandemic. However, about one‐third (36.6%)
did not observe any dramatic changes in the number of wastes gener-
The first COVID‐19 confirmed case in Nigeria was reported on 27th ated during this period. The aforementioned attest that waste size was
February 2020 with the arrival of an Italian citizen to Lagos who tested also impacted during COVID‐19. This result further implies that
positive for the virus (NCDC, 2020; MacLean et al., 2020; Ayinde et al., through mobility restrictions and self‐quarantine (Rover, 2020; Africa
2020). Whereas, the first confirmed case for Guyana was reported on Check, 2020), more residents staying at home have caused an increase

3
Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

Table 1
Estimated daily PPE use in Guyana and Nigeria.

Country *Population **COVID-19 cases as of *Urban Population ***PPE Acceptance ***Average Daily Total Daily PPE
07 August 2020 (%) Rate (%) PPE per capita

Guyana 786,552 509 27 80 2 339,790

Nigeria 206,620,302 45,244 52 80 2 171,908,091
Total 172,247,881

Total Daily PPE = population × urban population (%) × PPE Acceptance Rate (%) × Average Daily PPE per capital / 10,000 (modified after Nzediegwu &
Chang, 2020)
*Data retrieved on 08 August 2020 from http://www.worldometers.info.
**Data retrieved on 08 August 2020 from http://who.int.
***Adopted data from Nzediegwu and Chang (2020).

Table 2 Table 4
Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents in Nigeria and Guyana. Presence of PPE of Household Solid Waste in Nigeria and Guyana.

Variable Nigeria Guyana Variable Nigeria Guyana

Age Percentage (%) Percentage (%) Presence of PPE in Household Solid Waste Percentage Percentage
Less than 18 0.4 8.3 (%) (%)
19–23 5.1 24.5 Present 57.5 63.4
24–28 21.2 21.3 Absent 42.5 36.6
Above 28 73.3 45.8 Type of PPE present in the waste
Gender Sanitizer’s containers 2.6 0.9
Male 63.7 31.9 Masks 11.0 12.0
Female 36.3 68.1 Masks and sanitizers containers 6.6 6.5
Masks and gloves 8.8 2.8
Gloves 3.7 2.3
Gloves and sanitizer containers 0.7 0.5
Table 3 All the above (Presence of all types of PPEs in 27.5 38.4
Changes in household-level solid waste during Covid-19 pandemic. household wastes)

Variable Nigeria Guyana

Waste Quantity Percentage (%) Percentage (%)

Increase in waste 60.8 63.4 observation therefore, suggests that there is a significant increase in
No increase in waste 39.2 36.6 PPE in recent times in the two countries as similar to other places in
Level of increase
the world (Kampf et al., 2020; Nghiem et al., 2020; Nzediegwu &
By less than a quarter 42.2 48.6
Two times increase Nil 0.7 Chang, 2020). With the estimated daily use of 339,790 PPEs in
More than two times increase 57.8 50.7 Guyana, 171,908,091 in Nigeria and a combined total of
172,247,881 of PPE usages per day for the two countries (Table 1),
noticeable presence of discarded PPE in solid wastes is a possibility
in these countries.
in the quantity of solid waste generated at the household level. With more countries around the globe recommending the use of
Although, the net change in solid waste might be accounted for by PPE in addition to social distancing and frequent handwashing, many
the expected fall in wastes at workplaces and/or as a result of the households are observing different types of PPE waste in their bins and
decrease in industrial activities. Thus, an increase in solid waste at surroundings. Of paramount notables observed are waste materials
household levels in these two countries might necessarily not imply such as facemasks, medical gloves, and sanitiser containers (Table 4).
an increase in solid waste at the municipal level or any regional or For the 60.9% of households in Nigeria and 71.5% in Guyana, the pres-
national scale. ence of PPEs as observed in their waste (Table 4) shows that the mate-
Of those that indicated an increase in the household waste genera- rials that were previously being used by essential service
tion during this period, 57.8% of households in Nigeria averred that providers/workers (e.g. caregivers, nurses, doctors, other people han-
there was a double increase in the household waste quantity during dling patients, etc.) are now being used by households. The high usage
the period, while 42.2% claimed that their waste increased by approx- of these materials in the sampled countries are typical examples of
imately a quarter. Similarly, in Guyana, about half, 50.7% of the household waste disposal circumstances and dynamics present around
households affirmed that their waste increased more than twice during the world. The findings corroborate with the literature as voluntary
the COVID‐19 while more than two‐fifths (48.6%) stated that their and enforced recommendations of the use of PPE in countries
waste increased by less than a quarter of the usual amounts during (Rover, 2020; Africa Check, 2020), is generating high volumes of
the pandemic and at the time of the survey (Table 3). It thus, posits PPE (Nzediegwu & Chang, 2020) thereby, presenting disposal and
that there has been a significant increase in household solid waste gen- management challenges to the new forms of exponential wastes type.
erated as a result of the COVID‐19 pandemic. Prior to the COVID‐19 pandemic, the municipal solid waste collec-
The summarised responses presented in Table 4 show the pres- tion has been very critical, lacking public services in many cities espe-
ence/absence of PPE in household solid waste in the two countries cially in slum areas of many developing countries (Mukama et al.,
sampled. In Nigeria, more than half (57.5%) of respondents affirmed 2016; WHO, 2020c). However, since the advent of COVID‐19, there
the presence of PPE in solid wastes in recent times, while about two‐ appears to have been a short‐ term impact on the treatment or atten-
fifths (42.5%) have not paid attention nor noticed the presence of tion given to municipal waste management in the developing countries
PPE in household solid waste recently. Similarly, In Guyana, more than (Nzediegwu & Chang, 2020). Based on the responses from the house-
two‐thirds (63.4%) respondents affirmed that PPE was present in their holds sampled for this survey, 41.8% of the households in Nigeria
solid waste in recent times and about one‐third (36.6%) claimed that where there was municipal waste collection arrangement previously,
PPE was not noticeable in their waste in recent times. The foregoing observed some short‐term changes in the schedules of the waste collec-

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Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

tion (Table 5). However, in Guyana, the majority (75.9%) of house- well for waste management policy strategies requiring public
holds at the time of the survey affirmed the notable changes in their involvement.
schedules of waste collection. The analysis in Table 6 shows that in Nigeria, a majority (88.3%) of
In area where there is no arranged municipal waste collection, dif- respondents agreed on the separation of waste into different bags or
ferent household waste disposal systems were adopted at the house- bins, while about 11.7% of respondents disagreed on the separation
hold level. In Nigeria, 65.9% considered taking their wastes to strategy of sorting wastes into different bags/ bins. In Guyana, about
nearby dumpsites while about one‐quarter (24.9%) adopted the burn- nine‐tenths (92.6%) agreed on the separation of waste into different
ing or dumping in rivers, etc. (Fig. 2). Similarly, in Guyana, more than kinds of bags/bins, while about 7.4% disagreed on sorting of waste
two‐thirds (69.4%) prefer to dispose their waste at nearby dump sites into different bins. The public willingness to comply with potential
despite the impacts of the pandemic on man and the environment. waste management measures at the household level is noteworthy.
About one‐fifth (20%) burn their waste, 3.7% adopt a long storage sys-
tem by storing waste in the garbage until waste collectors come, and 3.3. Potential contamination at landfills/dump and as source of the spread
similarly, about 3.7% adopt other forms of unauthorized disposal of COVID-19
methods. This observation implies that without an efficient centralized
method, households are likely to be increasingly exposed to COVID‐19 The analysis in Table 7 reveals that in Nigeria, more than two‐
infection because of the methods of waste disposal and management thirds (69.6%) respondents averred that there are no landfills/dumps
practices. The surge in these types of household wastes from the within their neighbourhood while about one‐third (30.4%) claimed
COVID‐19 pandemic is a threat indeed that could overwhelm the exist- that there is the presence of landfill/waste dump within their neigh-
ing waste management systems in a similar note as the healthcare bourhood. Similarly, in Guyana, the majority (72.2%) of respondents
facilitators. (Klemeš et al., 2020). averred that they do not have landfills/waste dump within their neigh-
bourhood, while about one third (27.8%) of respondents in Guyana
opined that there is the presence of waste dump in their neighbour-
3.2. Concerns for solid waste contamination and the spread of COVID-19 hood. In Nigeria, the designation of landfill/ waste dumps is often
addressed either by the federal and state government. However, the
It was observed from Fig. 3 that more than one‐third (35.5%) of lack of regulated sanitary landfills at the local government levels might
respondents in Nigeria were extremely concerned about the contami- be a reason for the proliferation of dumps and unsanitary landfills in
nation of solid waste during the pandemic, about one third (27.5%) the neighbourhood.
were fairly concerned, about one‐third (31.5%) were yet to give their As presented in Table 7, in Nigeria, a majority of (79.3%) respon-
thoughts on the issue and about 5.5% were unconcerned. In Guyana, dents agreed that landfills can serve as food banks for livestock, while
about one‐third (34.3%) respondents were extremely concerned with about one‐fifth (20.7%) disagreed that landfills can serve as food
the contamination of solid waste, about one‐third (31%) of respon- banks for livestock. Similarly, in Guyana, a majority (76.2%) of
dents were fairly concerned, over one fifth (25.9%) of respondents respondents also agreed that landfills can serve as food banks for live-
were yet to give thoughts about the concern and about (8.8%) revealed stock, while slightly above one‐fifth (23.8%) of respondents disagreed
that they were unconcerned. The foregoing analysis therefore, suggests that landfills/dumps can serve as food banks for livestock. Due to the
that residents were fairly concerned with solid waste contamination of presence of many unsanitary landfills and dumps at the neighbour-
the virus during this pandemic. The results indicate a fair level of hood level, there is a high possibility that many of these unsanitary
awareness regarding the waste management issue and COVID‐19 landfills are food banks for livestock. This view is also supported by
spread amongst citizens of the two countries. the results obtained (refer to Table 7), hence, there is the need to con-
Presented in Table 6 is the level of agreement on the special waste trol unsanitary landfills and dumps at the neighbourhood level. As the
collection strategy for PPE by respondents in the two countries. In World Bank (2019) affirmed that in many developing countries, Nige-
Nigeria, more than nine‐tenths (92.3%) of respondents agreed that rian and Guyana inclusive, solid wastes which are indiscriminately
there should be a special waste collection at the household level while dumped at the open and often poorly managed landfills are locations
about 7.7% disagreed. Similarly, in Guyana, more than nine‐tenths of attraction for scavengers who often search for recyclable materials
(90.7%) of respondents agreed that a special waste strategy should (often without any form of PPE) for their use or resale. Hence, such
be adopted at the household level, while about one‐tenth (9.3%) dis- kinds of landfills could expose e scavengers (both human and live-
agreed on the special waste collection system. The conclusion that stock) to COVID‐19, and thereby contribute to its spread (Nzediegwu
can be drawn from the foregoing analysis is that respondents in the & Chang, 2020).
two countries largely agree on a special waste collection strategy for To further ascertain if the existing landfills/waste dumps in these
PPE. The overwhelming consensus amongst the participants again two countries serve as food banks for animals, the types of animals
demonstrates a public perception and the understanding of the dynam- observed by the respondents were documented. The study revealed
ics of the waste management issue in curbing the virus. This bodes that in Nigeria, about two‐thirds of animals noticed on landfills
include a combination of dogs, goats, cows, pigs, and hens while dogs
singlehandedly accounted for slightly one‐tenth (13.9%), rodents
Table 5 accounted for 11.5%, and pigs accounted for 8.7%. However, in
Municipal waste collection systems during the pandemic.
Guyana, more than nine‐tenths (91.7%) of animals such as dogs, goats,
Variable Nigeria Guyana cows, pigs, and hens were evident. As observed, the record for pigs is
about 2.9% which is on the low end of the spectrum as with the other
Change in schedule Percentage (%) Percentage (%)
General observed changes 41.8 75.9 animals.
No observed changes 18.3 24.1 Furthermore, Table 8 shows the responses to the perception of
Undecided 39.9 – households on the possibility of exposure of livestock to the COVID‐
Specific routine changes 19 and also the likely transmission of the virus from animals to
No routine 30.4 81.0
Daily 1.8
humans at the neighbourhood level. In Nigeria, more than a half
Once per week 29.7 17.1 (56%) of the respondents averred that this is possible and slightly over
Twice weekly 1.1 0.5 two‐fifth (44%) of respondents were on the contrary. However, in
Once per month 12.8 0.9 Guyana, about 45.8% of respondents affirmed the possibilities of expo-
Twice per month 24.2 0.5
sure of livestock to the virus and subsequent animal to human trans-

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Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

Fig. 2. Household Waste Disposal Approaches since COVID-19.

Fig. 3. Concern for Solid Waste contamination during this Pandemic.

Table 6
Table 7
Special waste collection strategy for PPE at the household level.
Landfills/waste dump in the neighbourhood.
Variables Nigeria Guyana
Variable Nigeria Guyana
Special waste collection for PPE at household Percentage Percentage
Presence of landfill/waste dump in the neighbourhood Percentage Percentage
(%) (%)
(%) (%)
Agree 92.3 90.7
Present 30.4 27.8
Disagree 7.7 9.3
Absent 69.6 72.2
Separation strategy with various bins/ bags use for
Landfills/dump serving as a food bank for livestock,
various kinds of waste
animals/waste pickers
Agree 88.3 92.6
Yes 79.3 76.2
Disagree 11.7 7.4
No 20.7 23.8
The regularity of special waste collection
Animals present at the site
Daily 28.9 20.4
Dogs 13.9 Nil
Twice per week 31.9 38.9
Dogs, goat, cow, pig, and hen 61.5 91.7
Once a week 37.7 37.5
Pigs 8.7 2.9
Once a month 1.5 3.2
Birds 1.0 0.9
Rodents 11.5 Nil
Reptiles 1.0 Nil
Horse Nil 0.9
Scavengers 1.4 1.8
mission, while more than half (54.6%) were on the contrary. The All the above 1.0 1.8
result reveals a contrasting opinion of residents in the two countries Possibilities of the exposure of livestock to COVID-19 at
reviewed. However, it can be noted that the research about the novel landfills/dumps and the transmission to humans
coronavirus is still ongoing, hence residents might not be knowledge- Yes 56.0 45.4
No 44.0 54.6
able enough to ascertain the possibility of the virus as being transmis-

6
Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

Table 8 Detailed in Table 8 are the results of respondents’ opinions on who

Suggestions on how to tackle Livestock exposure to COVID 19 at landfills and takes the responsibility for securing landfills/dumpsites from contam-
subsequent transmission to man. ination with the pandemic. In Nigeria, about two‐fifths (43.2%) of
Variable Nigeria Guyana respondents opined that government agencies should take responsibil-
ity, about one‐fifth (18.8%) suggested collaborative efforts, 15.5% of
Percentage Percentage
(%) (%)
respondents suggested community, more than one‐tenth (13.1%)
Use of special garbage systems for affected or 2.1 2.0 opted for municipal authority, 8.5% suggested household and rela-
suspected cases tively few (0.9%) opted for public–private‐partnership (PPP). In
Relocation of waste to minimize impacts 2.1 2.0 Guyana, more than two‐fifths (43.8%) respondents suggested neigh-
Animals should be kept away from landfills by owners 4.1 2.0
bourhood and local democratic council, about two‐fifths (38.2%) sug-
Perimeter fencing of dump 2.1 5.8
Regulations about waste disposal and Animal control 89.6 88.2 gested government at the national, regional and local levels, about
Paying attention to livestock contamination and one‐tenth (9.4%) opined for collaborative efforts, and relatively
transmission of COVID-19 insignificant responses for environmental agencies and public health
Yes 61.7 69.5 ministries, community and household respectively. From the results
No 38.3 30.5
obtained in Nigeria, residents largely suggested that government agen-
Those to charge with the responsibility of securing
landfills/dumpsites against roaming cies (mainly at the state level) should take responsibility for securing
Households 8.5 1.6 landfills/dumps from contamination of COVID‐19, while in Guyana,
Community 15.5 3.1 it is the neighbourhood/local democratic councils that were the main
Municipal authority 13.1 43.8
suggestion. These two contrasting opinions reveal the present realities
Public-private partnership 0.9 3.9
Government agencies 43.2 38.2 on the management of municipal wastes in the two countries.
Collaborative efforts 18.8 9.4

3.4. Solid waste management approaches during COVID-19 pandemic

sible from animals to humans, and this might account for their
responses above. This mater on the possible transmission of COVID‐ The previous analysis considered the management of landfills/-
19 by animals, however, are well discussed in the international media dumps and the transmission of the virus from infected livestock feed-
and this remains a matter of concerns globally (Dolan, 2020; Hollings- ing at dumps. Residents opined that government agencies at the state
worth, 2020; Hong Kong Press Release, 2020; Krever & Picheta, 2020; (Nigeria) and local levels (Guyana) should be responsible for securing
Leroy, Grouilh, & Brugère‐Picoux, 2020; Maestro & Spary, 2020) landfills from such contamination. In this section, a broader view of
The results of respondents’ suggestions on management of livestock solid waste management during the pandemic was ascertained
exposure to COVID‐19 at landfills and transmission of the animal to through opinions from sampled respondents.
man was presented in Table 8. In Nigeria, a majority (89.6%) of the Detailed in Table 9 are the summarized results of the type of waste
surveyed respondents suggested legislation on waste disposal and ani- easily contaminated with COVID‐19. In Nigeria, more than nine‐tenths
mal control, about 4.1% opined that animals should be kept away from (94.8%) of respondents listed cans, glass, bottles, plastics, fabrics,
landfills by owners, about 2.1% respondents suggested the use of spe- bags, and newspapers are easily contaminated materials, while rela-
cial garbage systems for affected cases or relocation of waste to mini- tively few (4.1%) emphasized all types of wastes and biodegradable
mize impacts, and perimeter fencing respectively. Also, in Guyana, the material. Similarly, in Guyana, more than nine‐tenths also affirmed
majority (88.2%) of respondents suggested regulations about waste that drink cans, glass bottles, plastics, fabrics, bags, and newspapers
disposal and animal control legislation. About 5.8% suggested perime- are some likely contaminants, and slightly about 2.4% mentioned all
ter fencing, 2% suggested the use of special garbage systems for sus- types of waste. This observation is not surprising as it is well known
pected or affected cases, relocation of waste to minimize impacts, that coronavirus has active life spans varying between three hours to
and keeping away of animals from landfills by owners respectively. seven days on these types of materials (van Doremalen et al., 2020;
This result implies that residents in the two countries largely suggest Ye et al., 2016; Chin et al., 2020; Nghiem et al., 2020). The respon-
legislation on waste disposal and animal control. dents’ ability to identify the materials in Table 9 can be attributed to
In Table 8, respondents noted that there is the need to pay attention
to the obvious possibility that COVID‐19 can be transmitted from live-
Table 9
stock exposure at landfills to man. In Nigeria, about two‐thirds Waste materials contamination with COVID-19.
(61.7%) of surveyed respondents averred that there is a need to pay
attention to the transmission of COVID‐19 from animals to humans, Variable Nigeria Guyana

while about one third (38.3%) do not agree with this. Likewise, in Type of waste material easily contaminated Percentage Percentage
Guyana, more than two‐thirds (69.5%) also see the need to pay atten- (%) (%)
tion to the transmission of COVID‐19 from animals to man through Drink cans, glass bottles, plastics, fabrics, bags, and 94.8 95.7
newspaper
livestock exposure at landfills, while about one‐third (30.5%) do not
All and Biodegradable materials 4.1 2.4
agree to the need to focus attention on the transmission of the virus None 1.1 1.9
from animal exposure at landfills/dumps and subsequent transmission Awareness of waste collectors being trained to curtain the
to man. Although this debate on the animals to human transmission is spread of COVID-19
Aware 12.5 12.5
documented (Dolan, 2020; Hollingsworth, 2020; Hong Kong Press
Not aware 87.5 87.5
Release, 2020; Krever & Picheta, 2020; 2020; Leroy, Grouilh, & Waste bucket being decontaminated
Brugère‐Picoux, 2020; Maestro & Spary, 2020), the kind of relation- Agree 96.0 97.2
ship between human being and their pets should be of interest to Disagree 4.0 2.8
how this matter should be considered, especially if the pets are Who should drive the process
Government 14.0 11.9
allowed to roam in the communities unhindered. The wider publicity
Household 26.0 29.7
that the possibility of animals being infected with COVID‐19 may also Local government / Neighbourhood democratic 18.4 23.4
provoke violent reactions to pets, especially cats and dogs (e.g., Leroy, council [NDC]
Grouilh, & Brugère‐Picoux, 2020), hence the need to pay attention to Private companies 2.8 2.6
Collaborative efforts from all parties 38.8 32.3
this issue.

7
Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

the volumes of information on COVID‐19 spread circulating through two countries studied. In Nigeria, about two‐fifths (36.3%) of sampled
the media and public information services globally. respondents suggested waste recycling, about one‐tenth (10.4%)
respondents suggested community enlightenment, about 6.9% sug-
3.5. Awareness of household waste/quarantine facilities suspected with gested air pollution and management of hazardous waste, and gener-
COVID-19 ally on the three R’s (reduce, re‐use and recycling) of waste
management respectively. Similarly, in Guyana, about two‐fifths
For countries significantly affected by COVID‐19, home isolation (37%) of participants suggested waste recycling as an area of further
and temporary quarantine facilities are the most adopted practices research, about one‐fifth (18.5% suggested waste segregation. Some
by countries to contain those infected and as such, allow hospital other areas of research suggested for Guyana are the three “Rs”, sepa-
rooms /wards be prioritised to patients with severe cases. (Nghiem ration of medical waste from residential waste among many others.
et al., 2020). Documented in Table 10 were respondents’ level of These suggestions are indications that the documented poor and
awareness of household waste/quarantine facilities suspected with improper waste management for the developing countries (World
the virus. In Nigeria, only about 15% of respondents were aware of Bank, 2019) should be given proper consideration by the thinkers
household waste/quarantine facilities for those suspected with the and policymakers. The responses from the households are, therefore,
virus, while a majority (85%) were not aware of such. Likewise, in another reason why the waste management sector in the two sampled
Guyana, only slightly above one‐tenth (12.5%) of sampled respondents countries should be given the utmost attention if the curbing of
were aware of household waste/ quarantine facilities suspected with COVID‐19 or other contaminable diseases can be effectively addressed.
the virus, while a majority (87.5%) of respondents were not aware The analysis in Table 11 also shows respondents’ opinions on the
of household waste/quarantine facilities suspected with the virus. need to review waste management policies in the two countries. In
The understanding that can be drawn from the survey is that most res- Nigeria, more than nine‐tenths (90.5%) of sampled respondents agreed
idents were not aware of household waste/quarantine facilities of on the need to review the country’s waste management policies and
those infected with COVID‐19. This lack of awareness may be as a plans, while about one‐tenth (9.5%) of respondents did not agree to
result of guilt, shame or reproach almost associated with any contam- this. It is important to note that waste management policies in Nigeria
inable diseases (Abraham et al., 2020; Ansari, Grier, & Byers, 2020; are formulated at the federal and state levels, but implementation is
Manson, 2020; Conway III, Woodard, Zubrod, & Chan, 2020; done at the local levels. Most state governments in Nigeria create a
Costello et al., 2020) state‐wide agency in managing waste. However, due to the capital‐
Table 10 also shows respondents’ perception of the treatment of intensive nature and technical requirement needed for effective waste
contaminated waste. In Nigeria, the majority of households do not management, most local government areas in Nigeria could not carry
have an idea of how contaminated waste can be treated, about any implementation agenda and often depend on efforts initiated by
12.7% suggested burning, 8.1% opined for disinfection and fumigation their respective state government. In Guyana, more than nine‐tenths
and a relatively few other options were itemized. In Guyana, a major- (96.8%) respondents agreed that there is a need to review waste man-
ity (85%) of respondents do not have an idea and 2.7% of respondents agement policies in Guyana, while, relatively about 3.2% of respon-
opined for burning. dents did not agree on the need to review waste management
policies in the country. Waste management in Guyana is often coordi-
3.6. Nexus for potential research on waste management nated at the neighbourhood/local levels. It can be averred that resi-
dents in the two countries would prefer a review of their waste
A limitation of our study is that it relied on responses provided by management policies in the light of the present pandemic challenge.
household members and did not fully observe the waste management The inter‐relations of the pandemic with waste management calls for
practices in the two countries. However, these responses have pro- a need to critically examine its nexus to waste management so as to
vided the perspectives and useful insights into solid waste manage- curtail the spread of the virus through effective strategies when
ment practices and concerns during the ongoing COVID‐19 devised. Waste remains a serious environmental and human health
pandemic. This study from household respondents identified the dif- problems in developing countries (Um et al., 2018; World Bank,
ferent sections of waste management in the era COVID‐19 that can 2019; Margallo et al., 2019). The COVID‐19 pandemic has created
be considered as areas of urgent research. Table 11 provides sugges- the urgency for the needed attention that this sector deserves in the
tions on areas of further research as conceived by residents in the

Table 11
Table 10 Suggestions on areas of further research in Waste Management.
Awareness of household waste/quarantine facilities suspected or infected with
COVID-19. Variable Nigeria Guyana

Variable Nigeria Guyana Respondents recommended of waste research Percentage Percentage

(%) (%)
If residents were aware of household waste and Percentage Percentage Contamination of water supplies and patient Nil 3.7
quarantine facilities suspected with COVID-19 (%) (%) mapping strategy
treated specially Plans for re-opening of business Nil 3.7
Aware 15.0 12.5 Waste recycling 36.3 37.0
Not aware 85.0 87.5 The three Rs 6.9 5.6
Treatment of suspected contaminated waste with Waste segregation 6.0 18.5
COVID-19 Separating medical waste from residential waste 6.0 3.7
Burning 12.7 2.7 Effective waste management 3.4 1.9
Dumping Nil 1.1 Air pollution & management of hazardous waste 6.9 3.7
Don’t know 74.6 85.0 E-waste and COVID-19 2.6 3.7
Disposal at landfill Nil 1.6 Medical waste research 4.3 Nil
Incinerating Nil 2.1 Community Enlightenment 10.4 Nil
Disinfection and fumigation 8.1 Nil Others 17.2 18.5
Taking precautions with disposal or burning 1.0 3.2 Need to review the waste plan, policy, and practices in
with chemicals Nigeria
Similarly, like other uncontaminated waste 1.0 1.6 Agree 90.5 96.8
Separated, quarantine and treated differently 2.5 2.7 Disagree 9.5 3.2

8
Temitope D. Timothy Oyedotun et al. Research in Globalization 2 (2020) 100033

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