MECE5108: Design of Composite Materials 3 Credits (20:10:00)

Objectives: After the completion of this course, students will be able:To enable the students understand
the properties and design of composite materials. To familiarize the students with the
manufacturing methods for composites. To teach the practical requirements associated with
joining and manufacturing.
Course Description
UNIT I Introduction: Definitions: Composites, Reinforcements and matrices, Types of reinforcements,
Types of matrices, Types of composites, Carbon Fibre composites, Properties of composites in
comparison with standard materials, Applications of metal, ceramic and polymer matrix composites
OUTCOMES: Student will be able to: Design and manufacture composite materials for various
applications. Conduct mechanical testing of composite structures and analyse failure modes.
Synthesize structures for environmental effects. Analyse economic aspects of using composites.
Understand the relevance and limitations of the destructive and nondestructive test methods
used for composites. Demonstrate the ability to use appropriate design and analysis tools and
techniques

UNIT I Introduction: Definitions: Composites, Reinforcements and matrices, Types of reinforcements,

Types of matrices, Types of composites, Carbon Fibre composites, Properties of composites in
comparison with standard materials, Applications of metal, ceramic and polymer matrix composites
1.1. Definitions
A composite is a structural material that consists of two or more combined constituents that are
combined at a macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other. One constituent is called the
reinforcing phase and the one in which it is embedded is called the matrix. The reinforcing phase
material may be in the form of fibers, particles, or flakes. The matrix phase materials are generally
continuous. Examples of composite systems include concrete reinforced with steel and epoxy reinforced
with graphite fibers, etc.
• A composite material is made by combining two or more materials– often ones that have very different
properties.
• The two materials work together to give the composite unique properties.
• However, within the composite you can easily tell the different materials apart as they do not dissolve
or blend into each other.
➢ Composite materials are materials made from two or more constituent materials with significantly
different properties, that when combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the
individual components.
➢ Composite materials consist of two or more chemically distinct constituent on a macro scale having
a dispersed interface separating them and having bulk performance which is considerably different from
those of any of its individual constituents.
Exemple
– Concrete: Particulate composite of aggregates (limestone or granite), sand, cement and water
– Plywood: Several layers of wood veneer glued together
– Fiberglass: Plastic matrix reinforced by glass fibers
– Cemets: Ceramic and metal composites
– Fibrous composites: Variety of fibers (glass, kevlar, graphite, nylon, etc.) bound together by a
polymeric matrix
 Fig1. Components of composite materials

Advantages of composites materials

1.2 Classification of composites

Composites are classified by.
 the geometry of the reinforcement ( particulate, flake, and fibers )
 the type of matrix (polymer, metal, ceramic, and carbon).

1.2.1. Classification of composites by the geometry of the reinforcement

Fig2. Classification of by composites based on the geometry of the reinforcement

• Particulate composites consist of particles immersed in matrices such as alloys and ceramics. They
are usually isotropic because the particles are added randomly. Particulate composites have advantages
such as improved strength, increased operating temperature, oxidation resistance, etc. Typical examples
include use of aluminum particles in rubber; silicon carbide particles in aluminum; and gravel, sand, and
cement to make concrete.
• Flake composites consist of flat reinforcements of matrices. Typical flake materials are glass, mica,
aluminum, and silver. Flake composites provide advantages such as high out-of-plane flexural modulus,
higher strength, and low cost. However, flakes cannot be oriented easily and only a limited number of
materials are available for use.
• Fiber composites consist of matrices reinforced by short (discontinuous) or long (continuous) fibers.
Fibers are generally anisotropic† and examples include carbon and aramids. Examples of matrices are
resins such as epoxy, metals such as aluminum, and ceramics such as calcium–alumino silicate.
 Fig 3. Types of composites based on reinforcement shape.

1.2.2. Classification of composites by the type of matrix

Fig 4. Types of composites based on type of matrix

 Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)

Polymers make ideal materials as they can be processed easily, possess lightweight, and desirable
mechanical properties. It follows, therefore, that high temperature resins are extensively used in
aeronautical applications. The most common advanced composites are polymer matrix composites
(PMCs) consisting of a polymer (e.g., epoxy, polyester, urethane) reinforced by thin diameter fibers
(e.g., graphite, aramids, boron). For example, graphite/ epoxy composites are approximately five times
stronger than steel on a weightfor-weight basis. The reasons why they are the most common composites
include their low cost, high strength, and simple manufacturing principles. The main drawbacks of
PMCs include low operating temperatures, high coefficients of thermal and moisture expansion, and
low elastic properties in certain directions. Two main kinds of polymers are thermosets and
thermoplastics.

Fig 5. Types of polymers

 Metal Matrix Composites

Metal matrix composites (MMCs), as the name implies, have a metal matrix. Examples of matrices in
such composites include aluminum, magnesium, and titanium. Typical fibers include carbon and silicon
carbide. Metals are mainly reinforced to increase or decrease their properties to suit the needs of design.
For example, the elastic stiffness and strength of metals can be increased, and large coefficients of
thermal expansion and thermal and electric conductivities of metals can be reduced, by the addition of fibers
such as silicon carbide.
  Ceramic Matrix Composites
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) have a ceramic matrix such as alumina calcium alumino silicate
reinforced by fibers such as carbon or silicon carbide. Advantages of CMCs include high strength,
hardness, high service temperature limits for ceramics, chemical inertness, and low density. However,
ceramics by themselves have low fracture toughness. Under tensile or impact loading, they fail
catastrophically. Reinforcing ceramics with fibers, such as silicon carbide or carbon, increases their
fracture toughness because it causes gradual failure of the composite. This combination of a fiber and
ceramic matrix makes CMCs more attractive for applications in which high mechanical properties and
extreme service temperatures are desired.
 Carbon–Carbon Composites
Carbon–carbon composites use carbon fibers in a carbon matrix. These composites are used in very
high-temperature environments of up to 6000°F (3315°C), and are 20 times stronger and 30% lighter
than graphite fibers. Carbon is brittle and flaw sensitive like ceramics. Reinforcement of a carbon matrix
allows the composite to fail gradually and also gives advantages such as ability to withstand high
temperatures, low creep at high temperatures, low density, good tensile and compressive strengths, high
fatigue resistance, high thermal conductivity, and high coefficient of friction. Drawbacks include high
cost, low shear strength, and susceptibility to oxidations at high temperatures.

1.3. Properties of composites in comparison with standard materials,

Monolithic metals and their alloys cannot always meet the demands of today’s advanced technologies.
Only by combining several materials can one meet the performance requirements. For example, trusses
and benches used in satellites need to be dimensionally stable in space during temperature changes
between –256F (–160C) and 200F (93.3C). Limitations on coefficient of thermal expansion‡ thus
are low and may be of the order of 1  10–7 in./in./F (1.8 10–7 m/m/C). Monolithic materials
cannot meet these requirements; this leaves composites, such as graphite/epoxy, as the only materials to
satisfy them. In many cases, using composites is more efficient. For example, in the highly competitive
airline market, one is continuously looking for ways to lower the overall mass of the aircraft without
decreasing the stiffness and strength† of its components. This is possible by replacing conventional
metal alloys with composite materials. Even if the composite material costs may be higher, the reduction
in the number of parts in an assembly and the savings in fuel costs make them more profitable. Reducing
one lbm (0.453 kg) of mass in a commercial aircraft can save up to 360 gal (1360 l) of fuel per year;1
fuel expenses are 25% of the total operating costs of a commercial airline.2 Composites offer several
other advantages over conventional materials. These may include improved strength, stiffness, fatigue‡
and impact resistance, thermal conductivity, corrosion resistance, etc.

Drawbacks and limitations in use of composites include:

• High cost of fabrication of composites is a critical issue. For example, a part made of graphite/epoxy
composite may cost up to 10 to 15 times the material costs. A finished graphite/epoxy composite part
may cost as much as $300 to $400 per pound ($650 to $900 per kilogram). Improvements in processing
and manufacturing techniques will lower these costs in the future. Already, manufacturing techniques
such as SMC (sheet molding compound) and SRIM (structural reinforcement injection molding) are
lowering the cost and production time in manufacturing automobile parts.
• Mechanical characterization of a composite structure is more complex than that of a metal structure.
Unlike metals, composite materials are not isotropic, that is, their properties are not the same in all
directions. Therefore, they require more material parameters. Forvexample, a single layer of a
graphite/epoxy composite requires nine stiffness and strength constants for conducting mechanical
analysis. In the case of a monolithic material such as steel, one requires only four stiffness and strength
constants. Such complexity makes structural analysis computationally and experimentally more
complicated and intensive. In addition, evaluation and measurement techniques of some composite
properties, such as compressive strengths, are still being debated.
• Repair of composites is not a simple process compared to that for metals. Sometimes critical flaws and
cracks in composite structures may go undetected.
• Composites do not have a high combination of strength and fracture toughness compared to metals.
Metals present an excellent combination of strength and fracture toughness compared to composites.
• Composites do not necessarily give higher performance in all the properties used for material selection.
six primary material selection parameters — strength, toughness, formability, joinability, corrosion
resistance, and affordability. Clearly, composites show better strength than metals, but lower values for
other material selection parameters.
• Repair of composites is not a simple process compared to that for metals. Sometimes critical flaws and
cracks in composite structures may go undetected.

1.4. Applications of matrix composites

 Ceramic matrix composites
Ceramic matrix composites are finding increased application in high-temperature areas in which metal
and polymer matrix composites cannot be used. This is not to say that CMCs are not attractive otherwise,
especially considering their high strength and modulus, and low density. Typical applications include
cutting tool inserts in oxidizing and high-temperature environments. Textron Systems Corporation® has
developed fiber-reinforced ceramics with SCS™ monofilaments for future aircraft engines
 carbon–carbon composites?
The main uses of carbon–carbon composites are the following:
• Space shuttle nose cones: As the shuttle enters Earth’s atmosphere, temperatures as high as 3092°F
(1700°C) are experienced. Carbon–carbon composite is a material of choice for the nose cone because
it has the lowest overall weight of all ablative materials; high thermal conductivity to prevent surface
cracking; high specific heat† to absorb large heat flux; and high thermal shock resistance to low
temperatures in space of –238°F (–150°C) to 3092°F (1700°C) due to re-entry. Also, the carbon–carbon
nose remains undamaged and can be reused many times.
• Aircraft brakes: The carbon–carbon brakes cost is arround $440/lb ($970/kg), which is several times
more than their metallic counterpart; however, the high durability (two to four times that of
steel), high specific heat (2.5 times that of steel), low braking distances and braking times (three-quarters
that of berylium), and large weight savings of up to 990 lb (450 kg) on a commercial aircraft such as
Airbus A300-B2K and A300-B4 are attractive.29 As mentioned earlier, 1 lb (0.453 kg) weight savings
on a full-service commercial aircraft can translate to fuel savings of about 360 gal/year (1360 L/ year).
Other advantages include reduced inventory due to longer endurance of carbon brakes.
• Mechanical fasteners: Fasteners needed for high temperature applications are made of carbon–carbon
composites because they lose little strength at high temperatures.
 Metal matrix composites?
Metal matrix composites applications are
• Space: The space shuttle uses boron/aluminum tubes to support its fuselage frame. In addition to
decreasing the mass of the space shuttle by more than 320 lb (145 kg), boron/aluminum also reduced
the thermal insulation requirements because of its low thermal con ductivity. The mast of the Hubble
Telescope uses carbon-reinforced aluminum.
• Military: Precision components of missile guidance systems demand dimensional stability — that is,
the geometries of the components cannot change during use. Metal matrix composites such as SiC/
aluminum composites satisfy this requirement because they have high microyield strength.* In addition,
the volume fraction of SiC can be varied to have a coefficient of thermal expansion compatible with
other parts of the system assembly.
• Transportation: Metal matrix composites are finding use now in automotive engines that are lighter
than their metal counterparts. Also, because of their high strength and low weight, metal matrix
composites are the material of choice for gas turbine engines.
 polymer matrix composites.
Applications of polymer matrix composites range from tennis racquets to the space shuttle. Rather than
enumerating only the areas in which polymerbased composites are used, a few examples have been
taken from each industry. Emphasis has been placed on why a composite material is the material of
choice.
- Aircraft: The military aircraft industry has mainly led the use of polymer composites. The percentage
of structural weight of composites that was less than 2% in F-15s in the 1970s has increased to about
30% on the AV-8B in the 1990s. In both cases, the weight reduction over metal parts was more than
20%. In commercial airlines, the use of composites has been conservative because of safety concerns.
Use of composites is limited to secondary structures such as rudders and elevators made of
graphite/epoxy for the Boeing 767 and landing gear doors made of Kevlar–graphite/epoxy. Composites
are also used in panels and floorings of airplanes. Some examples of using composites in the primary
structure are the all-composite Lear Fan 2100 plane and the tail fin of the Airbus A310-300. In the latter
case, the tail fin consists of graphite/epoxy and aramid honeycomb. It not only reduced the weight of
the tail fin by 662 lb (300 kg) but also reduced the number of parts from 2000 to 100. Skins of aircraft
engine cowls are also made of polymer matrix composites for reducing weight.16 With increasing
competition in model airplane flying, the weight of composite materials has been reduced.
- Helicopters and tiltrotors use graphite/epoxy and glass/ epoxy rotor blades that not only increase the
life of blades by more than 100% over metals but also increase the top speeds.
- Space: Two factors make composites the material of choice in space applications: high specific
modulus and strength, and dimensional stability during large changes in temperature in space. Examples
include the Graphite/ epoxy-honeycomb payload bay doors in the space shuttle Also, for the space
shuttles, graphite/epoxy was chosen primarily for weight savings and for small mechanical and thermal
deflections concerning the remote manipulator arm, which deploys and retrieves payloads.
- Sporting goods: Graphite/epoxy is replacing metals in golf club shafts mainly to decrease the weight
and use the saved weight in the head. This increase in the head weight has improved driving distances
by more than 25 yards (23 m).
- Marine: The application of fiberglass in boats is well known. Hybrids of Kevlar–glass/epoxy are now
replacing fiberglass for improved weight savings, vibration damping, and impact resistance. Kevlar–
epoxy by itself would have poor compression properties. Housings made of metals such as titanium to
protect expensive oceanographic research instruments during explorations of sea wrecks are cost
prohibitive. These housings are now made out of glass/epoxy and sustain pressures as high as 10 ksi (69
MPa) and extremely corrosive conditions. Bridges made of polymer composite materials are gaining
wide acceptance due to their low weight, corrosion resistance, longer life cycle, and limited earthquake
damage.
- Automotive: The fiberglass body of the Corvette comes to mind when considering automotive
applications of polymer matrix composites. In addition, the Corvette has glass/epoxy composite leaf
springs with a fatigue life of more than five times that of steel. Composite leaf springs also give a
smoother ride than steel leaf springs and give more rapid response to stresses caused by road shock.
Moreover, composite leaf springs offer less chance of catastrophic failure, and excellent corrosion
resistance
- Commercial: Fiber-reinforced polymers have many other commercial applications too. Examples
include mops with pultruded fiberglass handles. Some brooms used in pharmaceutical factories have
handles that have no joints or seams; the surfaces are smooth and sealed. This keeps the bacteria from
staying and growing. To have a handle that also is strong, rigid, and chemically and heat resistant, the
material of choice is glass-fiber reinforced polypropylene. Other applications include pressure vessels
for applications such as chemical plants.

UNIT II Manufacturing Methods: Hand and spray lay-up, press molding, injection molding, resin
injection, RRIM, filament winding, pultrusion, centrifugal casting and prepregs. Fibre/Matrix Interface,
Theories of adhesion; absorption and wetting, interdiffusion, electrostatic, chemical, mechanical.
Measurement of interface strength. Characterization of systems; carbon fibre/epoxy,
glass fibre/polyester, etc. Influence of interface on mechanical properties of composite.

UNIT III Mechanical Properties: Stiffness and Strength: Geometrical aspects – volume and weight
fraction. Unidirectional continuous fibre, discontinuous fibers, Short fiber systems, woven
reinforcements – length and orientation distributions. Mechanical Testing: Determination of
stiffness and strengths of unidirectional composites; tension, compression, flexure and shear.
Fracture: Typical fracture processes; effect of transverse ply. Review of fracture mechanics
methods and application to composites. Impact: Typical impact damage; role of fibre, matrix and
interface. Low and high speed impact test methods. Fatigue: Behavior of notched and unnotched
specimens. Tension testing of composites. Fatigue damage – Effect of matrix and fibre
properties. Implications for component design. Environmental Effects: Influence of moisture and
other contaminants on fibre, matrix, interface and effect on mechanical properties. Stress
corrosion cracking. Influence of high and low temperatures.
UNIT IV Laminates: Plate Stiffness and Compliance, Assumptions, Strains, Stress Resultants,
Plate Stiffness and Compliance, Computation of Stresses, Types of Laminates -, Symmetric
Laminates, Antisymmetric Laminate, Balanced Laminate, Quasi-isotropic Laminates, Cross-ply
Laminate, Angle-ply Laminate. Orthotropic Laminate, Laminate Moduli, Design Using Carpet
Plots, Stiffness Controlled Design, Design for Bending, Hygrothermal Stresses.
UNIT V Joining Methods and Failure Theories: Joining –Advantages and disadvantages of
adhesive and mechanically fastened joints. Typical bond strengths and test procedures. Design
philosophy and procedures (systems approach). Simple design studies (pressure vessels,
torsion bar); factors of safety. Case studies for failure design process, materials selection,
manufacturing method. Economic aspects of using composites. Stress Analysis: Free edge
stresses; typical distributions, significance of stacking sequence, significance of ply blocking,
effect on failure modes, experiment al evidence. Development of engineer‟s theory of bending for
thin walled beams comprising several different materials and analysis of the shear flow distribution.
Buckling; strut buckling, buckling of especially orthotropic plates, significance of bending twisting
coupling.