Comparing The Reactivity

Of Transition Metals With

Acids

Chemistry Investigatory Project

Submitted by

Class XII
 Singapore

CHEMISTRY PROJECT
CBSE Class XII

Academic Year 2024-2025

Teacher in Charge

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 CERTIFICATE

has prepared the report on the project titled " Comparing The
Reactivity Of Transition Metals With Acids” in accordance with
the guidelines given by Central Board of Secondary Education. The
report is found worthy of acceptance as the final project report for
Chemistry of Class XII during the academic year 2024-2025.

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 CONTENT

Serial number Topic Page number

1 Statement of Problem
2 Objectives
3 Introduction
4 Preparing petroleum products from
raw petroleum

5 Renewable fuels

6 Observation
7 Conclusion
8 Bibliography

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Statement of problem
Fossil fuels, while providing a significant portion of the world's energy needs, pose
several challenges and problems, including:

1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions:

2. Air Pollution
3. Resource Depletion:
4. Oil Spills:
5. Land and Habitat Disruption:
6. Geopolitical Conflicts:
7. Health Impacts:
8. Dependency on Imports:
9. Subsidies and Economic Issues:
10. Carbon Capture and Storage Challenges:

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Objective
The main aim is to compare the reactivity of different transition metals (e.g., iron, copper, zinc,
nickel, etc.) when they are reacted with acids like hydrochloric acid (HCl), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄),
or nitric acid (HNO₃). You can observe the differences in reactivity and the gases or other
products formed.

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Introduction
Analysing fuel types is essential for optimizing their use, improving efficiency, and
minimizing environmental impact. Techniques such as chromatography, spectroscopy,
calorimetry, and mass spectrometry are commonly employed for fuel analysis.
Additionally, environmental considerations, such as greenhouse gas emissions and
other pollutants, play a crucial role in evaluating the sustainability of different fuel
sources.
The chemistry behind fuel types is a crucial area of study that delves into the
composition, properties, and reactions of diverse energy sources. Fossil fuels, such as
coal, oil, and natural gas, primarily consist of hydrocarbons, undergoing combustion to
produce energy. Biofuels, derived from organic matter, offer renewable alternatives,
while hydrogen fuel presents a clean option with water vapor as its sole byproduct.
Understanding the chemical intricacies enables the determination of energy content,
combustion efficiency, and environmental impacts. Analysis involves assessing
pollutants emitted during combustion and exploring ways to enhance efficiency and
reduce environmental harm. As the world seeks sustainable energy solutions, studying
the chemistry of various fuel types is pivotal in advancing cleaner, more efficient
alternatives for a greener future.

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Preparing petroleum products from raw petroleum

Petroleum refining involves the separation and conversion of crude oil, a mixture
of hydrocarbons, into various valuable products through a series of chemical and
physical processes. The chemistry behind petroleum refining is intricate and
includes the following key steps:

1. Distillation:
Objective: Separation of crude oil into different fractions based on their boiling
points.
Process: Crude oil is heated in a distillation column. As the temperature
increases, the lighter fractions with lower boiling points, such as gases and
naphtha, rise to higher levels in the column, while heavier fractions like diesel
and lubricating oils remain at lower levels.
No chemical reactions occur in simple distillation, as it is a physical separation
process.

2. Cracking:
Objective: Breaking down large hydrocarbons into smaller, more valuable ones.
Process: Hightemperature cracking involves breaking the long chains of
hydrocarbons in heavy fractions into lighter ones. This can be achieved through
methods like catalytic cracking, where a catalyst facilitates the breaking of bonds,
resulting in the formation of gasoline and other lighter products.
Thermal Cracking:
C10H22  C5H12 + C5H10
Breaking larger hydrocarbons e.g.,
decane into smaller ones e.g., pentane and
butene at high temperatures.

Catalytic Cracking:
C12H2  C8H18 + C4H8
Use of a catalyst to break larger
hydrocarbons e.g., dodecane into gasoline
range products e.g., octane and butene.

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3. Reforming:
Objective: Restructuring hydrocarbons to enhance octane ratings and produce
highquality gasoline.
Process: Reforming involves rearranging the molecular structure of
hydrocarbons, often using a catalyst, to produce branched and cyclic compounds
that improve the octane number of gasoline.
C8H18  C7H16 + H2
Rearranging hydrocarbons e.g., octane to produce aromatic compounds e.g.,
benzene and hydrogen.

4. Hydroprocessing:
Objective: Removal of impurities and saturation of unsaturated hydrocarbons.
Process: Hydroprocessing, which includes hydrodesulfurization and
hydrocracking, utilizes hydrogen to remove
sulfur compounds and saturate unsaturated
hydrocarbons, improving the quality of the
products and reducing environmental
impact.
Hydrodesulfurization:
RSR' + 2H2 2RH + H2S
Removal of Sulphur compounds from
hydrocarbons.

Hydrocracking:
C12H26 + H2  C8H18 + C4H8
Combination of hydrogen to break larger hydrocarbons into smaller ones

5. Hydrotreating:
Objective: Removal of impurities, such as sulfur, nitrogen, and metals, to meet
environmental standards.
Process: Hydrotreating involves exposing the petroleum fractions to hydrogen at
high temperatures and pressures, typically using catalysts. This process removes
impurities and enhances the stability and quality of the final products.
RCHO + 2H2 RCH2OH
Reduction of carbonyl compounds aldehydes and ketones to alcohols, removing
oxygen impurities.

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6. Isomerization:
Objective: Conversion of straightchain hydrocarbons into branched isomers for
improved fuel properties.
Process: Isomerization rearranges the structure of straightchain hydrocarbons
to form branched isomers, which have better combustion properties and
contribute to the octane rating of gasoline.
nC6H14 isoC6H14
Conversion of straight chain hydrocarbons nhexane into branched isomers
isohexane.

7. Alkylation:
Objective: Combining smaller hydrocarbons to produce highoctane gasoline
components.
Process: Alkylation involves the combination of smaller, usually gaseous,
hydrocarbons to form larger, highoctane components for gasoline, improving the
fuel's overall quality.
C4H8 + C2H4 C6H14
Combining smaller hydrocarbons e.g., butene and ethylene to form larger,
highoctane components e.g., hexane.

These processes, among others, are part of the complex network of reactions in a
petroleum refinery. The goal is to maximize the production of valuable fuels and
other products while meeting quality specifications and environmental
standards. Each step involves specific catalysts, temperatures, and pressures to
optimize the transformation of crude oil into a range of refined products

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Apparatus required and a general overview
The apparatus used in various chemical reactions involved in petroleum refining
can vary based on the specific process.

1. Distillation:
- Distillation Column: The primary apparatus for separating crude oil into
different fractions based on their boiling points.
2. Thermal Cracking:
- Cracking Furnace: Provides high temperatures needed for breaking larger
hydrocarbons into smaller ones.
3. Catalytic Cracking:
- Fluidized Catalytic Cracking (FCC) Unit: Uses a catalyst in a fluidized bed to
crack larger hydrocarbons into valuable products.
4. Reforming:
- Reformer Unit: Includes a reforming reactor with a catalyst to rearrange
hydrocarbons, and a separation system to collect the desired products.
5. Hydrodesulfurization:
- Hydrotreating Unit: Contains a hydrotreating reactor with a catalyst, a
hydrogen supply system, and a separation system to remove sulfur impurities.
6. Hydrocracking:
- Hydrocracking Unit: Comprises a hydrocracking reactor with a catalyst, a
hydrogen supply system, and a separation system for product recovery.
7. Hydrotreating:
- Hydrotreating Unit: Involves a hydrotreating reactor with a catalyst, a
hydrogen supply system, and a separation system to remove impurities and
improve the quality of the product.
8. Isomerization:
- Isomerization Unit: Consists of an isomerization reactor with a catalyst and a
separation system to convert straight-chain hydrocarbons into branched isomers
9. Alkylation:
- Alkylation Unit: Utilizes an alkylation reactor with a catalyst, a system for
combining reactants (e.g., butene and ethylene), and a separation system to
collect the desired high-octane components.

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Renewable fuels
Renewable fuels, also known as biofuels or green fuels, are derived from
sustainable and renewable biological sources, offering a cleaner and more
environmentally friendly alternative to traditional fossil fuels. These fuels
contribute to mitigating climate change, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and
promoting energy security. Key types of renewable fuels include:

1. Bioethanol:
Produced through the fermentation of sugars from crops such as corn,
sugarcane, or cellulosic biomass.
Used as a blend in gasoline, providing a renewable source for the transportation
sector.
C6H12O6 --> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Glucose from crops undergoes fermentation by microorganisms, producing
ethanol and carbon dioxide.

2. Biodiesel:
Derived from vegetable oils
(such as soybean, canola, or
palm oil) or animal fats
through a process called
transesterification.
Acts as a substitute for
conventional diesel, with
lower carbon emissions and
improved biodegradability.
Transesterification:
C17H34COOCH3 + 3NaOH --> C17H35OH + NaOC17H34 + 2H2O
Vegetable oil reacts with methanol in the presence of a catalyst usually sodium
hydroxide, forming biodiesel and glycerol.

3. Biogas:
Produced through the anaerobic digestion of organic matter, including
agricultural residues, municipal waste, and sewage.
Composed mainly of methane and carbon dioxide, biogas can be used for
electricity generation, heating, or as a vehicle fuel.

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 Anaerobic Digestion:
C6H12O6 --> 3CH4 + 3CO2
Organic matter undergoes anaerobic digestion by microorganisms, producing
methane CH4 and carbon dioxide CO2

4. Hydrogen:
Generated through the electrolysis of water, biomass gasification, or by utilizing
renewable electricity to split water molecules.
Serves as a versatile energy carrier with applications in fuel cells for
transportation and power generation.
Water Electrolysis:
2H2O --> 2H2 + O2
Electrolysis of water using renewable electricity separates water into
hydrogen and oxygen.

5. Biojet Fuel:
Manufactured from various biomass feedstocks and used as a sustainable
alternative for aviation fuels, reducing the aviation industry's carbon footprint.

Hydroprocessing:
C17H34 + H2 --> C17H36
Hydroprocessing of feedstocks, such as vegetable oils, converts triglycerides
into renewable hydrocarbons suitable for aviation.

6. Renewable Diesel:
Produced through hydrotreating or
hydrocracking of vegetable oils, animal
fats, or waste oils.

Similar to traditional diesel but with

lower emissions and improved cold flow
properties.

Hydrotreating:
C17H36 + H2 --> C17H34
Hydrotreating converts triglycerides from vegetable oils or waste oils into
renewable diesel through the removal of oxygen and saturation of double bonds.

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Renewable fuels help diversify the energy mix, reduce dependence on finite fossil
resources, and promote rural economic development through the cultivation of
bioenergy crops. While contributing to a more sustainable future, challenges
include land use concerns, competition with food production, and the need for
continued advancements in technology to enhance efficiency and reduce
production costs. The ongoing development and integration of renewable fuels
play a crucial role in transitioning towards a more sustainable and
environmentally conscious energy landscape.

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Apparatus required and a general overview
The apparatus required for different reactions involved in the production of
renewable fuels vary based on the specific chemical processes
1. Fermentation (Bioethanol):
Fermenter or Bioreactor: A vessel where microorganisms convert sugars into
ethanol. It provides a controlled environment with appropriate conditions such
as temperature, pH, and oxygen levels.
Distillation Setup: Used to separate ethanol from the fermentation mixture.
2. Transesterification (Biodiesel):
Reaction Vessel: A container where the transesterification reaction takes place.
Stirrer or Agitator: Ensures thorough mixing of reactants.
Heating System: Maintains the reaction at the required temperature.
Separation Equipment (e.g., Centrifuge): Used to separate biodiesel from
glycerol.
3. Anaerobic Digestion (Biogas):
Anaerobic Digester: A sealed container where organic matter undergoes
digestion by anaerobic microorganisms.
Gas Collection System: Collects and stores the produced biogas, primarily
composed of methane.
Gas Scrubber: Removes impurities from the biogas.
4. Water Electrolysis (Hydrogen):
Electrolysis Cell: Contains electrodes and an electrolyte solution where water is
split into hydrogen and oxygen.
Power Supply: Provides electrical energy for the electrolysis process.
Gas Collection System: Collects and stores the produced hydrogen and oxygen.
5. Hydroprocessing (Biojet Fuel, Renewable Diesel):
Hydroprocessing Unit: A reactor vessel where feedstocks undergo
hydroprocessing.
Catalyst: Promotes chemical reactions during hydroprocessing.
Hydrogen Supply System: Provides hydrogen for the reactions.
Separation Equipment: Separates the final product from byproducts.

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Observations
Observations from different fuels encompass a spectrum of characteristics,
crucial for understanding their combustion, efficiency, and environmental
impact. Fossil fuels, such as gasoline and diesel, exhibit efficient combustion with
noticeable heat and light emission during ignition. However, the combustion of
these fuels releases visible pollutants, seen as exhaust emissions. Gasoline, in
particular, produces a blue flame, indicative of its well-mixed and complete
combustion. On the other hand, biofuels, like ethanol, may show a different flame
colour during combustion due to variations in chemical composition.

Natural gas, primarily methane, often burns with a blue flame, emitting less
particulate matter compared to liquid fossil fuels. Hydrogen, a promising clean
fuel, burns with a nearly invisible flame, producing water vapor as the main
byproduct. These visual differences in flame characteristics are reflective of the
varying chemical compositions and combustion properties of different fuels.

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Conclusion
The diversity of fuels, ranging from traditional fossil fuels to renewable
alternatives, underscores the complexity of energy choices facing society. Fossil
fuels, while providing significant energy, contribute to environmental
degradation and climate change. The chemistry behind their analysis reveals the
intricate balance between energy efficiency and ecological impact. In contrast,
renewable fuels offer a more sustainable pathway, leveraging bioenergy,
hydrogen, and other cleaner sources. The chemical reactions driving these
processes highlight the dynamic nature of fuel production. In conclusion,
understanding and transitioning to cleaner, renewable fuel sources are
imperative for mitigating environmental challenges, reducing dependency on
finite resources, and fostering a more sustainable and resilient energy future for
the planet.

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Bibliography

1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy#:~:text=Renewable
%20energy%20flows%20involve%20natural,processes%20that%20are
%20replenished%20constantly.
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy#:~:text=Renewable
%20energy%20flows%20involve%20natural,processes%20that%20are
%20replenished%20constantly.
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy#:~:text=Renewable
%20energy%20flows%20involve%20natural,processes%20that%20are
%20replenished%20constantly.
4. https://www.aip.com.au/resources/refining-petroleum#:~:text=a%20sweet
%20crude.-,The%20refining%20process,%2C%20alkylation%2C
%20polymerisation%20and%20isomerisation.
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum#:~:text=A%20fossil%20fuel%2C
%20petroleum%20is,both%20prolonged%20heat%20and%20pressure.

ll samples gave positive test for

glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.
ll samples gave positive test for
glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.
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All samples gave positive test for
glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.
All samples gave positive test for
glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.
All samples gave positive test for
glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.
All samples gave positive test for
glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.

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All samples gave positive test for
glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
Glucose

ll samples gave positive test for

glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.
ll samples gave positive test for
glucose with Fehling’s (A & B)
solutions. Hence all the cold drinks
contain
glucose.

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