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Comminution features in an impact hammer mill

Article in Powder Technology · February 2013

DOI: 10.1016/j.powtec.2012.12.003

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Powder Technology 235 (2013) 914–920

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Comminution features in an impact hammer mill

Sujit Kumar Dey, Shobhana Dey, Avimanyu Das ⁎
MNP Division, CSIR-National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur 831 007, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A systematic study on the comminution of a soft (coal) and a hard (iron ore) material is carried out to investigate
Received 27 June 2012 the bulk comminution features of the hammer mill. The effect of the feed rate and the rotor speed on the mill
Received in revised form 26 November 2012 efficiency in terms of reduction ratio, energy expenditure, fines produced and median size is investigated.
Accepted 1 December 2012
High reduction ratios are obtained under all conditions. The hammer mill products are observed to exhibit
Available online 7 December 2012
Rosin–Rammler type size distribution and are invariably self preserving. A high rotor speed with a low to mod-
Keywords:
erate feed rate is found to give better performance of the mill. An exponential dependence of the median size
Comminution on the quantity of fines generated is established for the mill product. The data indicated that the reduction
Impact hammer mill ratio and the specific energy expenditure are linearly related, the slope of which is inversely related to the
Product size distribution Bond Index of the material. The energy expenditure goes into creating new surfaces and overcoming the elastic
Energy expenditure strain energy of the cracked surface. The quantity of fines generated in the mill can reflect the degree of attrition
Median size in the mill which is an indirect measure of the mill wear. It is established that good performance of the mill can be
Reduction ratio achieved even for the hard materials by keeping the wear at a low level. It is suggested that an impact hammer
mill can be used for the comminution of harder materials under controlled conditions.
© 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction for crushing the relatively harder materials. However, very little liter-
ature is found on the wear of impact hammer mill for crushing hard
Comminution or size reduction is the most energy intensive unit material in spite of the distinct advantages stated above. Therefore,
operation in mineral processing. Size reduction in the coarse range the present study was taken up to explore the possibility of using im-
(crushing) requires comparatively less energy than that in the finer pact hammer mills for crushing relatively harder materials.
range (grinding). Consequently, the grinding process attracted tre- When the feed material is introduced inside the crusher chamber
mendous attention from the researchers and is extensively investigat- of a hammer mill it is shattered by the impact with the rotating ham-
ed with a view to reduce energy consumption [1–3]. On the other mers first and then by striking against the inner surface/breaker plate
hand, crushing, although studied by many researchers [4–6], has re- of the shell. Shatter is the primary mode of fracture in the impact
ceived much less attention. An optimized crushing circuit can indeed hammer mills. The fractures along and across the grain boundaries
reduce energy expenditure in the size reduction process substantially help in producing a fairly uniform size distribution which is much
[7]. Quite a few steps of crushing are required in most mineral process- finer than the feed size distribution. This is what actually helps in
ing plants including primary, secondary and tertiary crushing stages. achieving a very high reduction ratio in the hammer mill. In view of
Simulation and optimization have been shown to reduce the number these two major advantages, crushing operation in the hammer mill
of crushing steps in a crushing plant [8]. At various stages, the crushers is studied in greater details. Two different materials with different
are chosen based on their characteristic features. Hammer mill is hardness values are studied in this work. Breakage patterns of iron
generally considered as a secondary crusher. It is popular due to the ore (hard) and coal (soft) in the hammer mill were taken up for inves-
uniformity of size distribution it produces as well as the high reduc- tigation. It may be recalled that the grate opening allows the finer
tion ratios achievable in it [9]. Several studies [10–13] have been material to be discharged while retaining coarser material for further
conducted to model the impact crushing including single particle breakage. The retention of the oversize materials leads to significant
breakage and crushing of particle–particle compounds with a view degree of inter-particle, particle–hammer and particle–wall shear
to exploit the aforesaid advantages of the impact crushers in diverse producing substantial amount of fines leading to the wear of the
applications. However, a major bottleneck in the application of the mill. In other words, the fines produced may be considered a measure
hammer mill has been the wear and tear of the hammers, grates and of the wear of the mill interior. In order to study this aspect breakage
the inner shell/breaker plate. As a result, it is not considered suitable pattern was also investigated after removing the grate in the hammer
mill. Comminution experiments were carried out with and without
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 6572349018; fax: +91 657 2345213. the grate at various rotor speeds and feed rates for both the raw mate-
E-mail address: das.avimanyu@gmail.com (A. Das). rials. The product particle size distribution in each case was studied

0032-5910/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2012.12.003
 Author's personal copy

S.K. Dey et al. / Powder Technology 235 (2013) 914–920 915

and important inferences were made by investigating the resulting Table 1

distributions carefully. Experimental conditions for comminution experiments in impact hammer mill.

Expt. no. Rotor speed (rpm) Feed rate (kg/h)

2. Experimental 1 1000 125
2 1200 125
2.1. Raw material 3 1400 125
4 1200 100
5 1200 150
Hematite iron ore from Chiriya mines and semi-coking coal from
Kuju Mines in Eastern India were used as the raw materials in this
investigation. The run of mines (ROM) ore/coal was first crushed to
a top size of 100 mm using a jaw crusher. The jaw crusher product steel shell of the mill is 1 m wide and 255 mm thick. The mill has a
was carefully sized and only −100+40 mm particles were considered depth of 0.8 m and a height of 2.5 m up to the feed hopper. The vibra-
as the feed to the hammer mill. Nearly one ton of −100 + 40 mm size tory feeder on the top of the feed hopper takes up another 1.3 m mak-
fraction of each material was set aside for the experiments. In order ing the total height of the mill as 3.8 m. The mill is capable of crushing
to have an idea of the hardness of the iron ore and coal, the Bond up to 800 kg of material per hour with a top size of 160 mm in the
Index values were estimated using standard procedure. Material of size feed. As can be seen in Fig. 1, a vibratory feeder was used to feed the
−3.36 mm was used to estimate the Bond Index in each case. The hammer mill. A mapping of the vibration frequency of the feeder
Bond Index values were estimated to be 13.60 kWh/t for iron ore and and the feed rate was obtained by collecting the material from the
9.02 kWh/t for coal. feeder for 15 min at various frequencies. During the experiments the
vibration frequency was adjusted carefully to maintain the feed rate
2.2. Methodology at the desired level.
The − 100 + 40 mm feed particles were crushed in the hammer
The impact hammer mill supplied by Subhadra Engineering Works, mill under different levels of the feed flow rate and rotor speed. A
India, was used in the present study. The mill is equipped with an elec- grate with a 20 mm opening was used at the discharge end. However,
tromagnetic vibratory feeder and a PLC based control system. It has tests were also carried out after removing the grate to study the effect
the provisions to control the feed rate and the rotor speed through of the grate on the generation of fines. When no grate was used, the
the control panel. In the hammer mill setup, as shown in Fig. 1, ham- particles were allowed to discharge freely through the discharge
mers are mounted on a rotor which is connected to the drive motor. chute after the initial impact and breakage inside the mill. For both
The hammer–rotor assembly is encased in a steel shell which also the raw materials five experiments each were carried out with and
houses the grate. The rotor shaft has a diameter of 75 mm. Four ham- without the grate. Thus a total of 20 experiments were performed.
mers are fixed to the rotor shaft by the stem having a width of 45 mm The experimental conditions are shown in Table 1. The same condi-
and thickness of 20 mm. The hammer head has a convex top with a tions were maintained for both type of raw materials regardless of
25 mm length of the strike zone. The head is 40 mm thick and whether a grate is used or not. During each experiment the mill was
80 mm wide and it tapers down to the stem width. The total length allowed to run for some time to attain steady state after which the
of the head portion is 90 mm and the length of the hammer including comminution product was collected for sufficient amount of time
the head and the stem is 212 mm. Each hammer weighs 2.38 kg. The and size analysis of the product was carried out.

2.3. Repeatability tests

Reproducibility tests were undertaken with iron ore under no-

grate condition and with coal keeping the grate in place. A total of
five tests were carried out at 1200 rpm rotor speed and 125 kg/h
feed rate for each case on five different days. The product size distribu-
tions were measured and the d50 values were estimated. These data
are shown in Table 2. The standard deviation values were observed
to be quite small. Hence, the experimental data presented in this arti-
cle may be considered adequately reproducible within a small vari-
ability range.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Product size distribution

The product size distributions obtained in all experiments are

examined to establish the type of distribution that the hammer mill
generates. Interestingly, it is observed that in all the cases the size

Table 2
Repeatability of the tests for iron ore (open grate) and coal (grate in place) at 1200 rpm
of rotor speed and 125 kg/h feed rate.

d50 values (μm)

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3 Day 4 Day 5 Average Standard

deviation

Coal 3200 3250 3150 3350 3000 3190 129

Iron ore 28,400 29,600 30,300 27,500 28,000 28,760 1159
Fig. 1. The hammer mill setup used in the present work.
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3.2. Operating variables and comminution performance

The design of impact hammer mill, a secondary crusher, may be

done using the classical energy law which is stated in terms of a char-
acteristic size of the distribution. The 80-percent passing size (d80) is
almost always used as the characteristic size. In terms of this size the
most popular energy law is the Bond's law which is given as:


0:5 0:5 

E ¼ Wi 100=d80p −ð100=d80f Þ ð3Þ

where E is the energy spent in kWh/t, Wi is the Bond Index, d80p and
d80f are the 80-percent passing size for product and feed, respectively.
The energy spent is estimated for all the cases from the above equa-
tion. The energy expenditure data are shown in Fig. 4 against the
rotor speed and the feed rate. As the rotor speed increases a gradual
rise in the energy expenditure is observed for both the materials.
This signifies that a higher rotor speed facilitates breakage. However,
Fig. 2. Rosin–Rammler plot of the size distribution for Expt. no. 1 for crushing iron ore the energy expenditure is found to increase with feed rate initially
and coal in the impact hammer mill.
and then drop significantly at a very high feed rate. Reduction ratio
is another important parameter that determines the efficiency of
analysis data indicated a Rosin–Rammler distribution for the product comminution and is defined as the ratio of the median sizes (d50) of
of the hammer mill. It may be recalled that the Rosin–Rammler distri- the feed to that of the product. The energy expenditure data is best
bution is given by: understood when studied in conjunction with the reduction ratio

 h
α i data shown in Fig. 5. The reduction ratio increases with an increase
P dp ¼ 1− exp − dp =β ð1Þ in rotor speed as does the energy expenditure. Evidently, breakage
of the particles is being enhanced by the higher rotor speed which
where, P(dp) indicates the fraction of material of size less than or is indicated by the higher energy expenditure as well as the higher
equal to dp. α and β are the two parameters of the model. Lineariza- reduction ratio under this condition. On the other hand, a drop in
tion of the above expression gives: the reduction ratio along with a drop in the energy expenditure at
very high feed rate clearly indicates that inadequate comminution
h n

oi is taking place under this condition. Therefore, it may be said that
ln ln 1= 1−P dp ¼ α lndp −α lnβ: ð2Þ
while a higher rotor speed is beneficial, an optimum feed rate must
be maintained in the hammer mill.
A plot of the left hand side of Eq. (2) against ln(dp) should give a
straight line with a slope of α and an intercept of α ln(β) if the distri- 3.3. Generation of fines in the hammer mill
bution follows the above model. A typical set of data for Expt. no. 1 for
the comminution of both types of materials is shown in Fig. 2. It may be It may be recalled that shatter fracture generates much less fines
seen from this figure that the data indeed indicate a Rosin–Rammler while attrition contributes significantly towards the generation of
distribution of the products which is found for all other experiments fines. The quantity of fines generated depends on a number of param-
too when the grate is used. eters including the rotor speed, the feed size, the grate opening, the
The median size (d50) of each product distribution is estimated and hardness of the material, etc. The volume of the fines also gives an
the normalized size distribution is plotted in each case as shown in idea of the degree of attrition occurring inside the mill and hence,
Fig. 3. The self-similar nature of the product size of the iron ore and the extent of wear of the hammers and the shell/breaker plate. The
coal is evident from this figure. The self preserving nature of the size quantity of fines (b 100 μm) generated is shown in Fig. 6 as a function
distribution indicates that the crack patterns forming in the particles of the rotor speed and feed rate. It is interesting to note that as the
in the hammer mill are geometrically similar [14]. The pattern only rotor speed increases the amount of fines generated increases slowly
gets finer as the median size is lowered. It may be noted that the mas- in the beginning and sharply thereafter in the case of iron ore. How-
ter curves for the two different materials studied are distinctly differ- ever, under similar conditions, the increase in the quantity of fines
ent indicating that the crack patterns forming are different in the two is gradual with rotor speed in the case of coal. This suggests that
materials. for the harder material the operating rotor speed has to be chosen

Fig. 3. Self similar distribution of hammer mill product size for iron ore and coal.
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S.K. Dey et al. / Powder Technology 235 (2013) 914–920 917

A 1.6 A 25

1.4

Reduction Ratio
Energy (kWh/t)

20

1.2

15
1.0

0.8 10
900 1200 1500 900 1200 1500
Rotor Speed (rpm) Rotor Speed (rpm)

Iron ore Coal Iron ore Coal

B 1.6 B 25

1.4

Reduction Ratio
20
Energy (kWh/t)

1.2

15

1.0

10
0.8 100 125 150
100 125 150 Feed Rate(kg/h)
Feed Rate (kg/h)
Iron ore Coal
Iron ore Coal
Fig. 5. Variation in reduction ratio with (A) rotational speed at 125 kg/h and (B) feed
Fig. 4. Variation in breakage energy with (A) rotational speed at 125 kg/h and (B) feed rate at 1200 rpm for coal and iron ore.
rate at 1200 rpm for coal and iron ore.

fractions are generally observed to be different as shown in Fig. 8 also.

carefully while for softer material a higher rotor speed would be pref- The variability in the B values is statistically not significant and there-
erable. At high feed rate the drop in the generation of fines is associ- fore, it may be treated as constant. Similar plots are obtained for coal
ated with inadequate comminution of the particles. The influence of comminution and are shown in Fig. 8. In this case also R 2 values are
the operating variables, as seen from the above discussion, indicates observed to be greater than 0.95 corroborating the linear relationship
that a relatively lower feed rate and a moderately high rotor speed between ln d50 and percentage finer than size x. Again, the B values
would be ideal for achieving the best performance of the hammer are observed to be very close and may be treated as independent of
mill. the size x.
It is observed that comminution in the hammer mill produced
self-preserving size spectrum and, therefore, the size distribution is 3.4. Energy expenditure and reduction ratio
essentially defined by the median size alone which signifies the rela-
tive fineness or the coarseness of the size distribution. Consequently, The quantum of specific energy expenditure plays an important
the median size is related to the fines generated in a definite manner. role in determining the reduction ratio and therefore, has a definite
The following simple relationship between the two is reported to relationship with the latter. In order to explore this, the reduction
hold good for self-similar distributions [14,15]: ratio values were plotted against the energy expenditure for commi-
nution of coal and iron ore in the impact hammer mill. Interestingly,
lnd50 ¼ −Ax Px þ B ð4Þ in both cases a linear relationship was obtained as seen in Fig. 9A.
The relationship may be simply expressed as:
where, Px is the percentage (or fraction) passing size x, Ax is a size
dependent parameter and B is a constant. A plot of ln d50 against RR ¼ M Es −N ð5Þ
the percentage passing size x values would give a straight line with
a negative slope of Ax and an intercept of B. The experimental data where, RR stands for the reduction ratio and Es is the specific energy
for iron ore comminution in the impact hammer mill are plotted in expenditure. Both M (slope) and N (intercept) have special signifi-
Fig. 7. The data show that such a relationship indeed holds good in cance. The value of M is a clear reflection of the hardness of the mate-
this case as the correlation coefficients (R 2) are observed to be greater rial which is indicated by the Bond Index of the material. The harder
than 0.95 in all cases. The slopes of the straight lines for different size the material (higher Bond Index value) the smaller will be the slope
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918 S.K. Dey et al. / Powder Technology 235 (2013) 914–920

A 8
Finer than 100 µm (%)

0
900 1200 1500
Rotor Speed (rpm)
Iron ore Coal
Fig. 8. Relationship between the median size and the fines produced for crushing coal.

B 6.8

reduction ratio of greater than unity. The negative intercept implies

Finer than 100 µm (%)

that even for a reduction ratio of marginally higher than unity, the
4.8
energy expenditure is significant. It is evident that there must be
a threshold energy expenditure above which only any breakage
would take place. In fact, the energy expenditure constitutes of the
energy requirement for creating new surfaces and the elastic strain
energy of the cracked surface. The strain energy term is what is
2.8
being reflected in this threshold energy expenditure value which is
given by the energy value at a reduction ratio of unity in this figure.
A plot of product d50 and energy expenditure when the grate is in
place is also shown in Fig. 9B. From the plot it may be concluded that
0.8
100 125 150
Feed Rate (kg/h)
A 25
Iron ore Coal
23
Fig. 6. Variation in fines generation with (A) rotational speed at 125 kg/h and (B) feed y = 26.013x - 16.852
Reduction Ratio

rate at 1200 rpm for coal and iron ore. R2 = 0.9622

21

19
and vice versa. A value of 43.6 for coal and 26.0 for iron ore for the
slope M correspond well with the Bond Index values of 9.02 kWh/t 17
for coal and 13.6 kWh/t for iron ore. The slope M also should be de-
pendent on the size distribution of the feed, an aspect not studied in 15 y = 43.587x - 19.22
the present work. A negative intercept is very significant. The inter- R2 = 0.9778
cept N has a close relationship with the elastic strain energy of the 13
0.70 0.90 1.10 1.30 1.50
material. The operating regime in any comminution unit is for a
Energy Expenditure (kWh/t)
Iron Ore Coal

B 5.0

4.5
Product d50 (mm)

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0
0.5 0.8 1.1 1.4 1.7
Energy Expenditure (kWh/t)
Iron Ore Coal

Fig. 9. Relationship between (A) the reduction ratio and the energy expenditure and
Fig. 7. Relationship between the median size and the fines produced for crushing iron ore. (B) the product size (d50) and energy expenditure for iron ore and coal.
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S.K. Dey et al. / Powder Technology 235 (2013) 914–920 919

a linear approximation for the variation is adequate which is also A) Coal

reflected in the plot of reduction ratio in Fig. 9A. Evidently, as more 25
energy is spent for comminution a finer product size is obtained.

20
3.5. Fines generation and the extent of wear

The attrition within the holdup volume inside the hammer mill is 15
responsible for the generation of fines which gives an indication of
the wear of the hammers as well as the breaker plate/shell. Of course,
10
some fines are generated by the shatter fracture of the particles. An
estimation of this is made by running the hammer mill after removing
the grate. Under this condition the comminuted material is allowed to 5
discharge freely. Of course, comminution is poor under this condition
and substantial amount of material reports to the product stream
without undergoing much fracture. However, some particles undergo 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
substantial fracture and generate some fines. Now, the difference in
Degree of wear (%)
the generation of fines with and without grate in place does give an
idea of the additional breakage of material taking place inside the Median Size (mm) Energy (kWh/t)
mill due to the presence of the grate. This difference in the generation
of fines has two components — one, fines appearing due to the frac- Reduction Ratio
ture of additional material and two, fines generated due to the attri-
tion inside the mill. Although, both will contribute to the wear of B) Iron Ore
the hammer and the shell, the later will have a dominating role in 25
this regard. In this work, it is assumed that this difference in the gen-
eration of percentage of fines (b100 μm) is an indirect measure of the
20
wear of the mill interior. Under this assumption, the mill performance
parameters are plotted in Fig. 10 for the comminution of coal and iron
ore with the grate in place. 15
It may be seen from Fig. 10A that as the degree of wear (the differ-
ence in the generation of − 100 μm fines with and without the 20 mm
10
grate) increases the energy expenditure increases slowly and the me-
dian size (d50) decreases gradually while the reduction ratio increases
substantially. This pattern is expected for a soft material such as coal. 5
In the case of iron ore, with an increase in the degree of wear the
increase in the energy expenditure as well as the reduction in the
median size is somewhat faster with a steep rise in the reduction 0
0 2 4 6 8
ratio (Fig. 10B). This behavior is also not surprising. However, what
Degree of wear (%)
may be noted from these two plots (Fig. 10) is that a high reduction
ratio may still be achievable at a small wear level while crushing a Median Size (mm) Energy (kWh/t)
hard material such as iron ore. For a difference in the fines generation Reduction Ratio
(wear level) of 2.53% the reduction ratio is 14.7 and for 3.1% it is 15.4.
The operating conditions are identified as moderate rotor speed Fig. 10. Variation in the median size, energy expenditure and reduction ratio as a func-
(1200 rpm) and high feed rate (150 kg/h) for the former and moder- tion of the degree of wear for comminuting (A) coal and (B) iron ore in the impact
ate rotor speed (1200 rpm) and low feed rate (100 kg/h) for the latter. hammer mill.

Therefore, it may be said that if the hammer mill is operated at mod-

erate speed with a low feed rate good performance indicators can be
achieved while keeping the wear at a very low level even for a hard percentage of fines generated in the mill. On the other hand, the re-
material. Therefore, it is concluded that under controlled and opti- duction ratio and the energy expended for breakage are linearly relat-
mized conditions the impact hammer mill can actually be employed ed. The nature of this relationship depends on the hardness of the
for the comminution of hard materials with a low wear and the advan- material as well as its elastic strain energy.
tages of the hammer mill (high reduction ratio and uniform product The quantity of fines generated in the mill is a measure of the
size distribution) can be fully realized. attrition level and therefore, an indirect measure of the degree of
the wear of the hammers and the mill interior. Comminution is better
4. Conclusions when the reduction ratio is higher. A higher reduction ratio is associ-
ated with higher energy expenditure. Although from an industrial
A few interesting inferences may be drawn from the above consid- standpoint a lower energy requirement is desirable, a higher reduc-
erations. In terms of the energy utilization, the reduction ratio achiev- tion ratio implies a finer product size for a given feed which in turn
able and the fines generated, the hammer mill is expectedly quite is associated with greater surface area and therefore, greater surface
effective for the breakage of softer materials. However, this study es- energy. Since this surface energy must come from the energy spent
tablishes that it is also quite effective for comminuting harder mate- in comminution, higher reduction ratio implies a higher energy ex-
rials if operated under controlled conditions. The mill product size penditure which also results in an increase in the generation of
distribution exhibits a Rosin–Rammler type of distribution and retains fines and consequently increases the wear. However, the wear may
its self-similar feature with different master curves for different mate- be kept at a low level by setting optimum operating conditions for
rials. Higher rotor speed facilitates breakage while low to moderate the mill to exploit the two most important characteristics of the mill,
feed rate is required for good comminution performance in the mill. namely, the ability to give a high reduction ratio and producing uni-
An exponential relationship exists between the median size and the form size distribution. The mill is generally used for softer materials.
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920 S.K. Dey et al. / Powder Technology 235 (2013) 914–920

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