INDEX

Sr. Experiment Page Date

No. No.
1 To measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical
body using Vernier Callipers.
2 To measure internal diameter and depth of a given
Beaker using Vernier Callipers and hence find its
volume.
3 To measure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.
4 To measure volume of a given irregular lamina using
screw gauge.
5 To determine radius of curvature of a given spherical
(Convex) surface by a Spherometer.
6 To find the Force Constant (Spring Constant) of a Helical
Spring by plotting a graph between Load and Extension.
7 (A) To study the relation between Frequency and Length of
a given Wire under Constant Tension using Sonometer.
7 (B) To study the relation between Frequency and Length of
a given Wire under Constant frequency using
Sonometer.
8 To find the speed of sound in air at room temperature
using a resonance tube by two resonance positions.
9 To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given
viscous liquid by measuring the terminal velocity of a
given spherical body
10 To find the weight of a given body using the
parallelogram law of vectors.
11 Using a Simple Pendulum, (i) plot L – T, and (ii) L – T2
graphs. Hence, find the Effective Length of Second’s
Pendulum using appropriate graph.
12 To find the downward force, along an inclined plane,
acting on a roller due to gravity and study its
relationship with the angle of inclination by plotting
graph between force and sin θ.
 Experiment 1: Vernier callipers (Cylindrical Body)
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal and written with blue pen only)
Aim:
(i) To measure diameter of a small spherical/cylindrical body using Vernier Callipers.
Apparatus:
Vernier callipers & Cylindrical body.

Theory:
Least count: Least count is the smallest value of measurement which can be accurately
measured with an instrument.
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
Least Count (L.C) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Result:
(i) Internal diameter of cylindrical body = cm

Precautions:
(i) Motion of Vernier callipers should be frictionless.
(ii) The Vernier constant and zero error should be calculated carefully.
(iii) Undue pressure on the body of Vernier callipers should be avoided and the body
should be gripped firmly, but gently between the jaws.
(iv) We should take the reading from different places of object.
(v) Observations should be taken at mutually right-angle directions.

Sources of error:
(i) Body may not be perfectly spherical or cylindrical or uniform in shape.
(ii) Graduation on scale may not be evenly marked.
(iii) Parallax may creep in while taking observation.
(iv) Main scale and jaws may not be at right angle to each other.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal. Readings, calculations headings,
all things with blue pen and only table drawing, Figure with pencil)

(Fig: Vernier Calliper)

Observation:
(i) Vernier constant (Least Count) = cm or mm.

Observation Table:
Table 1: For object

Sr. Main Scale Vernier Value Observed

No Reading Division (n × L.C) D = N + (n
N Coinciding × L.C)
(cm) (n) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean :

Calculations:
(I) Mean :
𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3
=
3
= cm
 Experiment 2: Vernier callipers (Volume of a Beaker)
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal and written with blue pen only)
Aim:
To measure internal diameter and depth of a given Beaker using Vernier Callipers and hence
find its volume.

Apparatus:
Vernier callipers, Beaker & Cylindrical body.

Theory:
If d1 is internal diameter of the beaker, h is the depth of beaker, then volume ‘Vi’ of beaker
is,

𝑉𝑖 =(πdi2/4)h

Result:
(i) Internal depth of beaker = cm
(ii) Internal diameter of cylindrical beaker = cm
(iii) Internal Volume of the given beaker is (V) = cm3

Precautions:
(i) Motion of Vernier callipers should be frictionless.
(ii) The Vernier constant and zero error should be calculated carefully.
(iii) Undue pressure on the body of Vernier callipers should be avoided and the body
should be gripped firmly, but gently between the jaws.
(iv) We should take the reading from different places of object.
(v) Observations should be taken at mutually right-angle directions.

Sources of error:
(i) Body may not be perfectly spherical or cylindrical or uniform in shape.
(ii) Graduation on scale may not be evenly marked.
(iii) Parallax may creep in while taking observation.
(iv) Main scale and jaws may not be at right angle to each other.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal. Readings, calculations headings,
all things with blue pen and only table drawing, Figure with pencil)

Observation:
(i) Vernier constant (Least Count) = ___ cm or ___ mm.

Observation Table:
Table : For beaker

Sr. Main Scale Vernier Value Observed

No Reading Division (n × L.C) D = N + (n
N Coinciding × L.C)
(cm) (n) (cm)

1. Internal
2. Diameter
3. Of Beaker
Mean
1. Height of
2. Beaker
3.
Mean

Calculations:
(I) Mean internal diameter:
𝑑1+𝑑2+𝑑3
= = cm
3
(II) Internal Volume of beaker:

𝑉𝑖 =(πdi2/4)h
 Experiment 3: Screw Gauge
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal and written with blue pen only)

Aim:
(i) To measure diameter of a given wire using screw gauge.

Apparatus:
Screw Gauge, Wire, Thick sheet.

Theory:
The distance moved when head of screw gauge is given one complete rotation.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
Pitch:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Least count:
Least count is the smallest value of measurement which can be accurately measured with an
instrument.
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕
𝐿. 𝐶 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Result:
(i) Diameter of the given wire D = cm.

Precautions:
(i) Always use ratchet head to rotate the screw.
(ii) Use proper sign or zero correction.
(iii) Rotate the screw only along one side during observation. This is to avoid backlash
error.
 (iv) Measure the diameter in two perpendicular directions.
(v) Avoid error of parallax.

Sources of error:
(i) The screw may be loose.
(ii) The linear scale may not be exactly horizontal.
(iii) The pitch may not be constant at different places of the screw.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal. Readings, calculations headings, all
things with blue pen and only table drawing, Figure with pencil)

(Figure: Micrometer screw Gauge)

Observation:
L.C of screw gauge: cm
Zero Error = cm
= (+) or(-)cm

Observation Table:
Table 1: For wire

Sr. No Wire Placed In Mean

One direction Mutually perpendicular observed
direction Diameter
LSR CSR Diameter LSR CSR Diameter D
N n = N + [n× N n = N + [n×
L.C.] L.C.] (cm)
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean Observed diameter
Calculations:

(i) Mean Diameter of wire = cm

(ii) Mean corrected diameter = cm +/- cm
= (cm)
 Experiment 4 : Screw Gauge (Lamina)
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal and written with blue pen only)

Aim:
To determine volume of an irregular lamina using a screw gauge.
Apparatus:
Screw Gauge, Thick sheet.

Theory:
The distance moved when head of screw gauge is given one complete rotation.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑤
Pitch: 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

Least count:
Least count is the smallest value of measurement which can be accurately measured with an
instrument.
𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐𝑕
𝐿. 𝐶 =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

Result:
Volume of lamina = cm3

Precautions:
(i) Always use ratchet head to rotate the screw.
(ii) Use proper sign or zero correction.
(iii) Rotate the screw only along one side during observation. This is to avoid backlash
error.
(iv) Measure the diameter in two perpendicular directions.
 (v) Avoid error of parallax.

Sources of error:
(i) The screw may be loose.
(ii) The linear scale may not be exactly horizontal.
(iii) The pitch may not be constant at different places of the screw.
(This content should be on the blank side of your journal. Readings, calculations headings, all
things with blue pen and only table drawing, Figure with pencil)
Observation:
L.C of screw gauge: cm
Zero Error = cm
= (+)or (-) cm

Observation Table:
Table 1: Thickness of sheet

Sr. No LSR CSR n× LC Thickness

N n = N + [n× L.C.]
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean Observed thickness

Table 2: For area of lamina

Number of square equal or Number of squares Area = Total number

More than half Less than half of squares equal or
more than half

Calculations:
(i) Mean observed thickness of lamina = cm
2
(ii) Area of lamina = cm
(iii) Volume of lamina = Area of lamina × thickness of lamina = cm3
 Experiment No. 5 Spherometer
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen
only)

Aim:
To determine radius of curvature of a given spherical (Convex) surface by a
Spherometer.

Apparatus:
Spherometer, sheet (a metal sheet or a glass sheet), a convex surface (whose
radius of curvature is to be found).

Theory:
Pitch of the screw is given by the ratio of the distance moved by the screw on
𝑥
the pitch scale and the number of rotations, i.e.,𝑝 = 𝑐𝑚.
𝑛

𝑙2 𝑕
Radius of curvature of the spherical surface is R = 6𝑕+ 2

Where,
‘l’ is the mean distance between the legs of spherometer
‘h’ is the height of the central screw above the surface

Result:
The radius of curvature of the given convex surface is = cm.

Precautions:
1. There should be no friction in the screw.
 2. Move the screw in only one direction to avoid backlash error.
3. Take at least five readings.
4. Excess rotations should be avoided.
5. The distance between the pricks of the legs should be measured carefully
and accurately.

Sources of error:
1. The spherometer may have a backlash error.
2. Circular scale division may not be equal in size.
3. There may be error of judgment about the contact of the screw point with
the surface of glass plate or spherical surface.
4. Pitch may not be constant at different places of the screw
(Note: This content should be on blank side, Diagram and table with pencil &
readings, calculations observations with blue pen only)

Figure:

Observations:
1. Pitch ‘p’ = 0.1 cm.
𝑃
2. Least count (L.C) = = 0.001 cm = 0.01 mm
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
3. Mean distance between three legs l = cm

Observation table:
Circular scale reading No. of No. of division in Total Reading
Sr. Initial Final complete Complete h= (n × p) + (d
No. (a) (b) rotations Rotation × LC)
(n) d = (a-b) (in cm)
or
d = (100+a) - b
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Calculations:
𝑕1+𝑕2+𝑕3+𝑕4+𝑕5 = cm
1. Mean thickness h =
5

𝑙2 𝑕
2. Radius of curvature = R = 6𝑕 + 2

= cm
 Experiment No. 6 Force Constant (Spring Constant)
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen
only)

Aim: To find the Force Constant (Spring Constant) of a Helical Spring by plotting
a graph between Load and Extension.

Apparatus: Helical Spring, Rigid Support, Hanger with 50 g Slotted Weight,

Vertical Wooden Scale, A Hook.

Theory:
When a spring of constant ’k’ is subjected to a load from the lower free end
whose upper end is fixed to a support, increase in its length is then given as
𝐹𝛼𝑙
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑙
Where, k is the Force Constant or Spring Constant.
If, l = 1, then F = k

Hence, Force Constant or Spring Constant of a spring may be defined as ‘the

force required to produce unit extension in the spring.’

Result:
1. By Calculation, the Spring Constant or the Force Constant of the
givenHelical Spring is N/m.
2. By Graph, the Spring Constant or the Force Constant of the given Helical
Spring is N/m
Precautions:
1. The spring should not be loaded beyond elastic limit.
2. The pointer should not touch the scale.
3. The spring should be hanged perfectly vertical and the axis of the spring
and scale must remain parallel to each other.

Sources of Error:
1. Error may occur in reading the pointer position.
2. The weight may not be accurate.
 (Note: This content should be on blank side, Diagram and table with pencil &
readings, calculations observations with blue pen only)
Figure:

Observation:
1. Least Count of Vertical Scale = cm
2. Weight of Hanger = g

Observation table:
Sr. Mass Mass Load Reading of Position of Extension Extension Spring
No. ‘m’ (gm) ‘m’ on Pointer Tip (cm) ‘l’ (cm) ‘l’ (m) Constant
(kg) Hanger Loading Unloading Mean k =F/l
‘F’ ‘x’ ‘y’ 𝒅 (N/m)
(N)
1. W0(dead
weight)
2. W0 + 50
3. W0+ 100
4. W0 +150
5. W0 +200
6. W0 +250
Mean
Calculations:
Spring Constant k = f/l = W/l N/m

Graph: (ON GRAPH PAPER)

 Experiment No. 7(A) Sonometer (Frequency vs Length)
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen
only)

Aim: To study the relation between Frequency and Length of a given Wire under
Constant Tension using Sonometer.

Apparatus: Sonometer, Set of Tuning Forks, Hanger and 0.5 kg Slotted Weights,
Two-Meter-Long Wire, Screw Gauge

Theory:
The fundamental frequency of vibration of a stretched string of length ‘l’ fixed
at both ends under a tension ‘T’ is given by
ν= √
where, m = Mass per unit length of the string.

For a given string, if ‘m’ (mass per unit length) and tension ‘T’ are kept constant
then, from the above equation, the fundamental frequency of vibration ‘v’ of a
string (fixed at both ends) is inversely proportional to the length of the string.

1
I.e. 𝑣 𝛼
𝑙

𝑣𝑙 = Constant

1
Result: From the graph, we can conclude that 𝑣 𝛼
𝑙
Precautions:
1. Wire should be of uniform cross-section.
2. Loading of wire should not be beyond the elastic limit.
3. Pulley should be frictionless.
4. Include the weight of hanger in observation.
5. The excited tuning fork must be placed vertically with its stem touching
on the top of the sonometer board
Sources of Error:
1. Due to rigidity of wire, there can be error in the result.
2. The wire may not be uniform.
3. Due to friction in pulley, value of tension can be different from actually
applied.
(Note: This content should be on blank side, Diagram and table with pencil &
readings, calculations observations with blue pen only)

Figure:

Observation:
1. Mass of the Hanger = _ kg
2. Mass of the Slotted Weights = kg
3. Fixed Value of Tension Used = N
Observation table:
Sr. Frequency of Resonant length ‘l’ (cm) 1/l V×l
No. tuning fork While While Mean l
‘v’ (Hz) Increasing decreasing (cm-1) (Hz.cm)
l1 l2 (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
 Experiment No. 7(B) Sonometer (Frequency vs Length)
(This content should be on ruled side of your journal)
Aim: To study the relation between length of a given wire and tension for constant
frequency using sonometer. To plot a graph between l2 and T
Apparatus:

Sonometer, Tuning forks, mass load, etc.

Theory:

As per experiment 7 (A)

Result:
From the tabular column, it is found that; l2/T is a constant. The graph between square of
length and tension is a straight line, which shows that tension is directly proportional to
square of resonant length.
Precautions:

1. Wire should be of uniform cross-section.

2. Loading of wire should not be beyond the elastic limit.
3. Pulley should be frictionless.
4. Include the weight of hanger in observation.
5. The excited tuning fork must be placed vertically with its stem touching on the top of
the sonometer board

Sources of error:
1. Due to rigidity of wire, there can be error in the result.
2. The wire may not be uniform.
3. Due to friction in pulley, value of tension can be different from actually applied.
(Note: This content should be on blank side, Diagram and table with pencil & readings,
calculations observations with blue pen only)
Diagram:
(as per experiment 7(A))
Observation table:

Sr. Load M Tension Resonating length of wire L2 L2/T

No (Kg) T = Mg Increasing Decreasing Mean (cm)2 (cm2)/N
(N) L1 (cm) L2 (cm) L (cm)
1
2
3
4
Mean
Graph: (ON GRAPH PAPER)
l2 vs Tension.
 Experiment No. 8 Resonance tube
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen
only)

Aim: To find the speed of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance
tube by two resonance positions.

Apparatus: Resonance Tube Apparatus, Two Tuning Forks of Known Frequencies

(Preferably of 512 and 480 Hz), Thermometer, and Rubber Pad.

Theory:
Condition for Resonance: When the frequency of waves in the air column
becomes equal to the natural frequency of the tuning fork, a loud sound is
produced in the air column. It occurs only when the length of air column is
proportional to one-fourth of the wavelength of sound waves having frequency
equal to frequency of tuning fork.

If ‘𝑙1’ and ‘𝑙2’ ate the lengths of the air column for first and second positions of
resonance and ‘𝑥′ is the end correction

𝜆
𝑙1 + 𝑥 = (From fig 1.)
4
3
𝜆
𝑙2 + = (From fig 2.)
4

 = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 )
𝑣 = 𝑣 where, 𝑣 is velocity and 𝜈 frequency of soundwave.
 = 2(𝑙2 − 𝑙1 ) 𝑚/𝑠
Velocity at 0˚C is,

𝒗𝟎 = (𝒗𝒕 – 0.61 × t) m/s where, 𝑣t is the velocity at temperature ‘t’.

Result:
1. Velocity of sound in air at 0 ˚C = m/s
2. True value of velocity of sound in air at 0 ˚C = m/s
3. % Of error = %

Precautions:
1. While recording the temperature of air, the bulb of thermometer should
not touch the water inside the resonance tube, or on the sides of the
metallic tube.
2. The resonance should be obtained for water level rising as well as falling.
3. The prongs of tuning fork should not touch the tube and their ends must
remain in the center of the tube.
4. Reading of lower meniscus of the water should be noted with set square.

Sources of Error:
1. Air in the column may be denser than air outside.
2. Since the air in the column is more humid, this may increase the velocity.
(Note: This content should be on blank side, Diagram and table with pencil &
readings, calculations observations with blue pen only)

Figure:

Fig.1 First position of resonance Fig.2 Second position of resonance

Fig.3 Resonance tube set up

Observations:
1. Room Temperature in the beginning, θ1 = ˚C
2. Room Temperature in the beginning, θ2 = ˚C
Mean temperature = ˚C
3. Frequency of the Tuning Fork, 𝜈1 = Hz
4. Frequency of the Tuning Fork, 𝜈2 = Hz
Observation table:
Frequency Resonance Position of water level at resonance Mean
of tuning ‘l’ (cm) when resonance
fork Water is Water is Mean length of
‘v’ rising falling air column
(Hz) (l2-l1)
(cm)
V1= 1st
2nd
V2= 1st
2nd

Calculations:
1) Find the velocity of sound in air from v1 = 2v1 (l2 - l1)
2) Similarly calculate v2 = 2v2 (l2 - l1)
3) Velocity of sound at 0 C 𝒗0 = (𝒗𝒕 – 0.61 × t)
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
4) Percentage of error = × 100
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 Experiment No. 9 Coefficient of Viscosity
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen
only)
Aim: To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by
measuring the terminal velocity of a given spherical body

Apparatus: Cylindrical glass jar half meter, 5 cm broad and with millimeter
graduations along its height transparent viscous liquid (e.g. glycerin), Steel balls
of different radii, Stop watch, Screw gauge, Thermometer.

Theory:
Stokes Law: If a small sphere of radius r is moving with velocity v in a viscous
liquid of coefficient of viscosity ′𝜂′, then the force experienced by it, is given as :
𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑟𝑣
Where,
r = Radius of the spherical body
v = Velocity of the spherical body
Terminal Velocity:
When the downward force is balanced with upward force of viscosity, the body
falls down with a constant velocity, called ‘terminal velocity’
Such that
Net force F’ = Weight of sphere – Buoyant force
= 4/3 πr3 (𝜌 − 𝜍)
2 𝑟2(𝜌−𝜍)
=𝜂 = 𝑔
9 𝑣

Result:
1. The coefficient of viscosity of liquid at temperature ˚C
= poise.
 2. Percentage (%) error in the result = %
Precautions:
1. Choose a liquid which is transparent enough to watch the motion of ball.
2. Before finding the terminal velocity, make the ball fall inside the liquid for
a few times, so that you are comfortable with the point of terminal
velocity.
3. Note the velocity only when it becomes constant. (iv) Always take a
number of readings for the fall of the balls.

Sources of Error:
1. The ball may not be perfectly spherical.
2. Noted velocity may not be constant.
3. The ball may be big in size.
(Note: This content should be on blank side, Diagram and table with pencil &
readings, calculations observations with blue pen only)

Figure:

Fig.: Measuring of Terminal Velocity and Viscosity by Dropping Lead Shots in

Viscous Liquid

Observation:
1. Least count of stop watch = s
2. Least count of reading on Jar = cm
3. Least count of screw gauge = cm
3
4. Density of steel (ρ) g/cm
5. Density of liquid (σ) = _ g/cm3
6. Distance between paper marks ‘l’ = cm
Observation Table:
1. Table for steel balls
Sr. Diameter of steel ball along (in cm) Mean Mean
No Horizontal Vertical diameter radius
D
d1=LSR + CSR × d2=LSR + CSR × LC (cm) (cm)
LC
1.
2.
3.

2. Table for terminal velocity

Sr. Time taken by Steel Shot to travel the distance Velocity ‘v’
No. between Paper Marks (sec) (cm/s)
t1 t2 Mean t
1.
2.
3.

Calculations:
2 2(𝜌−𝜍)
1) Coefficient of viscosity 𝜂 = 𝑔 Poise
9 𝑣

2 𝑟2(𝜌−𝜍)
2) Coefficient of viscosity 𝜂 = 𝑔 Poise
9 𝑣

2 𝑟2(𝜌−𝜍)
3) Coefficient of viscosity 𝜂 = 𝑔 Poise
9 𝑣

Mean Coefficient of viscosity 𝜂 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

 Experiment No. 10
Parallelogram
(This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen only)

Aim: To find the weight of a given body using the parallelogram law of vectors.

Apparatus:

Parallelogram law of forces apparatus (Gravesand’s apparatus), plumb line, two hangers with
slotted weights, a body (a wooden block) whose weight is to be determined, thin strong or
thread, white drawing paper sheet, drawing pins, mirror strip, sharp pencil, half meter scale, set
squares, protractor.

Theory:

If an unknown weight body S is suspended from the middle of the hanger, and P and Q are the
two balance weights from the other two ends of the hanger, then the unknown weight can be
calculated.

Result
The unknown weight of given body = ___________ (g).

Precautions:

1. The board should be stable and vertical.

2. The pulleys should be friction less.
3. The hangers should not touch the board or table.
4. Junction O should be in the middle of the paper sheet.
5. Points should be marked only when weights are at rest.
6. Points should be marked with sharp pencil.
7. Arrows should be marked to show direction of forces.
8. A proper scale should be taken to make fairly big parallelogram.

Sources of error:

1. Pulleys may have friction.

2. Weights may not be accurate.
3. Points may not be marked correctly.
4. Weight measured by spring balance may not be much accurate.
(This content should be on blank side of your journal, drawings with pencil and readings with
pen)

Diagram:

Observations:

Scale used: Let 1 cm = 50 g

Observation Table:
Calculations:

Mean value of unknown force = _ _ g wt

Mean value of unknown weight (X) = __________ g

 Experiment No: 11 Simple pendulum
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal with blue pen
only)
Aim: Using a Simple Pendulum, (i) plot L – T, and (ii) L – T2 graphs. Hence, find
the Effective Length of Second’s Pendulum using appropriate graph.

Apparatus: Metallic Spherical Bob with a Hook, Clamp Stand, Split Cork, Fine
Inextensible Thread, Vernier Callipers, Stop Watch, and Meter Scale.

Theory:
Simple Pendulum:
An ideal simple pendulum consists of a heavy point mass (called bob) suspended
by a flexible, inelastic and weightless string from a rigid support. In practice, we
can neither have a point-mass nor a weightless string.
In practice, a simple pendulum is obtained by suspending a small heavy metal
bob by a long fine cotton thread from a rigid support.
The time period ‘T’ of a simple pendulum of length ‘ ’ is given by

𝑇 √𝑙 ⁄ 𝑔

Or
𝑔𝑇2
𝑙=
4𝜋2

Result:
1. The experimentally calculated value of length of second’s pendulum =
cm
2. Percentage (%) error = _ %
Precautions:
1. The amplitude of the vibrations should be kept small.
2. The pendulum should vibrate in a plane perpendicular to the cut of the
cork. There should be no spin for more accurate results.
3. Vibration should be in vertical plane.
4. In each subsequent observation change the length by at least 10 cm as to
obtain a sufficient change in time.
5. The minimum length of the pendulum should be 80 cm. A smaller
measurement than this can cause an error.

Sources of error:
1. Point of suspension may not be kept.
2. The amplitude may not be small.
3. There may be delay in starting and stopping the stop watch from the
mean position.
(Note: This content should be on blank side, Diagram and table with pencil &
readings, calculations observations with blue pen only)

Figure:

Fig.: Effective length (l) of a Simple Pendulum

Observations:
1. Diameter of the Bob = _ cm
2. Radius of the bob = cm
3. Length of the hook = cm

Observation table:
Sr. Length of (cm) Time Taken for 20 Time T2
No. Oscillations (sec) Period of (Sec2)
String Pendulum t1 t2 Mean Oscillation
(l’) L=l’+r+h t (T)
(cm) (Sec) (sec)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Calculations:
For Second’s Pendulum, Time Period, T = 2 s or T2 = 4s2

Graph : (ON GRAPH PAPER)

 Experiment 12
(Note: This content should be on the ruled side of your journal, with blue pen)

Aim:

To find the downward force, along an inclined plane, acting on a roller due to gravity and
study its relationship with the angle of inclination by plotting graph between force and sin θ.

Apparatus:
Inclined plane with protractor and pulley, roller, weight box, spring balance, spirit level, pan
and thread

Theory:
Consider the set up shown in Fig. Here a roller of mass M 1 has been placed on an inclined
plane making an angle θ with the horizontal. An upward force, along the inclined plane,
could be applied on the mass M1 by adjusting the weights on the pan suspended with a
string while its other end is attached to the mass through a pulley fixed at the top of the
inclined plane. The force on the mass M1 when it is moving with a constant velocity v will be;

W = M1gSinθ-fr

Where fr is the force of friction due to rolling, M1 is mass of roller and W is the total tension
in the string, (W = weight suspended). Assuming there is no friction between the pulley and
the string.

Result:
Therefore, within experimental error, downward force along inclined plane is directly
proportional to sin θ, where θ is the angle of inclination of the plane.

Precautions:
1. Ensure that the inclined plane is placed on a horizontal surface using the spirit level.
2. Pulley must be frictionless.
3. The weight should suspend freely without touching the table or other objects.
4. Roller should roll smoothly, that is, without slipping.
5. Weight, W should be decreased in small steps.

Sources of error:
1. Error may creep in due to poor judgement of constant velocity.
2. Pulley may not be frictionless.
3. It may be difficult to determine the exact point when the roller begins to slide with
constant velocity.
4. The inclined surface may not be of uniform smoothness/roughness.
5. Weights in the weight box may not be standardised.
(Note: This content should be on the blank side of your journal, readings and calculations
with blue pen and drawings with pencil)

Diagram:

Observations:

Acceleration due to gravity, g = ms–2

Mass of roller, m = (M1)= g

Mass of the pan = (M2)= g

Observation Table:

Sr θ˚ Sin θ Mass added to pan M3 Force W = (M2 +M3) g (N)

No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Graph:

Plot graph between sin θ and the force W. It should be a straight line. (ON GRAPH PAPER)