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ISRO
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO
Indian Space Research
/ˈɪsroʊ/)[a] is India's national space agency. It serves
Organisation
as the principal research and development arm of the
Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Bhāratīya Aṃtarikṣa Anusaṃdhāna
Minister of India, with the Chairman of ISRO also Saṃgaṭhana
serving as the chief executive of the DoS. It is
primarily responsible for space-based operations,
space exploration, international space cooperation
and the development of related technologies.[3] The
agency maintains a constellation of imaging,
communication and remote sensing satellites. It
operates the GAGAN and IRNSS satellite navigation
systems. It has sent three missions to the Moon and
one mission to Mars.

Formerly known as the Indian National Committee for

Space Research (INCOSPAR), it was set up in 1962 by
then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the
recommendation of scientist Vikram Sarabhai. It was
renamed as ISRO in 1969 and was subsumed into the
ISRO Headquarters at Bengaluru
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).[4] The
establishment of ISRO institutionalised space research Agency overview
activities in India.[5][6] In 1972, the Government set up Formed 15 August 1969
a Space Commission and the DoS, bringing ISRO Preceding INCOSPAR (1962–1969)
under its purview. It has since then been managed by agency
the DoS, which also governs various other institutions
Type Government space agency
in the domain of astronomy and space technology.[7]
Jurisdiction Department of Space
ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was Headquarters Bengaluru, Karnataka
launched by the Soviet space agency Interkosmos in 13°2′7″N 77°34′16″E
1975.[8] In 1980, it launched the satellite RS-1 onboard Chairman S. Somanath
SLV-3, making India the seventh country to undertake
Primary Satish Dhawan Space
orbital launches. It has subsequently developed
spaceports Centre
various small-lift and medium-lift launch vehicles,
enabling the agency to launch various satellites and Thumba Equatorial Rocket
deep space missions. It is one of the six government Launching Station
space agencies in the world that possess full launch Kulasekarapattinam
capabilities with the ability to deploy cryogenic Spaceport
engines, launch extraterrestrial missions and artificial Owner Government of India
satellites.[9][10][b] It is also one of only four
Employees 19,247 (as on 1 March
governmental space agencies in to have demonstrated
2022)[1]
unmanned soft landing capabilities.[11][c]

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ISRO's programmes have played a significant role in Annual budget ₹13,042 crore
the socio-economic development. It has supported (US$1.6 billion) (2024-
both civilian and military domains in various aspects 2025)[2]
such as disaster management, telemedicine, Website www.isro.gov.in (https://www.
navigation and reconnaissance. ISRO's spin-off isro.gov.in/)
technologies have also aided in new innovations in
engineering and other allied domains.[12]

History

Formative years
Modern space research in India can be traced to the 1920s, when scientist S. K. Mitra conducted a
series of experiments sounding the ionosphere through ground-based radio in Kolkata.[13] Later,
Indian scientists like C.V. Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable
in space sciences.[13] After 1945, important developments were made in coordinated space research
in India[13] by two scientists: Vikram Sarabhai, founder of the Physical Research Laboratory at
Ahmedabad, and Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research in
1945.[13] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high-altitude
and airborne testing, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of the deepest
mining sites in the world—and studies of the upper atmosphere.[14] These studies were done at
research laboratories, universities, and independent locations.[14][15]

In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was founded with Bhabha as its secretary.[15] It
provided funding for space research throughout India.[16] During this time, tests continued on
aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that had been studied in India since
the establishment of the Colaba Observatory in 1823. In 1954, the Aryabhatta Research Institute of
Observational Sciences (ARIES) was established in the foothills of the Himalayas.[15] The Rangpur
Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University, Hyderabad. Space research was further
encouraged by the government of India.[16] In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 and
opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[16]

The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the suggestion of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.[6] Initially there was no
dedicated ministry for the space programme and all activities of INCOSPAR relating to space
technology continued to function within the DAE.[17][5] IOFS officers were drawn from the Indian
Ordnance Factories to harness their knowledge of propellants and advanced light materials used to
build rockets.[18] H.G.S. Murthy, an IOFS officer, was appointed the first director of the Thumba
Equatorial Rocket Launching Station,[19] where sounding rockets were fired, marking the start of
upper atmospheric research in India.[20] An indigenous series of sounding rockets named Rohini
was subsequently developed and started undergoing launches from 1967 onwards.[21] Waman
Dattatreya Patwardhan, another IOFS officer, developed the propellant for the rockets.

1970's and 1980's

Under the government of Indira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a space
commission and Department of Space (DoS) were set up to oversee space technology development
in India specifically. ISRO was brought under DoS, institutionalising space research in India and

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forging the Indian space programme into its existing form.[5][7] India joined the Soviet Interkosmos
programme for space cooperation[22] and got its first satellite Aryabhatta in orbit through a Soviet
rocket.[8]

Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle began after mastering sounding rocket technology. The
concept was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity for a mass of 35 kg (77 lb)
to enter low Earth orbit. It took 7 years for ISRO to develop Satellite Launch Vehicle capable of
putting 40 kg (88 lb) into a 400-kilometre (250 mi) orbit. An SLV Launch Pad, ground stations,
tracking networks, radars and other communications were set up for a launch campaign. The SLV's
first launch in 1979 carried a Rohini technology payload but could not inject the satellite into its
desired orbit. It was followed by a successful launch in 1980 carrying a Rohini Series-I satellite,
making India the seventh country to reach Earth's orbit after the USSR, the US, France, the UK,
China and Japan. RS-1 was the third Indian satellite to reach orbit as Bhaskara had been launched
from the USSR in 1979. Efforts to develop a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of putting 600-
kilogram (1,300 lb) class spacecrafts into 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Sun-synchronous orbit had
already begun in 1978.[23] They would later lead to the development of the Polar Satellite Launch
Vehicle (PSLV).[24] The SLV-3 later had two more launches before discontinuation in 1983.[25]
ISRO's Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) was set up in 1985 and started working on a more
powerful engine, Vikas, based upon the French Viking.[26] Two years later, facilities to test liquid-
fuelled rocket engines were established and development and testing of various rocket engines
thrusters began.[27]

At the same time, another solid-fuelled rocket, the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV),
whose design was based upon SLV-3 was being developed, with technologies to launch satellites into
geostationary orbit (GTO). The ASLV had limited success and multiple launch failures; it was soon
discontinued.[28] Alongside these developments, communication satellite technologies for the
Indian National Satellite System[29] and the Indian Remote Sensing Programme for earth
observation satellites[30] were developed and launches from overseas were initiated. The number of
satellites eventually grew and the systems were established as among the largest satellite
constellations in the world, with multi-band communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and
meteorological satellites.[31]

1990s
The arrival of the PSLV in 1990s was a major boost for the Indian space programme. With the
exception of its first flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, the PSLV had a streak of more than
50 successful flights. The PSLV enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites, small
payloads to GTO and hundreds of foreign satellites.[32] Along with the PSLV flights, development of
a new rocket, a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was going on. India tried to obtain
upper-stage cryogenic engines from Russia's Glavkosmos but was blocked by the US from doing so.
As a result, KVD-1 engines were imported from Russia under a new agreement which had limited
success[33] and a project to develop indigenous cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, taking
two decades to reach fulfillment.[34] A new agreement was signed with Russia for seven KVD-1
cryogenic stages and a ground mock-up stage with no technology transfer, instead of five cryogenic
stages along with the technology and design in the earlier agreement.[35] These engines were used
for the initial flights and were named GSLV Mk.1.[36] ISRO was under US government sanctions
between 6 May 1992 to 6 May 1994.[37] After the United States refused to help India with Global

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Positioning System (GPS) technology during the Kargil war, ISRO was prompted to develop its own
satellite navigation system IRNSS (now NaVIC i.e. Navigation with Indian Constellation) which it is
now expanding further.[38]

21st century
In 2003, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to develop technologies to land
humans on the Moon[39] and programmes for lunar, planetary and crewed missions were started.
ISRO launched Chandrayaan-1 in 2008, purportedly the first probe to verify the presence of water
on the Moon,[40] and the Mars Orbiter Mission in 2013, the first Asian spacecraft to enter Martian
orbit, making India the first country to succeed at this on its first attempt.[41] Subsequently, the
cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket became operational, making India the sixth country to have
full launch capabilities.[42] A new heavier-lift launcher LVM3 was introduced in 2014 for heavier
satellites and future human space missions.[43]

On 23 August 2023, India achieved its first soft landing on an extraterrestrial body and became the
first nation to successfully land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole and fourth nation to
successfully land a spacecraft on Moon with ISRO's Chandrayaan-3, the third Moon mission.[44]
Indian moon mission, Chandrayaan-3 (translated as "mooncraft" in English), saw the successful soft
landing of its Vikram lander at 6.04pm IST (1234 GMT) near the little-explored region of the Moon
in a world's first for any space programme.[45] India then successfully launched its first sun probe,
the Aditya-L1, aboard a PSLV on September 2.[46][47]

Agency logo
ISRO did not have an official logo until 2002. The one adopted consists of an orange arrow shooting
upwards attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with the name of ISRO written in two sets
of text, orange-coloured Devanagari on the left and blue-coloured English in the Prakrta typeface on
the right.[48][49]

Goals and objectives

As the national space agency of India, ISRO's purpose is the pursuit of
all space-based applications such as research, reconnaissance, and
communications. It undertakes the design and development of space
rockets and satellites, and undertakes explores upper atmosphere and
deep space exploration missions. ISRO has also incubated
technologies in India's private space sector, boosting its growth.[50][51]

On the topic of the importance of a space programme to India as a

developing nation, Vikram Sarabhai as INSCOPAR chair said in
1969:[52][53][54]

To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the

fantasy of competing with the economically advanced nations Vikram Sarabhai, first
in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned chairperson of INCOSPAR,
space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a ISRO's predecessor
meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, organization
we must be second to none in the application of advanced
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technologies to the real problems of man and society, which we fin

should note that the application of sophisticated technologies an
our problems is not to be confused with embarking on grandiose
impact is for show rather than for progress measured in hard econo

The former president of India and chairman of DRDO, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:[55]

Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a
newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its population. But neither
Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity of purpose. Their vision was
very clear: if Indians were to play a meaningful role in the community of nations, they must
be second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems.
They had no intention of using it merely as a means of displaying our might.

India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the country
aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[56] In 2008, India launched as many as
11 satellites, including nine from other countries, and went on to become the first nation to launch
10 satellites on one rocket.[56] ISRO has put into operation two major satellite systems: the Indian
National Satellite System (INSAT) for communication services, and the Indian Remote Sensing
Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.[29][31]

Organisation structure and facilities

ISRO is managed by the DOS, which itself falls under
the authority of the Space Commission and manages
the following agencies and institutes:[57][58][59]

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO,
Bengaluru
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory
(NARL), Gadanki, Andhra Pradesh
NewSpace India Limited – Commercial wing, The organisational structure of the Indian
Bengaluru Department of Space
North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[60] (NE-
SAC), Umiam

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Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's space
university

Research facilities

Facility Location Description

The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue
Vikram Sarabhai for development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[61] The base
Thiruvananthapuram
Space Centre supports TERLS and the Rohini Sounding Rocket programme.[61] It is
also developing the GSLV series.[61]
The LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation of
liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines for
Liquid Propulsion Thiruvananthapuram launch vehicles and satellites.[61] The testing of these systems is largely
Systems Centre and Bengaluru
conducted at IPRC at Mahendragiri.[61] The LPSC, Bengaluru also
produces precision transducers.[62]
Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics, plasma
Physical physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some of the
Research Ahmedabad
branches of study at this institute.;[61] it also operates the observatory at
Laboratory
Udaipur.[61]
National
Atmospheric The NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in atmospheric
Tirupati
Research and space sciences.[63]
Laboratory

The SAC deals with the various aspects of the practical use of space
technology.[61] Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy,
Space satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing,
Applications Ahmedabad meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[61] The SAC also operates the
Centre Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for
demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal
SATCOM operations.[64]
North-Eastern Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking specific
Space application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite communication
Shillong
Applications
Centre and conducting space science research.[65]

Test facilities

Facility Location Description

Formerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It
ISRO Propulsion handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid
Mahendragiri
Complex
engines, and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[61]

Construction and launch facilities

Facility Location Description

The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the

main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue
U R Rao Satellite for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[61] The satellites
Bengaluru
Centre Aaryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were built at this site, and
the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development
here. This centre was formerly known as ISRO Satellite Centre.[62]
Laboratory for Bengaluru The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors for
Electro-Optics all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and payloads in

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Systems all ISRO satellites are developed at this laboratory, located at Peenya
Industrial Estate, Bengaluru.

With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a launching

site for India's satellites.[61] The Sriharikota facility is also the main
launch base for India's sounding rockets.[62] The centre is also home to
Satish Dhawan India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant (SPROB) and
Sriharikota
Space Centre houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex (STEX).[62] The Second
Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at Sriharikota is being realised as an
additional integration facility, with suitable interfacing to a second launch
pad.[66][67]
Thumba
Equatorial Rocket Thiruvananthapuram TERLS is used to launch sounding rockets.[68]
Launching Station

Tracking and control facilities

Facility Location Description

Indian Deep This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft
Space Network Bengaluru health data and payload data in real-time. It can track and monitor satellites
(IDSN) up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon.[69]
The NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study
National Remote aerial surveying.[61] With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has
Hyderabad
Sensing Centre training facilities at Dehradun acting as the Indian Institute of Remote
Sensing.[61]

Bengaluru
(headquarters)
ISRO Telemetry, and a number Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and Command
Tracking and of ground (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[61] ISTRAC has Tracking
Command stations stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port Louis
Network throughout (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.[70]
India and the
world.[64]
Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit operations
Master Control Bhopal; are performed at this facility.[71] The MCF has Earth stations and the Satellite
Facility Hassan Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[71] A second MCF-like facility
named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at Bhopal.[71]
A network of telescopes and radars are being set up under the Directorate of
Space Situational Awareness and Management to monitor space debris and
Space Situational to safeguard space-based assets. The new facility will end ISRO's
Peenya, dependence on NORAD. The sophisticated multi-object tracking radar
Awareness
Bengaluru installed in Nellore, a radar in Northeast India and telescopes in
Control Centre
Thiruvananthapuram, Mount Abu and North India will be part of this
network.[72][73]

Human resource development

Facility Location Description

The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) is a premier training and

educational institute set up for developing trained professionals (P.G.
and PhD level) in the field of remote sensing, geoinformatics and GPS
Indian Institute of technology for natural resources, environmental and disaster
Remote Sensing Dehradun management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on remote
(IIRS) sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs various
outreach programmes (Live & Interactive and e-learning) to build
trained skilled human resources in the field of remote sensing and
geospatial technologies.[74]

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Indian Institute of The institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in Aerospace
Space Science Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering (Avionics),
Thiruvananthapuram and Engineering Physics. The students of the first three batches of IIST
and Technology
(IIST) were inducted into different ISRO centres.[75]
The centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in
Development and conjunction with the INSAT programme.[61] The main activities carried
Educational
Communication
Ahmedabad out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[62] The Training
Unit and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls under the
operational control of the DECU.[64]
Space Technology
Incubation
Centres (S-TICs)
at:

Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar
National
Institute of
Technology
Jalandhar
Maulana Azad The S-TICs opened at premier technical universities in India to promote
National startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry
Institute of Jalandhar, Bhopal, and would be used for future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the
Technology Agartala, Rourkela, industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards
Nagpur research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian
National
Institute of Space Programme.[78]
Technology
Agartala
National
Institute of
Technology,
Rourkela[76]
Visvesvaraya
National
Institute of
Technology[77]

In line with its ongoing effort to promote R&D in space technology

Space Innovation through industry as well as academia, ISRO in collaboration with Veer
Centre at: Surendra Sai University of Technology (VSSUT), Burla, Sambalpur,
Odisha, has set up Veer Surendra Sai Space Innovation Centre
Veer Surendra Burla, Sambalpur (VSSSIC) within its campus at Sambalpur. The objective of its Space
Sai University Innovation Research Lab is to promote and encourage the students in
of Technology research and development in the area of space science and technology
at VSSUT and other institutes within this region.[79][80]

Regional Varanasi, Guwahati, All these centres are set up in tier-2 cities to create awareness,
Academy Centre Kurukshetra, Jaipur, strengthen academic collaboration and act as incubators for space
for Space (RAC- Mangaluru, Patna technology, space science and space applications. The activities of
S) at: RAC-S will maximise the use of research potential, infrastructure,
expertise, experience and facilitate capacity building.
Banaras Hindu
University
Gauhati
University
Kurukshetra
University
Malaviya
National
Institute of
Technology
National
Institute of
Technology
Karnataka

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National
Institute of
Technology
Patna
Indian Institute
of Technology
(BHU)
Varanasi[81]

Antrix Corporation Limited (Commercial Wing)

Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and technology
developed by ISRO.[82][83]

NewSpace India Limited (Commercial Wing)

Set up for marketing spin-off technologies, tech transfers through industry interface and scale up
industry participation in the space programmes.[84]

Space Technology Incubation Centre

ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical universities in
India which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem with the industry
and for use in future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under
one umbrella to contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives relevant to the
Indian Space Programme. S-TICs are at the National Institute of Technology, Agartala serving for
east region, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar for the north region, and the National
Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the south region of India.[78]

Advanced Space Research Group

Similar to NASA's CalTech-operated Jet Propulsion Laboratory, ISRO and the Indian Institute of
Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented a joint working framework in 2021, wherein
ISRO will approve all short-, medium- and long-term space research projects of common interest
between the two. In return, an Advanced Space Research Group (ASRG) formed at IIST under the
guidance of the EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. This was done with the aim of
"transforming" the IIST into a premier space research and engineering institute with the capability
of leading future space exploration missions for ISRO.[85][86]

Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management

To reduce dependency on North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for space
situational awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up telescopes and
radars in four locations to cover each direction. Leh, Mount Abu and Ponmudi were selected to
station the telescopes and radars that will cover North, West and South of Indian territory. The last
one will be in Northeast India to cover the entire eastern region. Satish Dhawan Space Centre at
Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object Tracking Radar (MOTR).[87] All the telescopes and radars
will come under Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in
Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive satellites and will also perform research on active
debris removal, space debris modelling and mitigation.[88]

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For early warning, ISRO began a ₹400 crore (4 billion; US$53 million) project called Network for
Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA). It will help the country track atmospheric entry,
intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), anti-satellite weapon and other space-based attacks. All
the radars and telescopes will be connected through NETRA. The system will support remote and
scheduled operations. NETRA will follow the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
(IASDCC) and United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOSA) guidelines. The objective of
NETRA is to track objects at a distance of 36,000 kilometres (22,000 mi) in GTO.[72][89]

India signed a memorandum of understanding on the Space Situational Awareness Data Sharing
Pact with the US in April 2022.[90][91] It will enable Department of Space to collaborate with the
Combined Space Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space-based assets of both nations from
natural and man-made threats.[92] On 11 July 2022, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space
Operations Management (IS4OM) at Space Situational Awareness Control Centre, in Peenya was
inaugurated by Jitender Singh. It will help provide information on on-orbit collision, fragmentation,
atmospheric re-entry risk, space-based strategic information, hazardous asteroids, and space
weather forecast. IS4OM will safeguard all the operational space assets, identify and monitor other
operational spacecraft with close approaches which have overpasses over Indian subcontinent and
those which conduct intentional manoeuvres with suspicious motives or seek re-entry within South
Asia.[93]

ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management

On 7 March 2023, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM)
conducted successful controlled re-entry of decommissioned satellite Megha-Tropiques after firing
four on-board 11 Newton thrusters for 20 minutes each. A series of 20 manoeuvres were performed
since August 2022 by spending 120 kg fuel. The final telemetry data confirmed disintegtration over
Pacific Ocean. It was part of a compliance effort following international guidelines on space debris
mitigation.[94]

Speaking at the 42nd annual meeting of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
(IADC) in Bengaluru, S. Somanath stated that the long-term goal is for all Indian space actors—both
governmental and non-governmental—to accomplish debris-free space missions by 2030.[95]

Other facilities
Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Balasore
Bhaskaracharya Institute For Space Applications and Geo-Informatics (BISAG), Gandhinagar
Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bengaluru
Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)
Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)
Integrated Space Cell
Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)
ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram
Master Control Facility
National Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)
Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)

General satellite programmes

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Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975,[8] a number of satellite

series and constellations have been deployed by Indian and
foreign launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest
constellations of active communication and earth imaging
satellites for military and civilian uses.[31]

The IRS series

The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are India's earth
observation satellites. They are the largest collection of remote
sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today, providing
remote sensing services.[31] All the satellites are placed in polar INSAT-1B
Sun-synchronous orbit (except GISATs) and provide data in a
variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to enable
several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial versions are
composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature while the later versions were divided into sub-classes
named based on their functioning and uses including Oceansat, Cartosat, HySIS, EMISAT and
ResourceSat etc. Their names were unified under the prefix "EOS" regardless of functioning in
2020.[96] They support a wide range of applications including optical, radar and electronic
reconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning, oceanography and environmental studies.[31]

The INSAT series

The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is the country's
telecommunication system. It is a series of multipurpose
geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the
telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-
rescue needs. Since the introduction of the first one in 1983,
INSAT has become the largest domestic communication system
in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of DOS, the
Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological
INSAT-1B satellite: The Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall
broadcasting sector in India is highly coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the
dependent on INSAT system. Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.[29] The
nomenclature of the series was changed to "GSAT" from
"INSAT", then further changed to "CMS" from 2020 onwards.[97]
These satellites have been used by the Indian Armed Forces as well.[98][99] GSAT-9 or "SAARC
Satellite" provides communication services for India's smaller neighbors.[100]

Gagan Satellite Navigation System

The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based Regional GPS
Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System (SBAS) as part of the
Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management plan for civil
aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given the acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO
Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite navigation including implementation of a
Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over Indian airspace as a proof of concept has been

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prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India and ISRO. The TDS was completed during 2007 with
the installation of eight Indian Reference Stations at different airports linked to the Master Control
Centre located near Bengaluru.[101]

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC)

IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system
developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in India
as well as the region extending up to 1,500 km (930 mi) from its borders, which is its primary service
area. IRNSS provides two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) and
Restricted Service (RS), providing a position accuracy of better than 20 m (66 ft) in the primary
service area.[102]

Other satellites
Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite.[103][104] Indo-French
satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a cooperative
altimetry technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea levels. AltiKa
measures ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm (0.31 in), compared to 2.5 cm
(0.98 in) on average using altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of 2 km (1.2 mi).[105][106]

Launch vehicles
During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own
launch vehicles owing to geopolitical and economic
considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country
developed a sounding rocket, and by the 1980s,
research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3
and the more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch
Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational
supporting infrastructure.[107]

Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was
the first space rocket to be developed by India. The
initial launch in 1979 was a failure followed by a Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to right:
successful launch in 1980 making India the sixth SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, LVM3
country in world with orbital launch capability. The
development of bigger rockets began afterwards.[24]

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

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Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was

another small launch vehicle released in 1980s to develop
technologies required to place satellites into geostationary orbit.
ISRO did not have adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at
once. Since ASLV suffered repeated failures, it was dropped in
favour of a new project.[108][28]

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the first medium-lift
launch vehicle from India which enabled India to launch all its
remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV had
a failure in its maiden launch in 1993. Besides two other partial
failures, PSLV has become the primary workhorse for ISRO with
more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and foreign
satellites into orbit.[32]
Stamp depicting SLV-3 D1 carrying
Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches: RS-D1 satellite to orbit

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

1990s 3 1 1 5

2000s 11 0 0 11
2010s 33 0 1 34

2020s 10 0 0 10

Total 57 1 2 60

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle was envisaged in
1990s to transfer significant payloads to geostationary orbit.
ISRO initially had a great problem realising GSLV as the
development of CE-7.5 in India took a decade. The US had
blocked India from obtaining cryogenic technology from Russia,
leading India to develop its own cryogenic engines.[33]
PSLV-C11 lifts off carrying
Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches: Chandrayaan-1, first Indian mission
to the moon.
Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2000s 2 2 1 5

2010s 6 0 2 8
2020s 2 0 1 3

Total 10 2 4 16

Launch Vehicle Mark-3

Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3), previously known as GSLV Mk III, is the heaviest rocket in
operational service with ISRO. Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and boosters than
GSLV, it has significantly higher payload capacity and allows India to launch all its communication
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satellites.[109]
LVM3 is expected to carry India's first crewed
mission to space[110] and will be the testbed for SCE-200 engine
which will power India's heavy-lift rockets in the future.[111]

Decade-wise summary of LVM3 launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2010s 4 0 0 4[112]

2020s 3 0 0 3[113]
Total 7 0 0 7

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a small-lift
launch vehicle developed by the ISRO with payload capacity to
deliver 500 kg (1,100 lb) to low Earth orbit (500 km (310 mi)) or
GSLV-F08 launches GSAT-6A into
300 kg (660 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit (500 km (310 mi))[114] geostationary transfer orbit (2018).
for launching small satellites, with the capability to support
multiple orbital drop-offs.[115][116][117]

Decade-wise summary of SSLV launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2020s 2 0 1 3

Rohini Sounding Rockets

Rohini is a series of sounding rockets developed by the Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO)[118] for meteorological and
atmospheric study. These sounding rockets are capable of
carrying payloads of 2 to 200 kilograms (4.4 to 440.9 lb)
between altitudes of 100 to 500 kilometres (62 to 311 mi).[119]
The ISRO currently uses RH-200, RH-300,Mk-II, RH-560 Mk-II
and RH-560 Mk-III rockets, which are launched from the
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in
LVM3 M4 lifting off from SDSC SLP,
Thumba and the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.
carrying Chandrayaan-3 (2023)

Human Spaceflight Programme

The first proposal to send humans into space was discussed by ISRO in 2006, leading to work on the
required infrastructure and spacecraft.[120][121] The trials for crewed space missions began in 2007
with the 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE), launched using the
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth 12 days later.[122]

In 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a budget of ₹124 billion (equivalent to
₹310 billion or US$3.7 billion in 2023) for its human spaceflight programme. An unmanned
demonstration flight was expected after seven years from the final approval and a crewed mission
was to be launched after seven years of funding.[123] A crewed mission initially was not a priority
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and left on the backburner for severalyears.[124]A space capsule

recovery experiment in 2014 [125][126] and a pad abort test in
2018[127] were followed by Prime Minister Narendra Modi's
announcement in his 2018 Independence Day address that India
will send astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan
spacecraft.[128] To date, ISRO has developed most of the
technologies needed, such as the crew module and crew escape
system, space food, and life support systems. The project would
cost less than ₹100 billion (US$1.3 billion) and would include
sending two or three Indians to space, at an altitude of 300–
400 km (190–250 mi), for at least seven days, using a GSLV Mk-
III launch vehicle.[129][130]

Astronaut training and other facilities

The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will
coordinate the IHSF campaign.[131][59] ISRO will set up an SSLV D1 lifting off from SDSC FLP
astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare personnel for
flights in the crewed vehicle. It will use simulation facilities to
train the selected astronauts in rescue and recovery operations
and survival in microgravity, and will undertake studies of the
radiation environment of space. ISRO had to build centrifuges to
prepare astronauts for the acceleration phase of the launch.
Existing launch facilities at Satish Dhawan Space Centre will
have to be upgraded for the Indian human spaceflight
campaign.[132] Human Space Flight Centre and Glavcosmos Rohini rocket family
signed an agreement on 1 July 2019 for the selection, support,
medical examination and space training of Indian
astronauts.[133] An ISRO Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) was to be set up in Moscow to facilitate the
development of some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to
support life in space.[134] Four Indian Air Force personnel finished training at Yuri Gagarin
Cosmonaut Training Center in March 2021.[135]

Crewed spacecraft
ISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in low Earth
orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan, will be the basis of the Indian Human Spaceflight
Programme. The spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a planned upgraded
version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its first crewed mission,
ISRO's largely autonomous 3-tonne (3.3-short-ton; 3.0-long-ton) spacecraft will orbit the Earth at
400 km (250 mi) altitude for up to seven days with a two-person crew on board. A source in April
2023 suggested that ISRO was aiming for a 2025 launch.[136]

Space station
India plans to build a space station as a follow-up programme to Gaganyaan. ISRO chairman K.
Sivan has said that India will not join the International Space Station programme and will instead
build a 20-tonne (22-short-ton; 20-long-ton) space station on its own.[137][138] It is expected to be
placed in a low Earth orbit at 400 kilometres (250 mi) altitude and be capable of harbouring three
humans for 15–20 days. The rough time-frame is five to seven years after completion of the
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Gaganyaan project.[139][140]
"Giving out broad contours of the planned space station, Dr. Sivan said
it has been envisaged to weigh 20 tonnes and will be placed in an orbit of 400 km above earth where
astronauts can stay for 15-20 days. The time frame is 5-7 years after Gaganyaan," he stated.[141]

As per S. Somanath, the Phase1 will be ready by 2028 and the entire space station will be completed
by 2035. The space station will be an international platform for collaborative research on future
interplanetary missions, microgravity studies, space biology, medicine and research.[142]

Planetary sciences and astronomy

ISRO and Tata Institute of Fundamental Research have operated a balloon launch base at
Hyderabad since 1967.[143] Its proximity to the geo-magnetic equator,[144] where both primary and
secondary cosmic ray fluxes are low, makes it an ideal location to study diffuse cosmic X-ray
background.[143]

ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at an
altitude between 20–40 km (12–25 mi). The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet radiation, are
not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are extraterrestrial in
origin.[145] They are considered extremophiles, and named as Bacillus isronensis in recognition of
ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after
India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished
astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[146]

Astrosat
Launched in 2015, Astrosat is India's first dedicated multi-
wavelength space observatory. Its observation study includes
active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars,
binary star systems, and supermassive black holes located at the
centre of the galaxy.[147]

XPoSat Astrosat-1 in deployed configuration

The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a satellite for
studying polarisation.[148][149] The spacecraft carries the
Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX) payload which will
study the degree and angle of polarisation of bright astronomical
X-ray sources in the energy range 5–30 keV.[150] It launched on 1
January 2024 on a PSLV-DL rocket,[151] and it has an expected
operational lifespan of at least five years.[149][152]

XPoSat
Extraterrestrial exploration

Lunar exploration

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Chandryaan (lit. 'Mooncraft') are India's series of lunar exploration spacecraft. The initial mission
included an orbiter and controlled impact probe while later missions include landers, rovers and
sampling missions.[111][153]

Chandrayaan-1

Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The

robotic lunar exploration mission included a lunar orbiter and an
impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched it using
a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish
Dhawan Space Centre. It entered lunar orbit on 8 November
2008, carrying high-resolution remote sensing equipment for
visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies.
During its 312-day operational period (two years were planned), Rendering of Chandrayaan-1
it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a complete map of its spacecraft
chemical characteristics and three-dimensional topography. The
polar regions were of special interest, as they had possible ice
deposits. Chandrayaan-1 carried 11 instruments: five Indian and six from foreign institutes and
space agencies (including NASA, ESA, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and
other European and North American institutions and companies), which were carried for free. The
mission team was awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009
award,[154] the International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award
in 2008,[155] and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and
engineering category.[156][157]

Chandrayaan-2

Chandrayaan-2, the second mission to the Moon, which included

an orbiter, a lander and a rover. It was launched on a
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk
III) on 22 July 2019, consisting of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram
lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover, all developed in
India.[158][159] It was the first mission meant to explore the little-
explored lunar south pole region.[160] The objective of the
Chandrayaan-2 mission was to land a robotic rover to conduct
various studies on the lunar surface.[161]

The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover, was scheduled

to land on the near side of the Moon, in the south polar region at
a latitude of about 70° S at approximately 1:50 am(IST) on 7
September 2019. However, the lander deviated from its intended
trajectory starting from an altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi), and
telemetry was lost seconds before touchdown was expected.[162]
Vikram lander mounted on top of the
A review board concluded that the crash-landing was caused by a
orbiter of Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft
software glitch.[163] The lunar orbiter was efficiently positioned
in an optimal lunar orbit, extending its expected service time
from one year to seven.[164] It was planned that there will be another attempt to soft-land on the
Moon in 2023, without an orbiter.[165]

Chandrayaan-3

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Chandryaan-3 is India's second attempt to soft-land

on the Moon after the partial failure of Chandrayaan-
2. The mission only included a lander-rover set and
communicated with the orbiter from the previous
mission.

On 23 August 2023, ISRO became the first space

agency to successfully land a spacecraft on the lunar
south pole region, and only the fourth space agency
ever to land on the Moon.[166]
Integrated Module of Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft

Mars exploration

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or (Mangalyaan-1)

The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as

Mangalyaan (eng: ''MarsCraft'' ) was launched into Earth
orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO) and has entered Mars orbit on 24
September 2014.[167] India thus became the first country to have
a space probe enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was
completed at a record low cost of $74 million.[168]
Artist's rendering of the Mars Orbiter
MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. The
Mission spacecraft, with Mars in the
spacecraft had a launch mass of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg
background
(33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.[169][170]

The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer Award
in the science and engineering category.[171][172]

Mars and Moon analogue research station

Researchers from the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) and Indian Institute of Science
(IISc) have determined that Ladakh is the best site for India's first Mars and Moon analogue
research station. The study project is being conducted by BSIP's Binita Phartiyal, IISc's Aloke Kumar
who pioneered the idea of building space-bricks from biologically solidified lunar and martian
regolith, and Gaganyaan astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla. An analog research station is a location
where plans and exercises intended for the Moon and Mars are made. The projected research station
would be used for geological and astrobiological research, human studies, crew training, advancing
Technology Readiness Levels (TRL), testing space technologies, and engineering integration.[173]

In Ladakh, Aaka Space Studio and ISRO will be leading a 21-day Mars and Moon analog mission. An
important step forward in India's efforts to develop human spaceflight and analog research in
support of the Gaganyaan program and future missions like Bharatiya Antariksha Station. It will
replicate the harsh conditions of extraterrestrial environments. The expedition will test human
health and endurance in isolation, acquire biometric data, simulate extraterrestrial landscape,

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investigate circadian lighting, and test life support technologies. The startup has experimented with
technology, human endurance, and habitat design in Rann of Kutch in 2023, simulating lunar
conditions.[174][175]

Solar probes

Aditya-L1

On 2 September 2023, ISRO launched the 400 kg (880 lb) Aditya-L1 mission to study the solar
corona.[176][177][178] It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in visible
and near-infrared bands. The main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass ejections
(CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for example), and
consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather.[179] On 6 January 2024, Aditya-L1
spacecraft, India's first solar mission, has successfully entered its final orbit around the first Sun-
Earth Lagrangian point (L1), approximately 1.5 million kilometers from Earth.[180]

Future projects
ISRO is developing and operationalising more powerful and less pollutive rocket engines so it can
eventually develop much heavier rockets. It also plans km above earth where astronauts can stay for
15–20 days. The time frame is 5–7 years after Gaganyaan, he stated.[141] to develop electric and
nuclear propulsion for satellites and spacecraft to reduce their weight and extend their service
lives.[181] Long-term plans may include crewed landings on Moon and other planets as well.[182]

Engines and launch vehicles

Semi-cryogenic engine

SCE-200 is a rocket-grade kerosene (dubbed "ISROsene") and liquid oxygen (LOX)-based semi-
cryogenic rocket engine inspired by RD-120. The engine will be less polluting and far more powerful.
When combined with the LVM3, it will boost its payload capacity; it will be clustered in future to
power India's heavy rockets.[183]

Methalox engine

Reusable methane and LOX-based engines are under development. Methane is less pollutive, leaves
no residue and hence the engine needs very little refurbishment.[183] The LPSC began cold flow tests
of engine prototypes in 2020.[27]

Modular heavy rockets

India's own rockets lack the capacity for launching very heavy satellites to the geostationary orbit
beyond 4 ton class, a problem that is planned to be fixed with the introduction of the NGLV.[184][185]
ISRO is studying heavy (HLV) and super-heavy lift launch vehicles (SHLV). Modular launchers are
being designed, with interchangeable parts, to reduce production time. A 10-tonne (11-short-ton;
9.8-long-ton) capacity HLV and an SHLV capable of delivering 50–100 tonnes (55–110 short tons;
49–98 long tons) into orbit have been mentioned in statements and presentations from ISRO
officials.[186][187]

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The agency intends to develop a launcher in the 2020s which can carry nearly 16 t (18 short tons; 16
long tons) to geostationary transfer orbit, nearly four times the capacity of the existing LVM3.[183] A
rocket family of five medium to heavy-lift class modular rockets described as "Next Generation
Launch Vehicle or NGLV"[188] (initially planned as Unified Modular Launch Vehicle or Unified
Launch Vehicle) are being planned which will share parts and will replace ISRO's existing PSLV,
GSLV and LVM3 rockets completely. The rocket family will be powered by SCE-200 cryogenic
engine and will have a capacity of lifting from 4.9 t (5.4 short tons; 4.8 long tons) to 16 t (18 short
tons; 16 long tons) to geostationary transfer orbit.[189]

Reusable launch vehicles

There have been two reusable launcher projects ongoing at

ISRO. One is the ADMIRE test vehicle, conceived as a VTVL
system and another is RLV-TD programme, being run to develop
an autonomous spacecraft which will be launched vertically but
land like a plane.[190]

To realise a fully re-usable two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) launch

vehicle, a series of technology demonstration missions have been
conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch
Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been
configured. The RLV-TD acts as a flying testbed to evaluate
various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous
landing, powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight using air-
breathing propulsion. First in the series of demonstration trials
was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched
the prototype's test flight, RLV-TD, from the Sriharikota
spaceport in February 2016. It weighs around 1.5 t (1.7 short
RLV-TD HEX01 from Satish
tons; 1.5 long tons) and flew up to a height of 70 km (43 mi).[191] Dhawan Space Centre First Launch
HEX was completed five months later. A scaled-up version of it Pad (SDSC SHAR) on 23 May 2016
could serve as fly-back booster stage for the winged TSTO
concept.[192] HEX will be followed by a landing experiment
(LEX) and return flight experiment (REX).[193]

Spacecraft propulsion and power

Electric thrusters

India has been working on replacing conventional chemical propulsion with Hall-effect and plasma
thrusters which would make spacecraft lighter.[183] GSAT-4 was the first Indian spacecraft to carry
electric thrusters, but it failed to reach orbit.[194] GSAT-9 launched later in 2017, had xenon-based
electric propulsion system for in-orbit functions of the spacecraft. GSAT-20 is expected to be the
first fully electric satellite from India.[195][196]

Alpha source thermoelectric propulsion technology

Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), also called alpha source thermoelectric technology by
ISRO, is a type of atomic battery which uses nuclear decay heat from radioactive material to power
the spacecraft.[197] In January 2021, the U R Rao Satellite Centre issued an Expression of Interest

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(EoI) for design and development of a 100-watt RTG. RTGs ensure much longer spacecraft life and
have less mass than solar panels on satellites. Development of RTGs will allow ISRO to undertake
long-duration deep space missions to the outer planets.[198][199]

Radioisotope heater unit

ISRO included two radioisotope heater units developed by the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
in the propulsion module of Chandrayaan-3 on a trial basis which worked flawlessly.[142]

Nuclear propulsion

ISRO has plans for collaboration with Department of Atomic Energy to power future space missions
using nuclear propulsion technology.[142]

Quantum technology
Satellite-based quantum communication

At the Indian Mobile Congress (IMC) 2023, ISRO presented its satellite-based quantum
communication technology. It's called quantum key distribution (QKD) technology. According to
ISRO, it is creating technologies to thwart quantum computers, which have the ability to readily
breach the current generation of encrypted secure communication. A significant milestone for
unconditionally secured satellite data communication was reached in September 2023 when ISRO
demonstrated free-space quantum communication across a 300-meter distance, including live video
conferencing using quantum-key encrypted signals.[200]

Extraterrestrial probes

Destination Craft name Launch vehicle Year

Moon LUPEX H3 2026[201]

Moon Chandrayaan-4 2 × LVM3 2028[202]

Venus Venus Orbiter Mission GSLV March 2028[203]

Mars Orbiter Mission 2
Mars LVM3 2026
(Mangalyaan-2)

Lunar exploration

The Lunar Polar Exploration mission (LUPEX) is a planned robotic lunar mission concept by Indian
Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) that would
send a lunar rover and lander to explore the south pole region of the Moon no earlier than 2026.
JAXA is likely to provide the under-development H3 launch vehicle and the rover, while ISRO would
be responsible for the lander.[204][205]

Crewed Lunar Landing

ISRO aims to put an astronaut on the lunar surface by 2040.[206]

Mars exploration

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The next Mars mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2 or Mangalyaan 2, has been proposed for launch in
2024.[207] The newer spacecraft will be significantly heavier and better equipped than its
predecessor;[111] it will only have an orbiter.[208]

Venus exploration

ISRO is considering an orbiter mission to Venus called Venus Orbiter Mission, that could launch as
early as 2023 to study the planet's atmosphere.[209] Some funds for preliminary studies were
allocated in the 2017–18 Indian budget under Space Sciences;[210][211][212] solicitations for potential
instruments were requested in 2017[213] and 2018. A mission to Venus is scheduled for 2025 that
will include a payload instrument called Venus Infrared Atmospheric Gases Linker (VIRAL) which
has been co-developed with the Laboratoire atmosphères, milieux, observations spatiales (LATMOS)
under French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) and Roscosmos.[214]

The Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM), which is intended to orbit a spacecraft in the orbit of planet
Venus for a better understanding of the Venusian surface and subsurface, atmospheric processes,
and influence of Sun on Venusian atmosphere, was approved by the Union Cabinet on September
18, 2024, under the direction of Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Understanding the fundamental
processes that have transformed Venus—which is thought to have once been habitable and very
comparable to Earth—will be crucial to comprehending the development of Earth and Venus, the
sister planets.[203] A total of ₹1,236 crore (US$150 million) has been sanctioned for the Venus
Orbiter Mission, of which ₹824 crore (US$99 million) would go toward the spacecraft.[215][216]

Asteroids and outer solar system

Conceptual studies are underway for spacecraft destined for the asteroids and Jupiter, as well, in the
long term. The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every 33 months. If the
mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[217] Development of RTEG power
might allow the agency to further undertake deeper space missions to the other outer planets.[198]

Space telescopes and observatories

AstroSat-2

AstroSat-2 is the successor to the AstroSat mission.[218]

Exoworlds

Exoworlds is a joint proposal by ISRO, IIST and the University of Cambridge for a space telescope
dedicated for atmospheric studies of exoplanets, planned for 2025.[219][220] ExoWorlds is proposed
as a dedicated mission for exoplanet spectroscopy in the NUV-VISIBLE-IR ranges. It would be
placed in a stable orbit around the earth-sun L2 point.[221]

Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST)

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The Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST) will produce high-resolution deep
UV-optical images, and will also have capabilities to carry out low to medium resolution
spectroscopy.The INSIST proposal was recommended by ISRO for pre-project phase with seed
funding in March 2019.Collaboration with the Canadian Space Agency is also being proposed.[221]

Forthcoming satellites

Satellite Launch
Year Purpose Notes
name vehicle

GSAT-20 Falcon 9 2024 Communications

Geospatial imagery to facilitate continuous observation
GISAT 2 GSLV 2024 Earth observation of Indian sub-continent, quick monitoring of natural
hazards and disaster.[222]
Facilitates continuous real-time communication
Data relay and between Low Earth orbit bound spacecraft to the
IDRSS GSLV 2024 satellite tracking ground station as well as inter-satellite communication.
constellation Such a satellite in geostationary orbit can track a low
altitude spacecraft up to almost half of its orbit.[223]
Disturbed and quite-type Ionosphere System at High
2024–
DISHA PSLV Aeronomy Altitude (DISHA) satellite constellation with two
25[224]
satellites in 450 km (280 mi) LEO.[207]

AHySIS- Follow-up to HySIS hyperspectral Earth imaging

PSLV 2024 Earth observation
2 satellite.[225]
NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a
joint project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop
NISAR GSLV 2025[226] Earth observation and launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar
satellite to be used for remote sensing. It is notable for
being the first dual band radar imaging satellite.[227]

Geospatial intelligence satellites

A family of 50 artificial intelligence based satellites will be launched by ISRO between 2024 and
2028 to collect geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in different orbits to track military movements and
photograph areas of interest. For the sake of national security, the satellites will monitor the
neighboring areas and the international border. It will use thermal, optical, synthetic aperture radar
(SAR), among other technologies, for GEOINT application. Each satellite using artificial intelligence
will have the ability to communicate and collaborate with the remaining satellites in space at
different orbits to monitor the environment for intelligence gathering operations.[228][229]

Upcoming launch facilities

Kulasekharapatnam Spaceport

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Kulasekharapatnam Spaceport is an under-development spaceport in Thoothukudi district of Tamil

Nadu. After completion, it would serve as the second launch facility of ISRO. This spaceport will
mainly be used by ISRO for launching small payloads.[230]

Applications

Telecommunication
India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for applications
such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster forecasting, radio
networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer communication.[231]
Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National Informatics Centre (NIC) are
direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[232]

Military
The Integrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defence Staff headquarters of the Ministry of
Defence,[233] has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for military
purposes and to look into threats to these assets.[234][235] This command will leverage space
technology including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the Air Force controls most of
its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and coordination between the three
services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space.[233]

With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for exclusive military use and the rest as dual-use satellites,
India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes satellites for the
exclusive use of its air force (IAF) and navy.[236] GSAT-7A, an advanced military communications
satellite built exclusively for the Air Force,[204] is similar to the Navy's GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will
enhance the IAF's network-centric warfare capabilities by interlinking different ground radar
stations, ground airbases and airborne early warning and control (AWACS) aircraft such as the
Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS.[204][237]

GSAT-7A will also be used by the Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV) operations.[204][237] In 2013, ISRO launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use of the Navy
to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000-nautical-mile (3,700 km;
2,300 mi) 'footprint' and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships, submarines and maritime
aircraft.[236] To boost the network-centric operations of the IAF, ISRO launched GSAT-7A in
December 2018.[238][236] The RISAT series of radar-imaging earth observation satellites is also
meant for Military use.[239] ISRO launched EMISAT on 1 April 2019. EMISAT is a 436-kilogram
(961 lb) electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite. It will improve the situational awareness of the
Indian Armed Forces by providing information and the location of hostile radars.[240]

India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 150–200-
kilometre (93–124 mi) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space programme, the
intermediate range Agni missile is derived from the Indian space programme's SLV-3. In its early
years, under Sarabhai and Dhawan, ISRO opposed military applications for its dual-use projects
such as the SLV-3. Eventually, the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)-based
missile programme borrowed staff and technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam
(later elected president), who had headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, took over as missile
programme at DRDO. About a dozen scientists accompanied him, helping to design the Agni missile
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using the SLV-3's solid fuel first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The
IRS and INSAT satellites were primarily intended, and used, for civilian-economic applications, but
they also offered military spin-offs. In 1996 the Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of
IRS-1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries in order to monitor ballistic missiles
near India's borders. In 1997, the Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets for
surveillance and battle management.[241]

Academic
Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of Technology
use satellites for educational applications.[242] Between 1975 and 1976, India conducted its largest
sociological programme using space technology, reaching 2,400 villages through video
programming in local languages aimed at educational development via ATS-6 technology developed
by NASA.[243] This experiment—named Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—
conducted large-scale video broadcasts resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[243]

Telemedicine
ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to
medical professionals in urban locations via satellite.[242] Since high-quality healthcare is not
universally available in some of the remote areas of India, patients in those areas are diagnosed and
analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing.[242] The patient is then
advised on medicine and treatment,[242] and treated by the staff at one of the 'super-specialty
hospitals' per instructions from those doctors.[242] Mobile telemedicine vans are also deployed to
visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support to patients.[242]

Biodiversity Information System

ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in October
2002.[244] Nirupa Sen details the programme: "Based on intensive field sampling and mapping
using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made of vegetation
cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled database that links gene-
level information of plant species with spatial information in a BIOSPEC database of the ecological
hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible with collaboration between the Department of
Biotechnology and ISRO."[244]

Cartography
The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic equipment to
enable it for cartographic purposes.[52] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by a more advanced
model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[52] The CARTOSAT-2 project,
equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-specific on-spot images, succeeded
the CARTOSAT-1 project.[245]

Spin-offs
ISRO's research has been diverted into spin-offs to develop various technologies for other sectors.
Examples include bionic limbs for people without limbs, silica aerogel to keep Indian soldiers
serving in extremely cold areas warm, distress alert transmitters for accidents, Doppler weather
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radar and various sensors and machines for inspection work in engineering industries.[246][247]

International cooperations
ISRO has signed various formal cooperative arrangements in the form of either Agreements or
Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) or Framework Agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria,
Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile,
China, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, Kazakhstan,
Kuwait, Maldives, Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, Norway, Peru, Portugal, South
Korea, Russia, São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Spain, Oman,
Sweden, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand, Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine, United Arab Emirates, United
Kingdom, United States, Uzbekistan, Venezuela and Vietnam. Formal cooperative instruments have
been signed with international multilateral bodies including European Centre for Medium-Range
Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), European Commission, European Organisation for the Exploitation
of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), European Space Agency (ESA) and South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).[248]

Notable collaborative projects

Chandrayaan-1 also carried scientific payloads to the Moon from NASA, ESA, Bulgarian Space
Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America and Europe.[249]

Indo-French satellite missions

ISRO has two collaborative satellite missions with France's CNES, namely the now retired Megha-
Tropiques to study water cycle in the tropical atmosphere[250] and the presently avtive SARAL for
altimetry.[106] A third mission consisting of an Earth observation satellite with a thermal infrared
imager, TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High resolution Natural resource
Assessment) is being planned by the two countries.[251]

LUPEX

The Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) is a joint Indo-Japanese mission to study the polar
surface of the Moon where India is tasked with providing soft landing technologies.[252]

NISAR

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint Indo-US radar project carrying an L Band
and an S Band radar. It will be world's first radar imaging satellite to use dual frequencies.[253]

Some other notable collaborations include:

ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search and
Rescue.[254]
India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the
Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.[255]
India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,
Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research

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(COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space
University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[250]
Contributing to planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing.[256][257]

Statistics
Last updated: 26 March 2023

Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO: 417 (34 countries)[258]

Spacecraft missions: 116[259]
Launch missions: 86
Student satellites: 13 [260]

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Re-entry missions: 2

Budget for the Department of Space

Budget of Department of Space[262]

GDP (2011–
Total
Calendar 12 base 2020 Notes and
Expenditure
Year year) in Nominal % of % of Total Constant references
in crores (₹)
crores(₹)[261] INR (crore) GDP Expenditure INR
(crore)

Revised Estimate
1972–73 55245 18.2325000 0.03% 696.489 as Actuals are not
available [263][264]
Revised Estimate
as Actuals are not
1973–74 67241 19.0922000 0.03% 624.381 available
[264]: 13 [265]

1974–75 79378 30.7287000 0.04% 781.901 [266]

1975–76 85212 36.8379000 0.04% 879.281 [267]

Revised Estimate
1976–77 91812 41.1400000 0.04% 1,062.174 as Actuals are not
available [267]

1977–78 104024 37.3670000 0.04% 890.726 [268]

1978–79 112671 51.4518000 0.05% 1,196.291 [269]

1979–80 123562 57.0062000 0.05% 1,247.563 [270]

1980–81 147063 82.1087000 0.06% 1,613.259 [271]: 39

Revised Estimate
1981–82 172776 109.132100 0.06% 1,896.051 as Actuals are not
available[271]: 38 [272]

1982–83 193255 94.8898000 0.05% 1,527.408 [273]

1983–84 225074 163.365600 0.07% 2,351.37 [274]

1984–85 252188 181.601000 0.07% 2,410.543 [275]

1985–86 284534 229.102300 0.08% 2,881.303 [276]

1986–87 318366 309.990900 0.1% 3,585.645 [277]

1987–88 361865 347.084600 0.1% 3,690.41 [278]

1988–89 429363 422.367000 0.1% 4,105.274 [279]

1989–90 493278 398.559500 0.08% 3,616.972 [280]

1990–91 576109 105298 386.221800 0.07% 0.37% 3,217.774 [281][282]

1991–92 662260 111414 460.101000 0.07% 0.41% 3,366.237 [283][282]

1992–93 761196 122618 490.920400 0.06% 0.4% 3,210.258 [284][282]

1993–94 875992 141853 695.335000 0.08% 0.49% 4,277.163 [285][282]

1994–95 1027570 160739 759.079300 0.07% 0.47% 4,237.768 [286][282][287]

1995–96 1205583 178275 755.778596 0.06% 0.42% 3,826.031 [288][282][287]

1996–97 1394816 201007 1062.44660 0.08% 0.53% 4,935.415 [289][282][287]

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1997–98 1545294 232053 1050.50250 0.07% 0.45% 4,550.066 [290][287]

1998–99 1772297 279340 1401.70260 0.08% 0.5% 5,364.608 [291][287][292]

1999–00 1988262 298053 1677.38580 0.08% 0.56% 6,123.403 [293][287][292]

2000–01 2139886 325592 1905.39970 0.09% 0.59% 6,686.851 [294][287][292]

2001–02 2315243 362310 1900.97370 0.08% 0.52% 6,429.035 [295][292][296]

2002–03 2492614 413248 2162.22480 0.09% 0.52% 7,010.441 [297][292][296]

2003–04 2792530 471203 2268.80470 0.08% 0.48% 7,085.999 [298][292][296]

2004–05 3186332 498252 2534.34860 0.08% 0.51% 7,627.942 [299][292][296]

2005–06 3632125 505738 2667.60440 0.07% 0.53% 7,701.599 [300][292][296]

2006–07 4254629 583387 2988.66550 0.07% 0.51% 8,156.366 [301][296][302]

2007–08 4898662 712671 3278.00440 0.07% 0.46% 8,408.668 [303][296][302]

2008–09 5514152 883956 3493.57150 0.06% 0.4% 8,273.225 [304][296][302]

2009–10 6366407 1024487 4162.95990 0.07% 0.41% 8,894.965 [305][302]

2010–11 7634472 1197328 4482.23150 0.06% 0.37% 8,542.8 [306][302]

2011–12 8736329 1304365 3790.78880 0.04% 0.29% 6,636.301 [307][302]

2012–13 9944013 1410372 4856.28390 0.05% 0.34% 7,778.216 [308][302]

2013–14 11233522 1559447 5168.95140 0.05% 0.33% 7,464 [309][302]

2014–15 12467960 1663673 5821.36630 0.05% 0.35% 7,902.702 [310][311]

2015–16 13771874 1790783 6920.00520 0.05% 0.39% 8,872.483 [312][313]

2016–17 15391669 1975194 8039.99680 0.05% 0.41% 9,820.512 [314][315]

2017–18 17090042 2141975 9130.56640 0.05% 0.43% 10,881.647 [316][317]

2018–19 18899668 2315113 11192.6566 0.06% 0.48% 12,722.226 [318][319]

2019–20 20074856 2686330 13033.2917 0.06% 0.49% 13,760.472 [320][321]

2020–21 19800914 3509836 9490.05390 0.05% 0.27% 9,490.054 [322][323]

2021–22 23664637 3793801 12473.84 0.05% 0.33% 12,473.84 [324][323][325]

Corporate affairs

S-band spectrum scam

In India, electromagnetic spectrum, a scarce resource for wireless communication, is auctioned by
the Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its value, in 2010, 20 MHz
of 3G spectrum was auctioned for ₹677 billion (US$8.1 billion). This part of the spectrum is
allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in January 2005, Antrix
Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas Multimedia (a private
company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists from the US) for lease of S band
transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for
a price of ₹14 billion (US$170 million), to be paid over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in
these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is allocated by the International Telecommunication Union
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specifically for satellite-based communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is

changed for utilisation for terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the
2010 auction price of the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over ₹2,000 billion
(US$24 billion). This was a hypothetical situation. However, the Comptroller and Auditor-General
considered this hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to
the Indian Government.[326][327]

There were lapses on implementing official procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the capacity of
the above two satellites exclusively to Devas Multimedia, while the rules said it should always be
non-exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that several service providers were
interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was already signed. Also, the Space
Commission was not informed when approving the second satellite (its cost was diluted so that
Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to spending ₹7.66 billion (US$92 million) of
public money on building, launching, and operating two satellites that were leased out for
Devas.[328] In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed information about the Devas-Antrix
deal,[327][329] and the ensuing investigations led to the deal's annulment. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO
Chairperson when the agreement was signed) was barred from holding any post under the
Department of Space. Some former scientists were found guilty of "acts of commission" or "acts of
omission". Devas and Deutsche Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in
damages.[330] The Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs began an inquiry into
Devas shareholding.[328]

The Central Bureau of Investigation registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas deal
under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of PC Act, 1988
in March 2015 against the then executive director of Antrix Corporation, two officials of a USA-
based company, a Bengaluru-based private multimedia company, and other unknown officials of the
Antrix Corporation or the Department of Space.[331][332]

Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September 2015,
the International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in favour of
Devas, and directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to Devas.[333] Antrix
opposed the Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court.[334]

Heads of ISRO
List of Chairmen (since 1963) of ISRO.

1. Vikram Sarabhai (1963–1971)

2. M. G. K. Menon (1972)
3. Satish Dhawan (1973–1984)
4. U. R. Rao (1984–1994)
5. K. Kasturirangan (1994–2003)
6. G. Madhavan Nair (2003–2009)
7. K. Radhakrishnan (2009–2014)
8. Shailesh Nayak (2015)
9. A. S. Kiran Kumar (2015–2018)
10. K. Sivan (2018–2022)

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11. S. Somanath (2022–present)

See also
Deep Ocean mission
Defence Space Agency
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology
List of government space agencies
List of ISRO missions
NewSpace India Limited
IN–SPACe
Indian Space Association
Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar
Science and technology in India
Space industry of India
Swami Vivekananda Planetarium
Telecommunications in India
Timeline of Solar System exploration
National Space Science Symposium

Notes
a. ISO 15919: Bhāratīya Antarikṣa Anusandhāna Saṅgaṭhana
b. CNSA (China), ESA (most of Europe), ISRO, (India), JAXA (Japan), NASA (United States) and
Roscosmos (Russia) are the six space agencies with full launch capabilities.
c. The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), The United States (NASA), China (CNSA) and India (ISRO) are
the only four nations to have successfully achieved soft landing.

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Further reading
The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U. Sankar, Oxford University Press, New Delhi,
2007, ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5
The Indian Space Programme, by Gurbir Singh, Astrotalkuk Publications, ISBN 978-0956933737
Reach For the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme, by Gopal Raj, ISBN 978-
0670899500
From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey, by ISRO, ISBN 978-9351776895
Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO, by P V Manoranjan Rao and P Radhakrishnan, ISBN 978-
8173717642
India's Rise as a Space Power, by U R Rao, ISBN 978-9382993483

External links
Media related to Indian Space Research Organisation at Wikimedia Commons
Official website (http://www.isro.gov.in)
"Official website of the Department of Space of the Government of India" (http://www.dos.gov.in).
dos.gov.in.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ISRO&oldid=1258603696"

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