UNIT II: Teaching and

Learning Principles

UNIT II: Teaching and Learning Principles

___________________________________________________________________________

In The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles, we explored the developmental
stages of child and adolescent learners, with a focus on current research and theory related to
their biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional growth. Having laid this foundation,
we now turn our attention to the core teaching and learning principles. These principles are
essential for future educators to understand, as they guide instructional decisions that
accommodate the needs and identities of learners at different developmental stages. As future
educators, understanding these principles helps us craft learning environments that are both
supportive and responsive to student diversity and needs.
Lesson 1: Making Sense of Teaching and Learning Process

The teaching and learning process can be defined as a transformation process of knowledge
from teachers to students. It is referred to as the combination of various elements within the
process where an educator identifies and establishes the learning objectives, develops teaching
resources and implements the teaching and learning strategy (Kalam & Munna, 2021). On the
other hand, learning is the process of acquiring new, or modifying existing, knowledge,
behaviors, skills, values, or preferences" through experience, instruction, or study. Learning can
happen intentionally or unintentionally and is a continuous process throughout life (APA
Dictionary of Psychology, n.d.)

A widely recognized model of the teaching and learning process is the Constructivist Learning
Theory. This model emphasizes that learning is an active, constructive process where learners
build new knowledge upon the foundation of their prior understanding and experiences.
According to Mvududu & Thiel-Burgessey (2012), the principles of this model include:

1. Active Learning: Learners are actively involved in the learning process through problem-
solving, inquiry-based learning, and hands-on activities.
2. Scaffolding: Teachers provide guidance and support (scaffolding) to help students reach
higher levels of understanding, gradually reducing the support as students become more
independent.
3. Social Interaction: Learning occurs through interaction with others, including teachers and
peers, facilitating knowledge construction through dialogue and collaboration.
4. Real-World Relevance: Tasks should be authentic and connected to real-world situations to
make learning meaningful.
5. Learner-Centered Approach: The learner's needs, interests, and prior knowledge are at the
center of the teaching process, allowing for more personalized learning experiences.

This model aligns with the work of educational theorists such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky
and is commonly used in modern educational practices, particularly in inquiry-based and project-
based learning environments.

1.2. Learning Principles

The following principles are drawn from How Learning Works (n.d.), a compendium of current,
well-supported research on what we know about learning. These principles are applicable across
all disciplines and learning contexts, and are intended to illuminate why certain approaches to
teaching support student learning.

1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.

2. How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know.
3. Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn.
4. To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and
know when to apply what they have learned.
5. Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students’
learning.
6. Students’ current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and intellectual
climate of the course to impact learning.
7. To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their approaches to
learning.

Lesson 2: Components of Effective Teaching and Learning

Effective teaching is a dynamic process that shapes both student outcomes and their overall
learning experience. It goes beyond merely delivering content; it involves a combination of
knowledge, strategies, and behaviors that contributes to student learning and success. At its core,
effective teaching fosters an environment where students feel safe, respected, and motivated to
learn. While summative assessments often measure student success, the real impact of effective
teaching lies in the relationships teachers build, the curiosity they spark, and the adaptive
strategies they employ to meet the diverse needs of learners.

Navigating the demands of teaching while staying current with best practices can be challenging.
Ultimately, effective teaching leads to effective learning, where students are not just passive
recipients but active participants in their educational journey.
1. Cognitive and Metacognitive Strategies: Teaching students both cognitive strategies (e.g.,
problem-solving techniques) and metacognitive strategies (e.g., self-monitoring learning
progress) is essential. These approaches help students think critically and become more aware of
their learning process. Teachers can employ these strategies by using scaffolding and flexible
groupings tailored to individual needs. (Paolini, 2015) (Education Endowment Foundation,
2024)

2. Course Organization and Planning: Clear organization, detailed syllabi, and lesson plans
that align with learning objectives are effective in teaching. Studies show that well-prepared,
organized instructors significantly boost student achievement, improving student performance
and comprehension (Paolini, 2015).

3. Differentiated Instruction: Addressing the diverse needs of students through auditory, visual,
and kinesthetic materials ensures all students can engage with the content. It makes learning
more inclusive because it caters to different learning styles and student needs (Vidal et al., 2023).

4. Diagnostic Assessment: Regular assessments to gauge prior knowledge and uncover

misconceptions help teachers adapt their lessons to students’ specific needs. This ensures that
learning builds upon a solid foundation. (Education Endowment Foundation, 2024)

The foundation of any effective teaching and learning process begins with the teacher. Teachers
play a pivotal role in shaping student outcomes, not only by delivering content but also by
embodying certain characteristics and responsibilities that foster a productive learning
environment:

Characteristics of Effective Teachers

Effective teachers exhibit several key traits that contribute to successful learning environments.
These characteristics include being good communicators, showing patience, maintaining a fair
attitude, managing time effectively, and demonstrating mastery of their subject matter. Teachers
are also expected to be approachable and understanding toward their students (Stronge, 2018).

Teacher Responsibilities
Teachers are responsible for more than just delivering content. Their duties include organizing
and planning lessons, assessing student performance, maintaining classroom order, and
ensuring a positive learning environment. Moreover, they are tasked with supporting students'
personal development, communicating with parents, and contributing to the broader school
community. Teachers are also responsible for continuing their professional development and
staying updated on best practices. (Stronge, 2018)

2.2. Top 5 Characteristics of 21st Century Education (Drew, 2024)

1. Learner-Centered Approach: Focus on personalized learning experiences tailored to

each student's needs, interests, and pace. A personalized approach recognizes that not all
students learn in the same manner. Theories such as the sociocultural theory (or social
constructivism) gained prominence in the latter decades of the 20th Century, which are
now dominant in the 21st Century. These theories recognize that learners are influenced
significantly by social, cultural and environmental factors which lead to differentiated
outcomes.

Additionally, learner-centered approach embraces equity, diversity and inclusivity in

classrooms.
a. Equity: A goal of 21st Century educators is to achieve equality of outcomes.
Educators are attempting to close achievement gaps between rich and poor.
 b. Diversity: Diversity is now considered a strength in classrooms. When students
are different, they learn that difference is okay. They befriend people of different
cultures and learn not to be afraid of other cultures around them.
c. Inclusivity: We now believe that people of all ability levels, physical disabilities,
or learning disabilities deserve to be included in mainstream classrooms. This can
help them contribute to mainstream life and show them they are welcome and
equal participants in the world.

2. Learning Through Doing: The 'learning through doing' approach emphasizes active,
hands-on learning, which is more effective for knowledge retention and application
compared to passive methods. Students gain practical experience, learn through trial-and-
error, and discover knowledge independently by engaging with real-world tasks.

Key educational theories supporting this approach include Cognitive Constructivism,

where learners build ideas by integrating new information with prior knowledge;
Problem-Based Learning (PBL), where students solve problems to uncover truths;
Problem Posing Education (PPE), a collaborative learning environment where both
teachers and students explore answers together; and Project-Based Learning, where
students tackle extended problems over time, often collaboratively, to create new
solutions.

3. Rethinking Learner and Teacher Roles: In 21st-century classrooms, the focus has
shifted from being teacher-centered to student-centered, where the teacher's role is to
guide and coach rather than dominate the learning process. Teachers act as facilitators,
encouraging active, hands-on learning. Students, now the center of the learning process,
engage in learning by doing, using critical thinking and creativity to draw their own
conclusions. This makes students responsible for their learning, while the teacher
supports and co-learns alongside them.

4. Technology Integration: New learning technologies must be used in ways that enhance,
rather than hinder, students' cognitive development. These tools should not be used as
shortcuts to avoid thinking or for cheating. Instead, they should serve as "cognitive tools"
that empower students to access information and engage in deeper thinking processes that
would otherwise be difficult. Technologies can support critical thinking, problem-
solving, and higher-order learning when used effectively.
 5. Teacher Professionalization: Teaching in the 21st century is far more complex than in
the past. To ensure students receive the best education, teachers need ongoing training
and support to stay updated on the latest research and teaching practices. They must also
have opportunities to experiment with new strategies and learn from experts throughout
their careers. A key challenge is the rapidly changing educational landscape, where
teachers need time and resources to effectively integrate new technologies and
pedagogies to better support student learning.

2.3. Teaching Styles (Lathan, 2024)

There are two main buckets that most teaching styles fall into: teacher centered or student
centered.

Teacher-Centered Approach
The teacher-centered approach to education positions the teacher as the expert who is in charge
of imparting knowledge to his or her students via lectures or direct instruction. In this approach
(sometimes called “sage on the stage”), students are passive actors or “empty vessels,” listening
and absorbing information.

This teacher-centered style is the traditional approach to teaching, but it’s not necessarily the
best. And as educators learn more about effective ways to engage learners of every style, the
teacher-centered approach is looked upon less fondly than it once was. However, there are also
countless examples of students being challenged and transformed by a teacher or professor
lecturing about a subject they have spent their entire life exploring.

Student-Centered Approach

The student-centered approach creates more equanimity between the teacher and student, with
each playing a role in the learning process. In this approach, the teacher is sometimes referred to
as the “guide on the side.” While the teacher still holds authority, he or she is more likely to act
as a facilitator, coaching students and assisting them in their learning. This approach champions
student choice and facilitates connections among students.

The teaching styles are as follows:

1. Inquiry-Based Style
This student-centered learning style encourages independence, autonomy and hands-on
learning, with students leading the way and receiving guidance from their teachers.

2. Cooperative Style
Cooperative learning is a student-centered approach that focuses on group work and
social growth. Much like the inquiry-based style, the cooperative style encourages
independence and hands-on learning but puts special importance on peer-to-peer work
and community.

3. Lecturer or Authoritative Style

The authoritative teaching style follows the traditional teacher-centered approach, often
characterized by lecture sessions or one-way presentations. In this approach (also called
the “chalk and talk” style), students are expected to pay attention, absorb the information,
take notes and ask questions.
4. Demonstrator or Coach Style
Often used in math, science and music, the demonstrator style involves more “showing”
rather than “telling” with teachers more likely to support the information with examples
or experiments, demonstrations or multimedia presentations.

5. Facilitator or Activity Style

The facilitator/teacher is focused on promoting self-learning and helping students develop
critical learning and thinking skills. A student-centered approach, it involves creating
learning plans and classes that require students to explore and discover the course content
in creative and original ways.

6. Delegator or Group Style

Well-suited for curriculums that include or emphasize group activities, the delegator style
of teaching shifts much of the responsibility for learning onto the students, who are
encouraged to work together in projects connected to the lesson themes (think science
labs, debates, etc.). In this style, the teacher is an active observer working to guide
students in the right direction.
 7. Hybrid or Blended Style
The hybrid approach may integrate elements of the styles discussed above, often blending
the teacher’s personality and interests with those of the students. While this method is
considered inclusive, enabling teachers to tailor their styles to student needs within the
subject matter, some educators believe it risks diluting the learning process by placing
less emphasis on in-depth study than when following a single, focused approach.

The discussion above is not intended to reduce the organic practice of classroom teaching into
neat categories or to pigeonhole educators into being characterized as one “type” of teacher or
another — but rather to explore different methodologies to enhance our shared understanding of
the teaching experience. What it boils down to is getting to know your students and using your
skills and instincts to discover the most effective ways to engage both the individual student and
entire classes with your curriculum

.
Getting to know each student well enough to effectively teach them is especially challenging for
high school and middle school teachers who have different students every hour. What works
with one student or group might not work with the next.
2.4. Types of Learners
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s by Harvard
educator Howard Gardner, who believed that there are eight distinct “intelligences” that are
closely connected to learning. These are:

1. Visual-Spatial — The ability to conceptualize and manipulate large-scale spatial arrays

(e.g. airplane pilot, sailor), or more local forms of space (e.g. architect, chess player).
2. Bodily-Kinesthetic — The ability to use one’s whole body, or parts of the body (like the
hands or the mouth), to solve problems or create products (e.g. dancer).
3. Musical — Sensitivity to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody and timbre. May entail the
ability to sing, play musical instruments, and/or compose music (e.g. musical conductor).
4. Linguistic — Sensitivity to the meaning of words, the order among words and the sound,
rhythms, inflections and meter of words (e.g. poet). Sometimes called language
intelligence.
5. Logical-Mathematical — The capacity to conceptualize the logical relations among
actions or symbols (e.g. mathematicians, scientists).
6. Interpersonal — The ability to interact effectively with others. Sensitivity to others’
moods, feelings, temperaments and motivations (e.g. negotiator). Sometimes called social
intelligence.
7. Intrapersonal — Sensitivity to one’s own feelings, goals and anxieties, and the capacity
to plan and act in light of one’s own traits. It is not particular to specific careers; rather, it
connects to the ability of every individual to make consequential decisions for oneself.
Sometimes called self-intelligence.
8. Naturalistic — The ability to make consequential distinctions in the world of nature as,
for example, between one plant and another, or one cloud formation and another.
Sometimes called nature intelligence.

The idea behind multiple intelligence theories is not that people learn in only one way, but that
people are stronger in different areas and can demonstrate their knowledge and abilities in
different ways. For teachers, being attuned to such distinctions can be helpful in understanding
how to best connect with individual students.
2.5. The Learning Environment

When considering essential factors in creating an effective classroom environment, research

highlights several key areas that significantly influence both student engagement and academic
performance:

1. Teacher Attitude and Feedback: Teacher readiness and attitude are crucial in shaping the
classroom environment and enhancing student outcomes. Enthusiastic, supportive, and flexible
teachers make a positive and inclusive learning atmosphere, which promotes student engagement
and success. Providing consistent, constructive feedback is vital in promoting a supportive
environment. Studies have shown that students who perceive feedback as helpful tend to be more
engaged and feel a stronger sense of belonging, which directly improves their academic
outcomes. Feedback should be clear, timely, and aimed at helping students understand how to
improve their work (Burns et al., 2019).

2. Physical Classroom Environment: Factors like lighting, ventilation, and seating

arrangements can affect student concentration and comfort. Research suggests that well-
maintained classrooms with adequate lighting, ventilation, and comfortable seating contribute to
better learning experiences, while poorly maintained facilities negatively impact student
engagement and performance (International Journal of Advanced Research, 2019).
3. Classroom Atmosphere and Culture: A positive classroom culture, where students feel safe
and respected, is crucial. Creating an environment that fosters inclusivity, collaboration, and
respect can lead to better social and academic outcomes. Teachers who actively work to build a
respectful, inclusive environment contribute to students' sense of belonging and engagement,
which are linked to higher academic success (Frontiers, 2020).

These elements combined contribute to a conducive learning environment, directly impacting

student behavior, engagement, and academic performance.

Key Considerations for an Effective Classroom Environment

1. Teacher Feedback
● Provide timely and constructive feedback to guide student improvement.
● Ensure feedback is specific and clear steps for enhancement.
● Recognize effort and progress, not just final outcomes.
● Offer both verbal and written feedback to reinforce learning.
● Create opportunities for peer feedback to promote collaboration (Burns et al., 2019)

2. Physical Classroom Environment

● Ensure the classroom has sufficient lighting and proper ventilation.
● Arrange seating to facilitate both individual and group work.
● Maintain cleanliness and organization for a conducive learning space.
● Ensure all necessary teaching materials and tools are readily available.
● Regularly check that classroom technology (e.g., projectors, computers) is functional
(International Journal of Advanced Research, 2019).

3. Classroom Atmosphere and Culture

● Promote inclusivity by incorporating diverse cultural perspectives.
● Establish and communicate clear classroom rules and routines.
● Foster a safe and respectful environment where students feel valued.
 ● Encourage collaboration through group activities and discussions.
● Actively address and prevent bullying or discrimination (Frontiers, 2020)

In conclusion, there are many things to consider and master in teaching and learning principles in
the field of education. From exploring constructivist learning theory to examining the
characteristics of 21st-century education, we have delved into the foundational principles that
taps into classroom practices. As future educators, it's important to remember that effective
teaching goes beyond strategies and methods—it involves fostering meaningful connections with
students, creating engaging learning environments, and continuously refining our approach to
meet diverse learner needs.

As Henry Adams once said, "A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence
stops." This reminds us that the impact we have on our students can last far beyond the

classroom. By embracing these, we step into a role that shapes not only academic success but the
lifelong development of those we teach.

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