FR (N) 121

FRN - 121
FRN -121
Nursery Technology
121
Nursery Technology Department of Forestry and Environmental Science
School of Earth and Environmental Science
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY
Teenpani Bypass Road, Transport Nagar, Haldwani - 263 139
Phone No. : (05946) - 286002, 286022, 286001, 286000
Toll Free No. : 1800 180 4025
Fax No. : (05946) - 264232, email : <info@uou.ac.in>
http://www.uou.ac.in Uttarakhand Open University
Haldwani, Nainital (U.K.)
FRN – 121
Nursery Technology
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
University Road, Teenpani Bypass, Behind Transport Nagar, Haldwani - 263 139
Phone No. : (05946) - 286002, 286022, 286001, 286000
Toll Free No. : 1800 180 4025, Fax No. : (05946) - 264232,
e-mail:
mail: info@uou.ac.in, Website: http://www.uou.ac.in
Board of Studies
Prof. O.P.S. Negi Prof. P.D. Pant
Vice-Chancellor, Director, School of Earth and Environmental Science,
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani (U.K.) Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani (U.K.)
Dr. S. S. Samat Prof. R. K. Srivastava
Former Director, Professor and Head
Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI), Department of Environmental Science,
Shimla, (H.P.) GBPUAT, Pantnagar, Udham Singh Nagar, (U.K.)
Prof. Anil Kumar Yadava Dr. I. D. Bhatt
Professor and Head Scientist F
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Govind Ballabh Pant National Institute of Himalayan
Soban Singh Jeena University, Almora (U.K.) Environment (NIHE), Kosi-Katarmal, Almora (U.K.)
Dr. H.C. Joshi Dr. Beena Tewari Fulara
Associate Professor Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science,
SoEES, Haldwani, Nainital (U.K.) SoEES, Haldwani, Nainital (U.K.)
Dr. Krishna Kumar Tamta
Assistant Professor (AC)
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science,
SoEES, Haldwani, Nainital (U.K.)
Programme Coordinator
Dr. H.C. Joshi
Associate Professor
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science,
SoEES, Haldwani, Nainital (U.K.)
Editors
Dr. H.C. Joshi, Dr. Krishna Kumar Tamta
Dr. Beena Tewari Fulara, Dr. Neha Tiwari and Ms. Bhawana
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani.
Units Written by Unit No.
Dr. H. C. Joshi, Associate Professor, Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, SoEES, Uttarakhand 3 & 15
Open University, Haldwani
Dr. Beena Tewari Fulara, Assistant Professor (AC), Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, 5, 11 & 14
SoEES, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani
Dr. Krishna Kumar Tamta, Assistant Professor (AC), Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, 6, 7 & 12
SoEES, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani
Dr. Neha Tewari, Assistant Professor (AC), Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, SoEES, 1,2,4 & 13
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani
Ms. Bhawana, Assistant Professor (AC), Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, SoEES, 8, 9 & 10
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani
Cover Page Design and Format Editing
Dr. Krishna Kumar Tamta, Dr. H.C. Joshi,
Dr. Beena Tewari Fulara, Dr. Neha Tiwari and Ms. Bhawana
Department of Forestry and Environmental Science, SoEES, Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani
Title : Nursery Technology (FRN-121)
ISBN : XXXX-XXXX
Copyright : Uttarakhand Open University
Edition : 2024 (Restricted Distribution)
Published By : Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani, Nainital – 263139
Printed at :
Disclosure: This is the first copy of the contents subjected to final editing later. All rights reserved. This work or any
part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without written permission of the publisher.
Table of Contents
BLOCK 1: NURSERY MANAGEMENT

Unit 1: Nursery Management-I 1-17
1.0 Learning Objectives 2
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Importance of Nursery 2
1.3 Pre-requisite factors considered for selection of the nursery site 4
1.4 Nursery sites and area 7
1.5 Seedbeds 10
1.6 Sowing 10
1.7 Quality of Seed 14
1.8 Shading 14
1.9 Watering 15
Unit 2: Nursery Management-II 19-33
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Weeding 19
2.3 Soil Working 22
2.4 Transplanting 23
2.5 Plant Containers 25
2.6 Fertilization 28
2.7 Micro-propagation 29
2.8 Misting units 30
2.9 Greenhouse 31
Unit 3: Type and Components of Nursery 34-61
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Main Aspects to be considered before Raising Nursery 35
3.3 Advantages of Modern Nursery Raising System 37
3.4 Nursery Structures/Components 43
3.5 Types of Greenhouses 46
3.6 Factors Affecting the Environment of Greenhouse 53
3.7 Pre-requisites for Establishment of Nursery 55
3.8 Why nursery is needed? 57
3.9 Planning and Layout of Nursery 58
Unit 4: Factors of Locality III: Biotic Factors 62-76
4.1 Introduction 63
4.2 Nursery tools and equipments 63
4.3 Soil treatment 70
4.4 Seed treatment 71
4.5 Soil-less Media for Nursery Raising 73
4.6 Sowing of Seeds 75
4.7 Requirements for Germination 75
BLOCK 2: NURSERY ESTABLISHMENT
Unit 5: Establishment of Nursery-I 77-88
5.1 Introduction 78
5.2 Low - Cost Nursery Techniques 78
5.3 Modern Nursery Raising Techniques 81
5.4 Advantages of Plug Tray Nursery Raising 82
5.5 Components of Transplants 83
5.6 Uprooting /digging 86
5.7 Labeling and Packaging of Nursery Material 87
5.8 Scheduling for Holding Plugs 87
Unit 6: Establishment of Nursery-II 89-98
6.1 Introduction 89
6.2 Legal title of land, survey 90
6.3 Nursery Site Selection 91
6.4 Planning and Layout 92
6.5 Planting pattern 96
6.6 Enrichment planting 97
6.7 Nurse crops 98
Unit 7: Maintenance of Nursery 99-110
7.1 Introduction 99
7.2 Fencing and types of fencing 100
7.3 Soil fertility 102
7.4 Plant Nutrients 103
7.5 Watering, Weeding and Nutrient Management in Nursery 104
7.6 Use of Hormones and Plant Growth Regulators in Nursery 106
7.7 Maintenance of Nursery Records 108
BLOCK 3: PROPAGATION METHODS
Unit 8: Asexual Method of Propagation 111-120
8.1 Introduction 111
8.2 What Are Asexual Methods of Propagation? 112
8.3 Propagation by Seed 112
8.4 Propagation by Cutting 112
8.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propagation by Cuttings 113
8.6 Propagation by Layering 114
8.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propagation by Layering 114
8.8 Propagation by Budding 115
8.9 Propagation by Grafting 117
Unit 9: Sexual Method of Propagation 121-137
9.2 Propagation Methods 122
9.3 Sexual Methods 122
9.4 Seed Production 123
9.5 Process Involved in Seed Production 124
9.6 Polyembryony 125
9.7 Apomixis 125
9.8 Seed Germination 126
9.9 Environmental Factors Affecting Seed Germination 131
9.10 Seed Dormancy 133
9.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation 135
Unit 10: Biofertilizer 138-149
10.2 Green Manuring 139
10.3 Organic Compost/ Manure 140
10.4 Biofertilizer 143
10.5 Mycorrhiza and fertilizer applications 145
10.6 Plant Propagation 146
BLOCK 4: NURSERY PROTECTION AND SKILL DEVELOPMENT
Unit 11: Nursery Disease and Their Management 150-172
11.2 Diseases of nursery 151
11.3 Control measures 155
11.4 Chemicals used for disease control 160
11.5 Nursery pests in the nursery 162
11.6 Minor nursery pests in the nursery 167
Unit 12: Protection Measure 173-181
12.2 Protection Measure in Nursery 174
12.3 Preventive Measures for Nursery Disease 176
12.4 Nursery Pests and their Management 177
12.5 General Control Measures 180
Unit 13: Nursery Skill Development: Field activities 182-193
13.2 Preparation of nursery beds 183
13.3 Sowing of Seeds 184
13.4 Plant Growth Regulators (PGR) 185
13.5 Mist chambers 190
Unit 14: Regeneration Status of Forest 194-205
14.0. Learning Objectives 194
14.2. Patterns of sowing 194
14.3 Spacing 200
14.4 Quantity of seed requirement 202
NURSERY TECHNOLOGY FRN 121
Unit 1: Nursery Management-I

Unit Structure
1.0 Learning Objectives

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Importance of Nursery
1.3 Pre-requisite factors considered for selection of the nursery site
1.3.1 Climate
1.3.2 Topography of land
1.3.3 Aspect
1.3.4 Altitude
1.3.5 Soil and Soil Fertility
1.3.6 Water Supply
1.3.7 Drainage
1.3.8 Transportation
1.3.9 Labour
1.3.10 Protection from animals
1.3.11 Market needs
1.4 Nursery sites and area
1.4.1 Development of Nursery Site
1.4.2 Site Preparation
1.4.3 Size of the Nursery
1.4.4 Preparation of Beds
1.4.5 Size of Beds
1.5 Seedbeds
1.6 Sowing
1.6.1 Methods of seed sowing
1.6.1.1 Broadcasting
1.6.1.2 Line sowing
1.6.1.3 Strip Sowing
1.6.1.4 Spot Sowing
1.6.1.5 Dibbling
1.6.2 Precautions taken during seed sowing and planting
1.6.2.1 During seed sowing
1.6.2.2 During planting
1.6.3 Time of Sowing
1.7 Quality of Seed
1.8 Shading
1.9 Watering
Summary
References
UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 1


After completion of this unit, you will be able to:
• understand the concept and importance of nursery;
• discuss the factors considered for selection of the nursery sites;
• understand the development of nursery sites;
• discuss the size of nursery and seedbed;
• describe sowing, methods and timing of seed sowing;
• outline the concept of shading and watering.
1.1 Introduction
Nursery is a place where planting material, such as seedlings, saplings, trees, shrubs and
cuttings are raised, propagated and multiplied under favourable conditions for
transplanting in prepared beds. It is a place where plants are grown with the intention of
eventual planting out. Nursery produces billions of plants every year and saves
considerable time for the raising of the next crop. Plants are nourished at nurseries by
providing them ideal growing conditions to ensure germination. Raising a nursery from
seeds offers a simple and practical way to nourish tender and young seedlings in a well-
managed, small and compact area, resulting in improved seed germination of expensive
seeds. Setting up a nursery is a long-term venture, and requires planning and expertise.
Nursery comprises nursery beds, paths, irrigation channels, shade house, and mist
chambers etc.
1.2 Importance of Nursery

The process of growing a forest artificially usually begins with the raising of plants in the
nursery. The nursery industry is literally a plant growing industry. There will be always a
demand for quality planting material and, in turn, there will always be a need for reliable
and reputed nurseries. A good nursery stock is a pre-requisite for a quality plantation. This
can be achieved only if the nursery is properly designed and all nursery operations are
conducted cautiously. It is very important to raise seedlings in a nursery for a number of
reasons. Some of the most important reasons are given below:

i. In the nursery, it is possible to grow and maintain a large number of plants per unit
area.
ii. Due to better care and management in the nursery, small and costly hybrid seeds
can be raised successfully.
iii. The germination rate of seeds increases and the vigor of the seedlings improves
when seeds are sown in seedbeds.
iv. Seedling management can be done in a better way due to the compact nursery area
with minimum care, cost and maintenance.
v. It becomes simple to manipulate the growing conditions for plants.
vi. Vigorous and healthy seedlings can be chosen to ensure better and consistent crop
growth in the main field.
vii. It becomes feasible to sow seeds off-season, which ultimately results in fetching
higher returns.
viii. Because nursery produced crops are better managed, they require less seed than
crops that are sown directly from seed.
ix. Planting seeds in a nursery gives additional time for doing preparatory tillage in the
main plot.
x. In nursery, controlling weeds, diseases, and insect pests is easy.
The demand for high quality planting

material is steadily increasing due to
interest in vegetable gardening, fruit tree
cultivation, social forestry, agro-forestry
and plantation crops. Plant nurseries are
necessary to meet public demand, and all
small and marginal farmers, gardeners,
and farm home owners have realized the Fig. 1: Nursery
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/XW7DdesBzZigm2CZ7
value of nurseries (Fig.1). In order to
fulfill this demand, there is enough scope for the establishment of small nurseries which
will improve the income of needy sections of rural communities.

1.3 Pre-requisite factors considered for selection of the nursery site

It is very important to critically consider the following factors, while selecting a suitable
nursery site. In addition to the physical conditions of the site, one should also consider the
final purpose of the seedlings at the time of site selection. The following points need to be
considered when setting up a nursery:
1.3.1 Climate
The sites which are exposed to strong dry winds should be avoided unless windbreaks and
shelterbelts are available beforehand. Frost pockets, frost holes or exposed sites should
not be chosen for a nursery site. Frost holes are generally common in northern India where
cold air accumulates in the valley bottom and depressions.
1.3.2 Topography of land

Flat areas which become waterlogged should not be selected for nursery sites. Level or
nearly level areas are desirable as the nurseries are to be irrigated. Preferably the site
should be on a gentle slope, so that excessive water can be drained without causing
erosion. Steeper slopes raise the cost of production of seedlings.
1.3.3 Aspect
In the plains the beds should have longer sides in the east-west direction and a cooler
aspect is better than the one exposed to morning sun in frosty localities. Moreover, in the
western Himalayas northern aspect is preferred but towards higher limits of altitudinal zone
(beyond 1500 m) of species, southern aspect may be preferred.
1.3.4 Altitude
In the hilly zones, location of the nursery becomes more important due to the fact that
some species like fir and spruce when raised at lower altitudes usually fail to grow.
Therefore, altitudinal zonation of the species should be kept in mind.
1.3.5 Soil and Soil Fertility

Fertile and well-drained soil with sandy loam to loamy texture, good tilth, and medium to
small blocky structure should be preferred. The site should be quite free from stones,
pebbles or coarse gravel as their removal is expensive. Organic content of at least 2.5%

and pH level between 5.5 and 7.5 should always be preferred for nursery sites. The best
site for raising a nursery in the forest is the clear-felled area that contains thick humus
layers.
Light sandy soils have been considered best for raising conifers due to the following
advantages:
1. They are easier to work and the cost for ground preparation, seeding, weeding
and lifting is less.
2. Seeds can be drilled directly into the soil surface whereas in heavy soil, sand has
to be imported for covering seedbeds.
3. They dry up sooner after rains.
4. Better root systems are produced in sandy soils and frost damage is usually less
in sandy soils.
5. Just like heavy soils, sandy soils flooded easily.
The only drawback with sandy soil is that they are less fertile and require more water, thus
needs more watering and nutrients.
Chemical and physical analysis of soil should also be tested before the selection of the
site. The refractory, saline and alkaline soils should be avoided for nurseries as the
amendments are either difficult or time consuming. Nursery soil should have a mixture of
soil, sand and manure in the proportion of 60-30-10 percent respectively.
Nursery soil management practices often influence seedlings capacity so much that growth
rates after planting out may differ drastically, with the capacity to endure drought and
adverse site conditions differing even more frequently.
1.3.6 Water Supply

The site needs to have a steady supply of water throughout the year. Alkaline and polluted
water should not be used for watering the plants. The site should have perennial water
supply of 200 liters per day for every 1.00 lac seedlings.
1.3.7 Drainage
Soil drainage significantly impacts the health of the seedlings. Drainage becomes impeded
through the formation of a compacted layer when cultivated too wet. Physical limitations in

the soil may give rise to poor plant growth and yield, inspite of the most carefully conceived
fertility regime. Sites which need draining out in the beginning should not be selected.
However, the problem of waterlogging in vertisols can be reduced by adding quartzitic
sand (one part of sand to every three parts of soil) and by in-bed drainage measures.
1.3.8 Transportation
The nursery should be readily accessible all year round in order to facilitate transportation
of materials required in the nursery and dispatch of seedlings from there.
1.3.9 Labour
Availability of trained labour is very much essential for maintenance of nursery. Labour
oriented and timely operations in the nursery demand labour of experienced nature.
Women labourers have been found to be more suitable for performing nursery operations.
At the same time, skilled and experienced foresters in seed technology and nursery
management are desirable.
1.3.10 Protection from animals

The nursery area must be protected by enclosures so as to prevent damage to the plants
by stray animals.
1.3.11 Market needs

Market plays an important role in the success of nursery business. Various type of inputs
like seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, fungicides, plant growth regulators, poly bags, agricultural
implements, different type of spare parts and other miscellaneous items required in the
nursery must be available in the nearby market. The nursery needs to be close to a city or
a place where people can easily purchase the plants. On the other hand, developing a
system to explore both local and foreign markets is also necessary for the nursery
business to succeed.
Check your progress
1. What do you understand by the term nursery?
2. Briefly explain the importance of the nursery in the field of forestry.
3. List some of the important factors suitable for the development of a nursery site?

1.4 Nursery sites and area
1.4.1 Development of Nursery Site

The following key points must be kept in mind during the establishment and preparation of
a plan for a nursery site:
i. Location of buildings.
ii. Layout of water distribution system.
iii. Size of sub divisions of nursery area.
iv. Location of roads and paths, wind breaks.
1.4.2 Site Preparation

The site should be cleared properly by removing all stumps, roots, lops and tops. It is
recommended to perform a thorough hoeing or plowing to a depth of 30 cm, particularly in
areas where plants will be raised in nursery beds. The soil should be levelled to form an
even slope or, if a site is flat, then it should be made slightly domed. As far as possible,
removing top soil must be avoided. Drainage channels should be dug immediately to
prevent soil erosion. Drains should be dug on both sides of the paths and connected to the
main drain. In plains, drain should be adequately sloped and steps should be used in hills
to check the flow of water. Beds should be separated by main paths (2-3 m wide) for
vehicles. Secondary paths should be 1 m wide for movement of wheel barrows. Paths
between nursery beds can be 0.5 m wide for free human movement. Location of irrigation
channels must be kept in mind while developing the layout plan of the nursery. In the hills,
nursery beds are made after terracing. Every terrace has a minimum of one bed with a
path on both sides.
1.4.3 Size of the Nursery

The size of the nursery depends upon:
i. The number of seedlings to be produced.
ii. Age of seedlings or transplants at the time of planting out.
iii. Number of transplanting to be done for a particular species.

iv. Area of plantation to be taken up and spacing used in plantation.
Moreover, even for the production of two different species, the area of the nursery may
differ. The shape of the area should be as square as possible. Out of the total area laid out
for a nursery, only 50% is set aside for sowing and raising seedlings. And the remaining
portion is used for permanent roads, inspection paths, irrigation channels, heaps of organic
matter and sand etc. A eucalyptus nursery in one hectare area can easily produce 3.5 to
4.00 lac plants, whereas a teak nursery of 5-hectare area only produces one lac of plants.
For Chir, raised in polythene bags and planted out at 3 x 3 m, a nursery of 30 sq m. is
sufficient for one hectare of plantation. For poplar transplants, 1 ha area will yield only
20000 plants at a spacing of 60 x 80 cm.
1.4.4 Preparation of Beds

There are different types of beds on the basis of purpose and vertical level, these are
Sunken beds, Raised beds, Seedbeds, Seed flats, Transplant Beds, Beds for Normal
Sowing of Seeds/Planting of Cuttings and Beds for Polythene Bags. Seed flats are used
for germinating seeds and can be grounded made up of earthen pots, shallow wooden
boxes, plastic trays, or wicker or bamboo baskets of portable size (say 50cm x 30cm x
10cm deep). As the seedlings are to be pricked out in another bed for further growth, the
rooting medium in seed flats should allow easy lifting, without root damage. The best
medium for this purpose is disinfected quartz sand which is particularly suitable in
comparatively cooler regions and for coniferous species. Nursery beds should be laid
preferably of the same size. The width of the beds should not be kept more than 1.25 m,
as it restricts the free hard working of labourers. The length of the bed is variable but 10-15
m is usually preferred. In the hills, a nursery is raised on the southern and northern
aspects, and the beds are best laid out from east to west as it provides protection from
both sun and frost. The beds should be along the contour in hill terraces and may have a
downward slope to allow slow drainage. In the plains, a bed laid lengthwise in an east-west
direction can be easily protected from sun by putting up a sunshade on the southern side
of the bed. There should be a path between the beds for moving in between, working, and
weeding etc. The best time for making the beds is autumn. The soil of the beds should be
dug 30 to 45 cm deep and allowed to weather. Later, the soil should be sieved for the
preparation of seedbeds. Proper proportions of sand and fully rotten farmyard manure

should be mixed up to enhance the quality of soil, as soil-mix affects the growth of both
root and shoot of the plant. To avoid damage from termites 5% aldrex dust at the rate of 75
kg per hectare should be added in the soil.
Housing beds for setting polythene bags should be around 1m in width and are sunk to a
minimum depth equal to the length of the containers to be kept in the bed. For example, in
Rajasthan, housing beds are 37 cm deep, 7m long and 1.2 m wide. The floor of the
housing bed should have a 300-500 gauge polythene sheet to act as a barrier to the
seedling roots preventing them from penetrating the earth.
Generally, beds are laid out at level with the general ground level, as they are easily
irrigated and drained out. In hot and dry areas, the beds are sunken. Sunken beds help in
collecting run-off water from adjoining areas and reducing evaporational loss from its
sides. An evaporational loss from the sides of potted plants is also reduced when they are
nearly packed in beds so that their upper surface is in level with that of the surrounding
area. Investigations carried out with different types of nursery beds revealed that sunken
cemented beds, as compared to sunken beds, decreased the water requirements of
nursery stock by 29.8%. This was because there were proportionally fewer root clippings in
the sunken cemented beds (Kaul and Ganguli, 1963).
In higher rainfall areas, beds are laid out 10-15 cm above the ground level i.e. raised beds.
Such raised beds are supported by bamboo, stones or wooden posts or sticks to prevent
them crumbling in the dry season. Raised beds are also preferred for sowing to raise
pricking material in Eucalyptus nurseries. The surface of the beds should be dressed with
sand or leaf mould and it should be perfectly flat.
1.4.5 Size of Beds

Beds of 10 x 1 m or 12 m x 1.20 m size are constructed in the plains. Beds are used for
seed germination, polypot storage, and for transplantation of pricked-out seedlings. In the
hills, smaller beds of 2 m x 1 m size are generally prepared. Yet depending on the
availability of the area, the size of beds can be changed. The width of beds should not
exceed more than 1.2 m otherwise weeding of seedlings, especially in the middle part of
the bed should become a problem. The beds should be oriented in east-west direction in
the plains and should follow contours in the hills. In very cold areas where lifting may be

restricted due to frozen ground, orienting beds in a north-south direction will facilitate early
thawing by the morning sun, and thereby lifting.
1.5 Seedbeds
The plot where seedbeds are to be prepared must be ploughed and properly levelled.
Depending upon the texture of soil, a slope of about 1 to 3% was constructed and less
slope was made for sandy soils. The soil in the seedbed is light and if required, sand and
soil (1:1) was properly mixed; so that the seedlings can break through when germinate.
This will also be helpful when plants are lifted for pricking out. Sometimes, seed beds are
also covered to hasten germination. The seed beds should not be filled in completely, so
as to avoid the washing away of top soil and seed. The surface of the seedbed should be
made firm by sprinkling water and then by using a wooden plank. The sowing of seed in
seed beds is done more densely than in normal beds.
1.6 Sowing
Sowing is a process of planting seeds into the soil or putting seeds into the ground. Proper
precautions should be followed during this agricultural practice, such as maintaining the
right distance and depth and making sure the soil is clean, healthy, and free of fungi,
illness, and other pathogens.
1.6.1 Methods of seed sowing

Depending upon germination rate, size of seed and container, seed is sown either in lines,
broadcast and dibbled into small pits (Fig. 2). Spacing in nursery beds between rows is
kept at 10-15 cm and 5-6 cm
between plants within row,
depending upon the species.
Very minute seeds like
Eucalyptus, Adina,
Anthocephalus, Casuarina are
mixed with equal quantities of
sand at sowing time to
facilitate uniform dispersal.
Fig. 2: Methods of seed sowing
Such seeds need to be sown

on the upper layer of the bed and covered with a fine layer of sand or soil. The seed is
watered lightly with a fine rose-can to avoid splashing them out of the soil. Sowing in
containers is done after making small holes near the surface. Medium sized seeds of
Acacia, Cassia, Albizia, and Prosopis should be sown about 1 cm deep. Large sized seeds
like Azadirachta, Tamarindus, Erythrina should be sown about 2 cm deep. Very large
seeds of Tectona, Ziziphus, Swietenia are sown at 3 cm depth. In general, the sowing
depth should be 1 to 2 times of seed diameter. In polythene 1 to 3 seeds are sown
depending upon germination capacity of the seed. But after 15-20 days of germination,
only one seed should be left per polythene bag. Different methods of sowing are described
below:
1.6.1.1 Broadcasting
In this method, seeds are broadcast on nursery beds by hand or mechanically with tractor
mounted spinners used in agriculture. Later the beds are covered with sieved compost or
farmyard manure. However, this method requires more quantity of seeds and the seeds
are not placed at a desired place.
1.6.1.2 Line sowing
Sowing in Lines or drill sowing is done in predetermined intervals in lines or drills

conveniently. Seed can be sown by hand or can be drilled with modified agricultural drill.
This process reduces the quantities of seed required for seeding. The distance between
the lines or drills can be fixed keeping in view the growth rate as well the density of the
stocking required. This method of sowing improves the germination and quality of
seedlings. In this method, each seed gets independent space, and grows healthy and
vigorously. In line sowing, diseased seedlings and weeds can be easily managed.
Hand sowing in drills or lines is still practiced to a large extent. Generally, the trenches are
prepared, after filing in the weathered soil, a drill with the help of a peg or hoe is made in
which seed sowing is carried out. The sowing may be done in continuous trenches, in
interrupted lines or interrupted and staggered lines. Staggered and interrupted line sowing
should be followed in undulating and slopy areas. Interrupted line sowing reduces the cost
as it is also useful in cleaning the area of weeds. The disadvantage with line sowing is that
it takes longer time to fully stocking than compared to broadcast sowing. Line sowing is
practiced for raising taungya plantations of Sal in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

1.6.1.3 Strip Sowing
In strip sowing seeds are sown in two or more rows or without rows all along the strip.
Strips are usually 45-90 cm or even 1.80 m wide. After raking the soil, broadcast sowing is
done. Strip sowing bears the advantage over line sowing that chances of failure of any part
of the plantation are very rare but it certainly requires more seed and weedings.
1.6.1.4 Spot Sowing
In this method dug up earth is filled back in the trench in a sloping manner, leaving part of
the trench unfilled. The balanced soil is used for making a ridge partly out, partly inside the
trench. Seed is sown at three intervals starting from the top on the ridge, ground level and
a little above the lowest position of the trench. The spots may be rectangular, circular or
square, rectangular being preferred for contour sowing. Spot planting is commonly used
for establishing conifer plantations in the hilly regions where seedlings are difficult to carry.
1.6.1.5 Dibbling
Dibbing is a common practice for sowing seeds in polythene bags or containers. Dibbling
is the process of sowing seeds in shallow holes, made with an iron or wooden hoeing
device of at least 10×10×10 cm. Species with large seeds are preferred for dibbling, at
least one to two seeds per hole is inserted in the shallow holes. Both the process of
seeding and soil working was done simultaneously. Like taungya seeding, stakes are
erected nearby for easy location in the subsequent period. It is the cheapest and the
quickest method of sowing.
1.6.2 Precautions taken during seed sowing and planting

1.6.2.1 During seed sowing
i. The seeds must be healthy and free from infection.
ii. Small seeds are sown after being mixed with sand for equal distribution.
iii. The seeds must be sown at the right depth.
iv. To prevent crowding, the seeds must be sown at a regular distance, which helps the
seedlings to receive sufficient nutrients, water, sunlight and air. In addition, to
prevent the seeds or seedlings from drying out or rotting, the soil should not be
either too wet nor too dry.

1.6.2.2 During planting
i. Healthy and uniform seedlings must be selected and planted late in the afternoon at
recommended spacing, followed by watering.
ii. The seedlings must be treated with fungicides to avoid soil-borne infections.
iii. Transplanting must not be carried out in dry, hot, sunny, windy and humid
conditions.
Check your progress
1. What is the size of the nursery site and how is it prepared?
2. Explain different types of beds and their sizes?
3. What do you understand by the term seedbed?
4. What is the difference between broadcasting and line sowing?
5. Explain sowing and different methods of sowing.
1.6.3 Time of Sowing

Sowing time depends upon time to seed ripening, growth rate of species and size of plants
for planting out. Spring sowing is practiced for most of the species and the plants are
planted out during the rainy season. Seed viability and dormancy are also the important
factors that decide the time of sowing. Species with very short seed viability must be sown
immediately, otherwise the germination percentage will go down drastically. Seeds with
long viability should be sown when temperatures are moderate, i.e. between September to
October and February to March.
Sowing should be done when soil is sufficiently moist and warm to start germination in the
spring or at the onset of rains. Moisture and rainfall are the main critical factors which
decide the time of sowing. The soil should be free of frost, as most of the species require
high soil temperature for germination. In the snow-fall areas, sowing is generally
recommended before the onset of snowfall, as immediately after snow melting conditions
becomes favourable for germination, also the seed is protected by snow from birds and
other seed-eating animals during winter.

Particularly in low hills, the sowing time varies from September to October during Winter
season and from March to April during summers. Similarly, for mid hills, the time of sowing
ranges from September to February during winters and from April to May during the
summer season. The sowing of seed in the high hill region is done from September to
October during winter season and from April to May during the rainy and winter season.
The transplantation of healthy seedlings to the seed beds was done in evening hours
during summer seasons and in winter season, the transplantation was done during
morning hours.
1.7 Quality of Seed

The quality of seed sown at the nursery is considered as an important factor in enhancing
production, as seeds are the most basic component of any planting programme. Quality
seeds allow for the efficient use of inputs such as irrigation and fertilizer.
Quality seed is
• free from disease and diseased organisms.
• has a high germination index.
• proper moisture content.
• has sufficient weight.
There are different factors that influence the quality of seeds, the main factors are genetic
and physical or environmental characteristics. Genetic factors include genetic make-up,
seed size and bulk density. Temperature, nutrients and other environmental factors affect
seed development.
1.8 Shading
Seedbeds of minute seeds and young seedlings of shade-bearing species require shade in
the initial stage. Newly planted saplings need to be guarded from severe weather. Shade
can be provided by using shade-nets or polythene sheets. Transplants also require shade,
otherwise young seedlings desiccate and perish in the sun. Shade can be provided by
trees, thatch, mat, plastic or tin sheet or by a shade house made of net. Shading to the
seedbeds is done to achieve the following objectives:
i. To protect young seedlings of shade-bearing species against sun.

ii. To protect seedlings of frost-tender species against frost. The covering should be
removed after the soil temperature rises up in the morning and covered again in the
evening.
iii. To protect against hail storms or heavy rains during which the young seedlings are
damaged due to splash action.
After shading the plants should be hardened-off before planting out in the field. This can be
done by gradually decreasing the period of shade and increasing the shadeless period.
Shading should be removed during cloudy days and early in the rains. At the end of
August, no shade is necessary for most species. Shade should be gradually thinned and
removed at least two weeks before planting out along with reduction in watering regime to
toughen the plants.
1.9 Watering
After the establishment of plants, watering must be done as per the requirement of
individual plants. Excess watering is as harmful as less watering. For most species,
irrigation a day by thoroughly saturating the polythene bag is sufficient. During winter,
irrigation in 2-3 days will be sufficient. Evening times are best for irrigation but in large
nurseries, irrigation is conducted throughout the day to cover the entire area. Water should
not fall on young seedlings with much pressure. When the moisture level decreases, the
concentration of soluble salts in plant tissue increases, thus maintaining proper moisture
level in growing media is very important. The growing media remains dry out due to the
presence of excessive soluble salts. In porous growing media, maintaining proper moisture
levels can be challenging and need careful monitoring. Irrigation water should ideally have
a pH of 5.5 to 7.5, and salt less than 400 ppm.
Adequate supply of water in all the seasons should be available in the nursery. Small
anicuts/dams also ensure water in an otherwise seasonal stream for supply to the
nurseries. There are different sources of water that help in irrigation. Open water sources
require less money and water can be partially redirected to the application site via
channels and check dams. Shallow wells can be dug for temporary nurseries. Artesian
wells are used in the terai region of Uttar Pradesh. Centrifugal pumps operated by electric
supply or diesel oil and for lifting water from a deep well or through bores done in the
ground water are in common uses. Flow irrigation and overhead irrigation by automizer,

sprinkling system and rose-can are the common methods of irrigation in nurseries. Flow
irrigation is used in the dry and arid areas with levelled or sunken beds and particularly
suits to light soils with good drainage. However, watering by automizer is the best-known
method for seed beds and watering by rose-can is the common practice in the nurseries.
Sprinkling is a well-designed system of water mainlines for distributing water to the
various sections of the nursery. The sprinkling system consists of underground lined pipes
and tubes fitted with small holes over the nursery beds. Nowadays, drill system irrigation
technique is used to foster maximum economy and water use.
Check your progress
1. Why is shading important for nursery plants?
2. What is the best time of sow seeds in the nursery?
3. Explain different sources of water used in irrigation of nurseries.
4. What are the things used for shading nursery?
5. What are the characteristics of a quality seed?
Summary
This unit describes the importance of nursery and nursery is a place where planting
material, such as seedlings, saplings, trees, shrubs and cuttings are raised, propagated
and multiplied under favourable conditions for transplanting in prepared beds. Climate,
topography of land, aspects, altitude, soil, drainage and irrigation systems are some of the
important factors need to be considered when setting up a nursery. The size of the nursery
depends upon the number of seedlings to be produced, age of seedlings or transplants at
the time of planting out and number of transplanting to be done for a particular species.
Sowing is a process of planting seeds into the soil or putting seeds into the ground.
Different methods of sowing are broadcasting, line, strip, dibbling and spot sowing. Sowing
time depends upon time to seed ripening, growth rate of species and size of plants for
planting out. Quality seed is used in nursery that is free from disease and diseased
organisms, has a high germination index, proper moisture content and has sufficient
weight. Shading to the seedbeds is very important to protect against sun, frost and hail
storms and adequate supply of water in all the seasons should be available in the nursery.

References
1. Duryea, M.L. (1985). Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and
predictive abilities of major tests. Portland, Oregon, USA: Oregon State University.
Pp. 143.
2. Kaul, R.N. and B.N. Ganguly. (1963). Studies on the economics of raising nursery
seedlings in the arid zones. Annals of Arid Zone. 1 (2).
3. Luna, R.K. (2006). In: Plantation forestry in India. International Book Distributors.
Rajpur road. Dehradun. Pp. 1-93.

Unit 2: Nursery Management-II

Unit Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Weeding
2.2.1 Intensity of weed control
2.2.2 Patterns of weeding
2.2.2.1 Complete weeding
2.2.2.2 Line weeding
2.2.2.3 Strips and inter-row cultivation
2.2.2.4 Spot ringed
2.2.3 Methods of weeding
2.2.3.1 Manual weeding
2.2.3.2 Mechanical weeding
2.2.3.3 Chemical weeding
2.2.3.4 Biological weed control
2.3 Soil Working
2.4 Transplanting
2.4.1 Process of Transplanting
2.4.2 Transplanting of Large Trees
2.4.3 Advantages of Transplanting
2.5 Plant Containers
2.5.1 Types of Plant Containers
2.5.1.1 Earthern pots
2.5.1.2 Leaf Pots
2.5.1.3 Tubes
2.5.1.4 Polythene bags
2.5.1.5 Root trainers
2.5.2 Size of the plant containers
2.6 Fertilization
2.7 Micro-propagation
2.7.1 Importance of micro-propagation
2.8 Misting units
2.8.1 Working of misting units
2.8.2 Use of misting units
2.9 Greenhouse
Summary
References


• understand the concept of nursery management;
• discuss intensity, patterns and types of weeding methods;
• describe the procedure of soil preparation;
• discuss transplanting and its advantages;
• describe plant containers, its size and types;
• understand fertilization, micro-propagation and its importance;
• discuss misting units and greenhouse.
2.1 Introduction
Nursery management can be defined as the actions involved in the successful production,
care, and marketing of various planting materials like seeds, seedlings, and cuttings in a
specific nursery area. Essential nursery management practices include management of
fence, roads, paths, irrigation, drainage channels, tools and equipment, management of
water sources and management of temporary and permanent plants grown in the nursery.
2.2 Weeding
Weeding is a cultural operation that involves the removal or cutting or suppressing the
undesirable vegetation. It is an important operation which should be carried out timely in
the nurseries. After germination of sown seeds, some weeds also come which share
space, nutrients and water, consequently suppressing the growth of desired plants. In the
initial stages, when weeds are small, weeding can be accomplished by hand, but when the
weeds become high, the tap root of the weeds should be pulled out with the help of knives
or simply a pointed stick. During weeding, undesirable seedlings should also be pulled out
for giving proper escapement to the seedlings. But precautions should be taken that
desirable tiny seedlings are not pulled out as well as roots of the seedlings are not
damaged. While weeding the upper surface of the nursery bed should also be worked up
to reduce evaporation. Weeds are eliminated due to:

• danger of fire hazard build-up steadily
• weeds can shelter harmful insects
• weeds can smother and eventually kill trees by their cumulative weight, shading
and by exerting pressure.
Weeding is not performed when the soil is wet, to avoid removal of soil with the roots of
weeds and consequent exposure to the roots of desired species. Line sowing of seeds
facilitates weeding operation manually as well as mechanically. Efforts should also be
taken at the time of sowing that only clean seed free of weeds is sown. Application of
undecomposed farm yard manure is the major cause for large infestation of weeds in the
nurseries. The pulled-out weeds may be used as mulch. There is however the problem of
these mulches, as during decomposition it attract pathogens, which then utilize the soil
nitrogen to the detriment of the seedling growth.
2.2.1 Intensity of weed control

This depends on species, site and climate. The main consideration for deciding intensity
and duration of weeding among others is the Interaction between the tree crop and weeds.
Some species on particular sites become established despite the weed competition, while
on other sites density of weed growth is such that in the early stage of a plantation it will
suppress and kill some or all of the planted saplings. Therefore, before deciding the
frequency of weeding, some general principles of weeding may be taken care of. Timing of
weeding should be such that it prevents trees suffering serious setback in growth. Also,
what is important is the desirability of controlling weeds before the weed species set seed.
Most crops benefit from a total weeding, species which are intolerant of weed growth
necessarily require weeding until the tree crop has taken over or dominated the site. Like
tree species are tolerant of weeds therefore, weeding frequency may be applied to the
level that will just achieve satisfactory results. For example, all eucalypts need complete
weeding for their early growth. Many more weedings are required in wet areas than dry
sites. Four or even more weedings are needed in the first year where weeds grow
profusely and where there is heavy rainfall throughout the year. Similarly, many weedings
are needed on sites where the growing season is short.

2.2.2 Patterns of weeding

Two operations are involved in weeding process i.e. suppression and elimination.
Weed suppression can be carried out by trampling or crushing down the weeds by cutting
above the ground level.
Weed elimination requires complete removal by killing of weeds. Weedings may be total
or partial, the main partial methods are spot or line weeding.
2.2.2.1 Complete weeding
It requires all vegetation competition to be eliminated around the plants and the areas may
be harrowed. It is a costly operation and is not possible on a large scale.
2.2.2.2 Line weeding
This pattern is adopted in the areas thickly infested with weeds. In the hills, this method
should be carried out on contours. A strip of one meter wide is hoed along the planting
line.
2.2.2.3 Strips and inter-row cultivation
In this pattern cultivation is done in the interrow to avoid weed competition and at the same
time to grow food crops as in taungya plantations.
2.2.2.4 Spot ringed
This is the standard method for manual weeding used in India. All plant growth around the
center of the plant in a circular ring of 1 to 2 m diameter is hoed around the plants. When
the weed growth is heavy and the tree growth is slow, the cost of weeding operations may
be very high.
2.2.3 Methods of weeding

Different methods of weeding are
manual, mechanical, chemical
and biological control (Fig. 1).
2.2.3.1 Manual weeding
Manual weeding is by far the

commonest method. Simple tools
such as sickles, brush hooks, Fig. 1: Methods of weeding

shovel, and similar implements are used to cut away the competing vegetation. The
operation is usually more effective if some hoeing involving turning over the soil rather than
scraping off the weeds is also carried out. Manual weeding needs little skill and
supervision and can be carried out on all sites in almost all the weather conditions with all
species.
2.2.3.2 Mechanical weeding
In mechanical weeding, a machine operates between the rows of trees, cultivates the
ground by harrowing, or shallow ploughing and outs/turns down the weed growth. The
machine is pulled by a tractor, so it is workable only when the spacing of rows is at least 3
m. Weeds in the rows are overlooked, but can be removed by supplementing hand
weeding near the plants. Mechanical cultivation for weed control has been extensively
used in large projects.
2.2.3.3 Chemical weeding
Herbicides are used in chemical weeding and herbicides marketed under different trade
names and formulations in the world trade. Precautions should be taken that the
recommendation that comes with the chemical is rigorously followed. Only pesticides
which are bio-degradable and can be broken down easily in the environment
like Organophosphates and carbamates should be used. Inappropriate dosages and
techniques should be avoided.
2.2.3.4 Biological weed control
Biological control is still another method in which diseased organism or insect is used
which is harmless to the desired plants but kills weed. Use of parasitic plants, selective
browsing by livestock and rodents and growing highly competitive replacement plants are
other forms of biological control. An excellent example of biological weed control is the
prickly pear or Opuntia spp.in Australia.
2.3 Soil Working

The soil of the bed should be prepared by dugging at a depth of 30 to 45 cm and then
allowed to weather. All types of stones, boulders, roots should be taken out as they
obstruct the growth of seedlings. The soil should be sieved through a mesh for the
preparation of seed beds. To give a correct texture to the soil, proper proportions of sand

and fully rotten farm yard manure should be mixed up, as composition of soil-mix affects
the growth of both root and shoot. Mixed soil having nursery soil and sand in equal
proportions proves better than either pure nursery soil, loam or sandy soils to raise plants
in the nursery. The soil of most of the nurseries that raise hard wood species requires a
blend of loamy and sandy soil. The clayey soils should be avoided as they have poor
drainage and aeration thus, they are prone to crack in dry seasons. The moisture content
of the soil should be maintained properly to enhance the growth of the plant raised in the
nursery.
To avoid damage from termites 5% aldrex dust at the rate of 75 kg per hectare should be
added in the soil. In some places, charcoal dust and ashes are mixed up for restoring the
correct acidity of the soil. Burning of dry leaves evenly spread in the bed before
transplanting to kill harmful insects is also practiced. The residue of burnt leaves also adds
nutrients to the soil value of nurseries.
Check your progress
1. Explain nursery management?
2. Differentiate between weed elimination and weed suppression?
3. Briefly explain intensity and methods of weeding.
4. How soil is prepared in a nursery site?
2.4 Transplanting
Transplanting is also called as lining out or pricking out. It is the process of shifting
seedling from the seed beds to another part of the nursery or polypots to attain proper size
for planting out and to induce compact bushy root system instead of long tap root after
giving proper spacing. Pricked out plants are called transplants and those who are not
pricked out are called seedlings. Seedlings are lifted from the line sowings or drill sowings
or from wild germination as soon as they become large enough to handle safely. Pricking
out should be carried out when the cotyledons have dropped or two primary leaves have
emerged in addition to cotyledons and the seedling stems have reasonable strength to
stand transplanting. The period for attaining such a state of development varies from
species to species but it is generally more than three but less than four weeks.

2.4.1 Process of Transplanting

For transplanting the seedlings are first dislodged from the nursery beds. It can be
performed by hand pricking by taking out seedlings carefully one by one. In other cases,
they are taken out in groups by digging a trench on the side of the width of the seedling
bed. The transplanting should be done in a hole longer than the tap root length. The
operation should preferably be done on a humid day, during rains or in the evenings.
Transplanting to a large extent is done with the help of a transplanting board. The board
consists of a wooden plank 10-15 cm wide. One of its edges has notches spaced at
intervals at which the plants are to be transplanted in rows. Furrows in the transplant beds
are made beforehand and deep enough, so that the roots of the seedlings settle without
folding. The board is placed with its notched edge on the furrow, the seedlings are placed
in the notches with their collars slightly above the ground level and tap root suspended in
the furrow. The soil is filled back in the furrows; the seedlings get fixed up in the soil. After
transplanting, the beds or polypots should be watered with a fine rose, so that the soil
settles down in the furrow with full contact with the roots. Transplant beds are fertilized and
manured in the same way as the seed beds. Transplanting in some species is done twice
where tall plants are required for planting out in the field. Transplanting is a common
practice in Eucalyptus hybrid, Pinus roxburghii, Fir, Spruce, Casuarina equisetifolia,
Cupressus torulosa, Acer spp. etc.
2.4.2 Transplanting of Large Trees

Transplanting large trees has the advantages over sapling planting as less protection is
required against cattle and the desired objective is achieved quickly. The trees with good
shape and well-developed crown to be replanted are selected. As in large trees the taproot
and side roots are well developed and spread over large areas, all the roots cannot be
removed with the ball of earth. A trench of a radius of 60 cm to 120 cm away from the main
trunk is dug. Normally, radius is double the diameter of the tree, but in any case, should
not be more than 120 cm. The trench is 60 cm wide and 90 cm deep, side roots are cut.
After digging, the tree is watered so that small roots develop, which bind the earth and the
sufficient water is stored in the ball of earth. The tap root is cut only at the time of
transplanting. Transplanting during hot weather is avoided.

2.4.3 Advantages of Transplanting

Some of the advantages of transplanting are given below:
i. Plants get sufficient space and nutrients for healthy development.
ii. Crowded plants in the seedling beds lodge and develop long tap roots which do not
resist shocking while planting out in the field.
iii. Transplanting helps to attain bushy fibrous root system which is easier to handle and
involves less mortality.
iv. Desired size of plants can be obtained in a shorter time. The seedlings can remain in
the nursery till they attain proper size for planting.
2.5 Plant Containers

The species which cannot resist the shock of transplanting in the field are raised in plant
containers. The custom of planting with root balls for large sized or fragile plants with a
difficult strike has existed for a long time. The seedling with a root ball has a totally
protected rooting, whereas the rooting system of the ordinary naked root seedling is
always more or less injured. Planting with root balls becomes imperative when timbering
poor soils becomes a necessity. Container plants have a considerable capacity to
withstand a limited dry period following planting, their use therefore can prolong the
planting season. Transporting seedlings with root balls presents a problem, in order for the
root ball not to dislocate it has to be packed up. From time-to-time potted plants have been
raised in the locally available packing material. Some of the containers that are common in
use are described below:
2.5.1 Types of Plant Containers

Different types of containers are used in
transplanting process (Fig. 2). Some of
them are described below:
2.5.1.1 Earthern pots
Caked earthern pots with bottoms intact

or bottomless bases are used, the latter Fig. 2: Types of plant container

can be placed in the pits along with plants, whereas the former has to be broken. Earthern
pots are heavy, fragile and expensive. They are rarely used now.
2.5.1.2 Leaf Pots
Various types of leaf cups (called donas in Hindi) are used from time to time for raising a
variety of plants in the Indian subcontinent especially in the tribal dominated areas. Leaves
of Shorea robusta, Ficus are used for preparation of donas. In West Bengal, Sal seedlings
are raised in a specially prepared cylindrical cup which is 20 to 30 cm long and 10 cm in
diameter. They are filled with soil and kept under shade on a layer of leaves.
2.5.1.3 Tubes
Bamboo tubes are extensively used for raising a number of species. Bamboo tube can be
easily made by cutting the internode into two and tieing it with a fine wire or thread to form
a tube. Baskets made of bamboo, mulberry or Tamarix sticks are also used for
transportation of plants from nursery to the planting site. In order to grow very large
seedlings (more than one metre) reinforced (laminated) polythene sacs are being
increasingly used. Iron coal tar drums, and concrete pots are also used where the height of
the plants is more than 2-2.5 m.
In these cases, the pots or the drums are split into two and are bound with a piece of steel
wire before filling with soil. The wire is loosened and the plant with the ball of soil is
removed for planting out. Fertilizer bags can also be used for raising larger plants.
2.5.1.4 Polythene bags
To take up massive afforestation in wastelands and for the introduction of exotic plants, the
importance of polythene bag plants has increased tremendously. Polythene bags can be
prepared conveniently of any size in large quantities. They remain undamaged during use
and unused containers can be stored. Polythene bags are cheaper and effective over a
wide range of conditions. Their transportation is easier, safer and less expensive as
compared to other plant containers. The polythene containers can be transparent or black,
the black being more durable. The transparent containers are liable to have algae and
moss and the transparent bags reflect the heat, keeping the soil and root zone cooler in
hot regions, hence suitable for these areas.

2.5.1.5 Root trainers
Nowadays, root trainers are employed in nurseries. It is a conical-shaped rigid container

made up of cells arranged in groups of 16 to 30 and built into a frame of moulded plastic
sheet. The bottom opening is known as a drainage hole, and the root trainers are
suspended on a wire frame at least 10 cm above the ground. This method prevents root
coiling that occurs in polythene bags and growing medium is filled in the root trainer.
2.5.2 Size of the plant containers

The size of the container varies for species to be raised, age and size of the planting stock
required as well as climatic conditions of the site. The size of the container has an effect
on its weight when filled with soil which is a direct concern for handling and transplanting
seedlings. The cost for maintenance in the nursery also rises with its increasing size. The
objective should, therefore, be to use the smallest container compatible with the successful
establishment and subsequent growth development of plants. The basic principle is that
one should not grow a large size seedling in a small container. This can create the
problem of root coiling which affects the health of the seedling or kills it. The coiled roots
fail to grow down the soil, cut off in root water transport and thus the trees are uprooted in
storm or are scorched drought. It is reported that 250 to 350 cm³ of soil is needed to
produce plants of 25 to 35 cm tall. The length of bags cannot be reduced as in seedlings;
the root should be at least half the length of shoot.
In other countries, minipots of size 15 cm by 15 cm have been developed and extensively

used. The use of containers has occasionally caused root malformation of seedlings and in
minipots, chances of malformations are high. When the plants are kept too long in
containers the restriction of lateral root growth may cause distortion, coiling and spiraling
which may later lead to basal stem snap, reduced wind firmness and stunted growth.
These symptoms appear later in the field and sometimes go unnoticed. To reduce root
coiling, nursery operations should be so regulated, that the plants do not grow oversized
and before outplanting and to mitigate the damage from coiling, it is better to completely
remove the container at the time of planting. For raising fuelwood and fodder trees for
social forestry projects polythene bags of 100-gauge, 10 cm diameter and 20 cm long are
sufficient, whereas fruit trees require polythene bags of 150-gauge, 15 cm diameter and 30
cm long.

2.6 Fertilization
Fertilization is one of the most important aspects of raising high-quality nursery stock.
Seedlings rapidly drain the mineral nutrients stored in seeds, whereas cuttings have
restricted nutrient reserves. To attain ideal growth rates, nursery plants must rely on
nutrition intake from the growing media through their roots. Plants require appropriate
mineral nutrients in the proper balance for basic physiological activities like
photosynthesis, as well as to stimulate rapid growth and development. Without an
adequate supply of mineral nutrients, growth slows and plant vigour decreases. Proper
fertilization can increase growth rates by three to five times compared with regular
condition. Fertilizers are often sprayed just before or right after planting. The frequency
and amount of fertilizer application totally depends on crop, soil and season.
Growth rate of plant and quality of nursery stock is totally dependent on the availability of
mineral nutrient. When nutrients are provided in appropriate time, amount
and ratio, nursery plants can grow many times faster than in nature. High-quality nursery
stock is supplemented with extra nutrients to boost growth after outplanting. Thirteen
mineral nutrients are considered important for plant growth and development, and they are
classified as macronutrients and micronutrients based on their concentrations in plant
tissues.
Plants grown in container receive nutrients from a variety of sources, like growing media,
irrigation water, helpful bacteria, and fertilizer. Many container nurseries that cultivate
native plants use synthetic growth media like peat moss and vermiculite. Because media
are fundamentally barren, nurseries either apply a starter dosage of fertilizer or begin liquid
fertigation (irrigation water containing liquid fertilizer) right after germination.
There are numerous types of fertilizers available for use in native plant nurseries, each
with a unique source material, nutrient quantity, and nutrient release method. Inorganic
and organic fertilizers are the two most commonly used fertilizer in nursery plantations.
Inorganic fertilizer includes potassium magnesium sulphate and ammonium nitrate,
whereas organic fertilizer includes animal manure, sewage sludge, compost, fish emulsion,
and other animal waste. Farmyard manure (FYM) or other bulky manures was evenly
spread into the soil and then mixed well by harrowing. Concentrated organic manures

must be applied in advance as they require soil bacteria to break them down for plant
availability.
Check your progress
1. What is transplanting?
2. Explain different types of plant containers.
3. Write advantages of transplanting.
4. Why fertilization is important in nursery management?
5. Name different types of fertilizers used in nursery plantation.
2.7 Micro-propagation
Micropropagation is the process of producing plants from extremely small plant parts,
tissues, or cells that are cultivated aseptically in test tubes or containers under regulated
nutritional, environmental, and aseptic conditions. All biological principles of
micropropagation techniques are based on the phenomenon known as cell totipotency,
which means that a plant cell has the ability to develop into a full-fledged plant
containing different organs. Micropropagation differs from other vegetative propagation
methods because in micropropagation, extremely little plant part known as explant serve
as a starting material, and the explants are kept in small containers with a clearly defined
culture media. Furthermore, micropropagation requires highly aseptic environment and
produces an enormous quantity of propagating material in a short period of time.
Micropropagation incorporates a variety of culture techniques, including meristem culture,

callus culture, shoot bud regeneration, somatic embryogenesis, ovule culture, embryo
culture, anther culture, and protoplast culture. Micro propagation is an integrated
procedure that involves isolating cells, tissues, or organs from selected plants, surface
sterilized and incubating them in a growth-promoting, sterile media and environment to
create a large number of plants. Micro-propagation involves four phases, which are:
1. Explant establishment in culture medium
2. Proliferation and multiplication
3. Plant establishment and rooting
4. Acclimatization or hardening

2.7.1 Importance of micro-propagation

Vegetative propagation has long been employed to maintain genetic homogeneity since it
provides the quickest option to introduce improved material into production by reproducing
the genetic composition of selected individuals. Micropropagation using tissue culture
techniques is one of the most recent vegetative propagation strategies. Micro-propagation
employing the tissue culture approach offers unique capabilities to rapidly multiply elite
trees via organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis. Micropropagation, or the process of
producing plants by tissue culture, is widely utilized in Eucalyptus plantations.
2.8 Misting units

Misting is a technique for reducing moisture loss in plants by soaking the foliage of rooted
cuttings at regular intervals. Misting is effective for rooting leafy cuttings, but is not
recommended for succulent plants. Mist beds can be utilized in greenhouses throughout
the year or during the growth season for nursery stock. Intermittent misting produces better
outcomes than constant misting for most plants. Constant misting consumes water,
depletes nutrients from leaves, and drops soil temperature that limits root development.
Over-misting is considered less harmful than over-watering. Mist propagation became
widely accepted and it reduces leaf transpiration in two ways. Misting intervals should be
set to keep all cuttings consistently wet. Small farmers primarily employ mist propagation
units, while commercial nurserymen in advanced countries use highly advanced
equipment. Misting units provide more than 85% of relative humidity.
2.8.1 Working of misting units

The misting unit can be set up either in glasshouse or in polyethylene tunnel. Usually, it is
set up on propagation beds of 1.2 m wide. The optimal pH of water for usage in a misting
unit is 5.5 to 6.5. Misting unit has 5 control mechanisms. Timer, electronic leaf, thermostat
and timer, screen balance and photoelectric cell. It is important to use nozzles that can
produce a very fine mist. A fine mist is sprayed over the cutting at regular intervals
throughout the day and night. The mist unit is controlled by a time clock that activates a
magnetic solenoid valve. The mist is turned on for 3-5 seconds to wet the leaves and then
turned off when they dry. Later, the mist is turned on again.

2.8.2 Use of misting units

Nowadays, misting unit is widely used by nurserymen and other plant propagators
throughout the world due to the following advantages:
i. Maintain humidity by a continuous film of water on the leaves, thus reduces

transpiration and keeps the cuttings turgid.
ii. As humidity remains high, leafy cuttings are fully exposed to light and air.
iii. Protects against bright sunshine.
iv. Mist reduces disease infection in cuttings by removing fungus spores before they
reach the tissues.
2.9 Greenhouse
A greenhouse is a semi-permanent structure coated in a transparent or translucent
material, ranging from simple self-constructed designs to sophisticated pre-fabricated
structures. Many types of green houses are used for propagation, but the most appropriate
type is one that allows the highest amount of light to penetrate and where the environment
could be adjusted to promote plant proliferation or growth. Proper lighting is necessary for
the growth of seedlings. Experiments have shown that an east-to-west greenhouse
provides the best light penetration in winter and early spring, making it ideal for producing
seedlings during this time of year. Green houses should be located away from sources of
shade, such as trees, buildings, and other greenhouses. A greenhouse frame can be
made of wood, bamboo, steel, aluminum, with covers made of glass or a variety of rigid or
flexible plastic materials. Greenhouses protect plants from harsh environmental conditions
and also from pest damage. Environmental conditions inside a greenhouse can be
adjusted to promote the growth of nursery plants. Modern greenhouses include advanced
design and have precise control over temperature, light intensity, and humidity.
However, the level of environmental and climatic modifications will be determined by the
design of greenhouse and, in general is related with its cost. The more the greenhouse's
ability to adjust its climate, the higher is its building cost. Temperature, relative humidity,
light, and carbon dioxide all have an impact on greenhouse environment. Greenhouses are
grouped into different varieties based on their shape: naturally ventilated or saw-tooth type,

tunnel type with side ventilation or Plastic Low Tunnels, and net houses, which include
shade net houses and insect-resistant net houses.
Greenhouse size and type are mostly determined by plant propagation requirements.
Glass-covered greenhouses are costly yet have a long lifespan. Plastic-covered
greenhouses can provide short-term benefits. There are two plastics available for
construction of greenhouse, namely polyethylene and fiber glass. Although plastic
greenhouses are lighter than glass greenhouses, they have a higher level of humidity,
especially during the winter months, causing unwanted water drops on plants. Adequate
ventilation can help overcome this issue.
In greenhouses, two types of beds are utilized to raise seedlings. Greenhouse beds can be
prepared on the ground, in raised beds, or on benches. The seedlings are raised inside
greenhouse on raised beds or in plug-trays, for hardening of tissue cultural plants.
Check your progress
1. Discuss micro-propagation and its importance in nursery management.
2. What is misting units and how it is beneficial for the plant?
3. Explain greenhouse and its types.
4. Explain the working of misting units, installed in a nursery.
Summary
In this unit, we have discussed about weeding, its intensity, types and soil working.
Weeding is an important operation which should be carried out timely in the nurseries. The
soil of the bed should be prepared properly. This unit also covers the concept of
transplanting, fertilization and different plant containers used in nursery operations.
Transplanting is also called as lining out or pricking out. Transplanting to a large extent is
done with the help of a transplanting board. Different types of containers are used in
transplanting process. Fertilization is one of the most important aspects of raising high-
quality nursery stock and are often sprayed just before or right after planting. You have
also learnt about micro-propagation, misting units and greenhouse. Micropropagation
using tissue culture techniques is one of the most recent vegetative propagation strategies.
Micro-propagation employing the tissue culture approach offers unique capabilities to

rapidly multiply elite trees via organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis. Misting is a

technique for reducing moisture loss in plants, it provides more than 85% of relative
humidity. Many types of green houses are used for propagation, it is a semi-permanent
structure coated in a transparent material to protect plants from harsh environmental
conditions and from pests.
References
1. Chaudhary, V., Kalia, S., Mishra, S. (2019). In: Modern Nursery Techniques,
ICFRE Manual. Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun,
India.
2. Duryea, M.L. (1985). Evaluating seedling quality: principles, procedures, and

predictive abilities of major tests. Portland, Oregon, USA: Oregon State University.
Pp. 143.
3. Jacobs, D.F., Landis, T.D. (2009). Fertilization. In: Dumroese, R. Kasten; Luna,
Tara; Landis, Thomas D., editors. Nursery manual for native plants: A guide for
tribal nurseries.1: Nursery management. Agriculture Handbook 730. Washington,
D.C, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. pp. 201-215.
5. Schnelle, M.A., Cole, J.C., Dole, J.M. (1914). In: Mist Propagation Systems and
Humidity Chambers for the Nursery and Greenhouse. Oklahoma Cooperative
Extension Service. Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources,
Oklahoma State University.

Unit 3: Type and Components of Nursery
Unit Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Main Aspects to be considered before Raising Nursery
3.2.1 Market Research, Business and financial planning
3.2.2 Location
3.2.3 Plant Selection
3.2.4 Infrastructure and Equipment
3.2.5 Legal and Regulatory Requirements
3.2.6 Knowledge and Expertise
3.3 Advantages of Modern Nursery Raising System
3.3.1 Types of Nurseries
3.3.2 On the Basis of Size
3.3.3 On the Basis of Business
3.4 Nursery Structures/Components
3.4.1 Storage and Packing Areas
3.4.2 Potting
3.4.3 Nursery Beds
3.4.4 Mist Chamber
3.4.5 Cold Frames
3.4.6 Hotbeds
3.4.7 Greenhouses
3.4.8 Shade Houses
3.4.9 Propagation Facilities
3.4.10 Office and Administrative Spaces
3.5 Types of Greenhouses
3.5.1 Passive greenhouses
3.5.2 Active greenhouses
3.5.3 Natural Ventilated Greenhouses
3.5.4 Forced Ventilation Greenhouses
3.6 Factors Affecting the Environment of Greenhouse
3.6.1 Heat or Temperature
3.6.2 Humidity
3.6.3 Light
3.6.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Levels
3.6.5 Ventilation and Air Circulation
3.6.6 Watering and Irrigation
3.6.7 Nutrient Management
3.6.8 Pest and Disease Control
3.6.9 Seasonal Considerations
3.7 Pre-requisites for Establishment of Nursery
3.8 Why nursery is needed?
3.9 Planning and Layout of Nursery

After the study of this unit, a learner would be able to:
● Describe the main aspects considered before raising the nursery
● Discuss the types of nurseries
● Discuss the structure and components of nurseries
● Explain the importance and types of greenhouses
● Discuss the factors on which environment of greenhouse depends
● Discuss the prerequisites for establishment of nurseries
3.1 Introduction
A nursery typically refers to a place where plants are grown and nurtured, especially young
plants or trees. They play a vital role in the cultivation and propagation of plants, providing
a best environment for young plants to thrive before being transplanted into gardens,
landscapes, plantations, forests, or commercial establishments or settings. There are
various types of nurseries, each serving different purposes and catering to diverse needs.
Further, nurseries consist of several key components that are essential for the successful
propagation, growth, establishment and maintenance of seedlings, saplings of plant
species. Understanding the types and components of nurseries is crucial for the
stakeholder i.e, gardeners, students, learners and professionals of forestry and horticulture
industry. In this unit, we will discuss the different types and components of nurseries that
are essential in any plant nursery and on which success of plant cultivation or propagation
depends.
3.2 Main Aspects to be considered before Raising Nursery
Before starting any business, there are several key aspects that should be considered to
ensure a strong foundation for a thriving and establishing a sustainable business. This is
also true for raising a nursery business also. These aspects include:

3.2.1 Market Research, Business and financial planning
In order to understand the demand for plant species for which nursery has to be
established, a market research is conducted in the area and such plant species are
identified which are in high demand. Further, it also helps to understand the preferences of
potential customers, and any gaps in the market that a nursery owner may fill. This will
help you to determine the viability and potential profitability of your nursery.
After conducting a market research, need is to develop a comprehensive business plan

that outlines your goals, target market, marketing strategies, financial projections, and
operational procedures so that purpose of establishing a nursery is ensured. A well-
thought-out business plan will serve as a roadmap for your nursery and helpsa nursery
owner to make an informed decision. A good business plan is the one that has good
financial plan. Therefore, determining the financial aspects of the nursery, including the
initial investment required, ongoing operational costs, pricing strategies, and projected
revenue is needed beforehand. Consider factors such as plant sourcing, labor costs,
utilities, marketing expenses, and potential risks. Develop a financial plan that accounts for
these factors and ensures the financial sustainability of the nursery. Further, a marketing
strategy is to be developed in order to promote your nursery and attract customers. This
may include creating a website, utilizing social media platforms, attending local gardening
events, collaborating with landscapers or garden centers, and offering exceptional
customer service. Identify your target customers and tailor your marketing efforts to reach
them effectively.
3.2.2 Location
Choose a suitable location for your nursery. Consider factors such as accessibility,
proximity to target customers, availability of water sources, and the climate conditions that
are favorable for the plants you intend to grow. Additionally, ensure that the location has
enough space to accommodate your growing areas, storage facilities, and potential
expansion.
3.2.3 Plant Selection
Plant selection i.e., the types of plants, to be grown in the nursery is one of the important
steps which are to be considered for being successful in the nursery business. Factors

such as local demand, market trends, and your expertise in cultivating specific plant
species are to be considered for it. It is important to choose plants that are suitable for your
climate and have a good market value.
3.2.4 Infrastructure and Equipment
Assess the infrastructure and equipment required for your nursery. This includes growing
areas (greenhouses, shade houses, or open fields), irrigation systems, potting and
container areas, propagation facilities, storage areas, and office space. Ensure that you
have the necessary equipment and tools for plant care, maintenance, and propagation.
3.2.5 Legal and Regulatory Requirements
Familiarize yourself with the legal and regulatory requirements for operating a nursery in
your area. This may include obtaining licenses, permits, and certifications, complying with
zoning regulations, and adhering to environmental and safety standards. Consult with local
authorities or seek legal advice to ensure compliance.
3.2.6 Knowledge and Expertise
Acquire the necessary knowledge and expertise in plant cultivation, propagation

techniques, plant care, and pest and disease management. Stay updated with industry
trends, attend workshops or training programs, and network with other horticulture
professionals. Continuous learning and improvement will contribute to the success of your
nursery.
3.3 Advantages of Modern Nursery Raising System
Modern nursery raising systems offer several advantages over traditional methods. Some
of the key advantages include:
● Increased Efficiency: Modern nursery systems are designed to maximize

efficiency in plant production. They often incorporate advanced technologies, such
as automated irrigation systems, climate control systems, and precision planting
equipment. These technologies help optimize resource utilization, reduce labor
requirements, and improve overall productivity.
● Improved Plant Quality: Modern nursery systems provide better control over
growing conditions, resulting in higher-quality plants. With precise control over

factors like temperature, humidity, and light, nurseries can create optimal
conditions for plant growth, leading to healthier and more robust plants. This is
particularly important for producing disease-resistant and high-yielding plant
varieties.
● Enhanced Disease and Pest Management: Modern nursery systems often
employ integrated pest management (IPM) techniques to minimize the use of
chemical pesticides. IPM involves monitoring and identifying pests and diseases
early on, implementing preventive measures, and using targeted treatments when
necessary. This approach reduces the risk of pesticide residues, promotes
environmental sustainability, and ensures healthier plants.
● Year-round Production: Traditional nurseries may be limited by seasonal
variations and weather conditions. However, modern nursery systems, such as
greenhouses or controlled environment agriculture (CEA) facilities, allow for year-
round production. By providing a controlled environment, these systems enable
nurseries to produce plants consistently, regardless of external factors like
temperature or sunlight availability.
● Increased Plant Variety: Modern nursery systems offer the ability to grow a wide
range of plant varieties, including exotic or rare species. With advanced
propagation techniques like tissue culture or micro propagation, nurseries can
rapidly multiply plants and produce genetically identical clones. This allows for the
mass production of specific plant varieties, meeting the diverse demands of
customers and expanding market opportunities.
Improved Water and Resource Management: Water scarcity and resource

conservation are significant concerns in agriculture. Modern nursery systems often
incorporate efficient irrigation methods, such as drip irrigation or hydroponics,
which minimize water usage and reduce nutrient runoff. Additionally, technologies
like rainwater harvesting and water recycling systems can further enhance water
management practices in nurseries.
● Scalability and Expansion: Modern nursery systems are often designed with
scalability in mind. They can be easily expanded or modified to accommodate
growing demands or changes in market preferences. This flexibility allows

nurseries to adapt to evolving market trends and seize new business

opportunities.
● Enhanced Data Monitoring and Analysis: Modern nursery systems often
integrate data monitoring and analysis tools. This enables nurseries to collect and
analyze data on plant growth, environmental conditions, and resource usage. By
leveraging this data, nurseries can make informed decisions, optimize production
processes, and improve overall efficiency.
Overall, modern nursery raising systems offer numerous advantages that contribute to
increased productivity, improved plant quality, and sustainable practices. These
advancements help nurseries meet the demands of a growing market while minimizing
environmental impact and ensuring long-term profitability.
3.3.1 Types of Nurseries
There are several types of plant nurseries, each specializing in different aspects of plant
production and catering to specific customer needs. Some common types of plant
nurseries include:
(A) Retail Nurseries: Retail nurseries are the most common type and cater to individual
customers and homeowners. They offer a wide variety of plants, including ornamental
plants, trees, shrubs, flowers, herbs, and vegetable seedlings. Retail nurseries often
provide advice and guidance on plant selection, care, and maintenance.
(B) Wholesale Nurseries: Wholesale nurseries primarily supply plants to businesses

such as landscapers, garden centers, municipalities, and other nurseries. They
typically have a larger inventory and offer plants in bulk quantities. Wholesale
nurseries may specialize in specific types of plants or cater to a wide range of plant
varieties.
(C) Mail-Order Nurseries: Mail-order nurseries operate through catalogs or online

platforms, allowing customers to browse and order plants remotely. The plants are
then shipped to the customer's location. Mail-order nurseries often have a wide
selection of plants and serve customers who may not have access to local nurseries.

(D) Specialty Nurseries: Specialty nurseries focus on specific types of plants or plant
categories. They may specialize in native plants, rare or exotic species, succulents,
roses, bonsai trees, aquatic plants, or specific plant families. These nurseries often
have expert knowledge and a specialized collection of plants.
(E) Organic Nurseries: Organic nurseries specialize in producing plants using organic
growing methods. They avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and
genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Organic nurseries cater to customers who
prioritize environmentally friendly and sustainable gardening practices.
(F) Fruit Tree Nurseries: Fruit tree nurseries specialize in growing and selling fruit-
bearing trees, such as apple, citrus, peach, or cherry trees. These nurseries often offer
a wide selection of fruit tree varieties and provide guidance on proper planting and
care to ensure successful fruit production.
(G) Shade Tree Nurseries: Shade tree nurseries focus on growing and selling large,
shade-providing trees. These trees are often used for landscaping purposes in
residential, commercial, or public spaces. Shade tree nurseries offer a variety of tree
species suitable for different climates and growing conditions.
(H) Container Nurseries: Container nurseries specialize in growing plants in containers

rather than in the ground. They offer a wide range of potted plants, including annuals,
perennials, shrubs, and small trees. Container nurseries are popular for their
convenience and flexibility, as potted plants can be easily transported and planted in
various locations.
(I) Hydroponic Nurseries: Hydroponic nurseries utilize soilless growing techniques to

cultivate plants. Hydroponic nurseries grow plants in nutrient-rich water solutions, while
aquaponic nurseries combine hydroponics with aquaculture, using fish waste as a
nutrient source for the plants. These nurseries are known for their efficient use of
resources and year-round production capabilities.
It's important to note that some nurseries may specialize in multiple types of plants or offer
a combination of services. The specific types of nurseries available may vary depending
on the region, market demand, and local horticultural practices

3.3.2 On the Basis of Size
Plant nurseries can also be categorized based on their size or scale of operation. The size
of a nursery can vary significantly, ranging from small-scale operations to large commercial
enterprises. Here are some common categories based on size:
A) Backyard or Home Nurseries: These are small-scale nurseries operated by

individuals in their own backyards or residential properties. These nurseries are
typically run as a hobby or part-time business, focusing on a limited range of
plants. Backyard nurseries often cater to local customers and may offer unique or
specialty plants.
B) Commercial Nurseries
These nurseries are meant for the purpose of earning money through large scale
production of plants. Based on the area involved in production process, these are
again subdivided into following sub types:
 Small-Scale Nurseries: Small-scale nurseries are slightly larger than

backyard nurseries and may operate on a dedicated plot of land or a small
farm. These nurseries have a broader range of plants and may supply plants
to local garden centers, landscapers, or individual customers. They may also
participate in local farmers' markets or plant sales events.
 Medium-Scale Nurseries: Medium-scale nurseries have a more substantial

operation and infrastructure. They typically have larger growing areas,
greenhouses, and a wider range of plant varieties. These nurseries may
supply plants to garden centers, landscapers, municipalities, and wholesale
buyers. They may also have a retail section for direct sales to individual
customers.
 Large Commercial Nurseries: Large commercial nurseries are extensive

operations with significant land, infrastructure, and resources. These nurseries
produce plants on a large scale and supply them to various markets, including
garden centers, landscapers, municipalities, and wholesale buyers. They may
have multiple growing areas, specialized facilities, and advanced technologies
for plant production.

Another way of dividing commercial nurseries in based on the location of nursery whether
it is in rural area or urban area, accordingly these are called as rural nursery and urban
nursery.
The size of a nursery can impact its production capacity, market reach, and resources
available for plant cultivation. It is important to note that the size of a nursery is not
necessarily indicative of its quality or expertise. Nurseries of all sizes can provide high-
quality plants and services, depending on their focus, management practices, and
customer satisfaction.
3.3.3 On the Basis of Business
Plant nurseries can also be categorized based on the nature of their business operations.
These categories reflect different business models and approaches to plant production and
sales. Here are some common types of plant nurseries based on their business models:
 Retail Nurseries: Retail nurseries primarily focus on selling plants directly to individual
customers and homeowners. They typically have a physical location, such as a garden
center or nursery store, where customers can visit and purchase plants. Retail
nurseries offer a wide variety of plants, including ornamental plants, trees, shrubs,
flowers, herbs, and vegetable seedlings. They often provide advice and guidance on
plant selection, care, and maintenance.
 Wholesale Nurseries: Wholesale nurseries specialize in supplying plants to

businesses rather than individual customers. They primarily cater to garden centers,
landscapers, municipalities, and other nurseries. Wholesale nurseries often have
larger inventories and offer plants in bulk quantities. They may focus on specific plant
varieties or cater to a wide range of plant types. Wholesale nurseries typically have
different pricing structures and may require customers to meet minimum order
quantities.
 Online Nurseries: Online nurseries operate primarily through e-commerce platforms

or websites, allowing customers to browse and purchase plants online. These
nurseries may have a physical location for plant production and fulfillment but rely
heavily on online sales. Online nurseries offer a wide selection of plants and often ship

them directly to customers' locations. They may provide detailed plant descriptions,
care instructions, and customer support through their online platforms.
 Contract Growers: Contract growers are nurseries that enter into contracts with
businesses or organizations to grow plants on their behalf. They produce plants based
on specific requirements provided by their clients. Contract growers may specialize in
growing particular plant varieties or cater to the needs of specific industries, such as
landscaping or municipal projects. They often work closely with their clients to ensure
the plants meet the desired specifications.
 Combination Nurseries: Combination nurseries are businesses that combine multiple

aspects of plant production and sales. They may have a retail section for direct sales
to individual customers, while also supplying plants to wholesale buyers or offering
contract growing services. Combination nurseries often have a diverse range of plants
and cater to various customer segments. It is important to note that some nurseries
may operate under multiple business models or offer a combination of services. The
specific type of nursery business can vary depending on the market demand, target
customers, and the nursery's specialization and business strategy.
3.4 Nursery Structures/Components
Plant nurseries consist of various structures and components that are essential for plant
production, care, and management. These structures and components provide the
necessary environment and infrastructure to support healthy plant growth. Here are some
common structures and components found in plant nurseries:
3.4.1 Storage and Packing Areas
Storage and packing areas are used for storing plant materials, supplies, and equipment.
These areas may include shelves, racks, or storage containers for organizing and storing
pots, fertilizers, pesticides, tools, and other nursery supplies. Packing areas are used for
packaging and preparing plants for transportation or sale.
3.4.2 Potting
Potting areas are designated spaces where plants are potted or transplanted into
containers. These areas typically have workbenches, potting soil, pots or containers, and

tools for potting and transplanting. Potting areas are essential for preparing plants for sale
or further growth.
3.4.3 Nursery Beds
Nursery beds are raised platforms or containers where plants are grown. They can be
made of wood, metal, or other materials and are filled with growing media, such as soil,
peat moss, or a soilless mix. Growing beds or benches provide a suitable growing
environment, facilitate drainage, and allow for easy access to plants for maintenance and
harvesting.
3.4.4 Mist Chamber
A mist chamber is a specialized structure or enclosure used in plant propagation to create

a controlled environment with high humidity levels. It is designed to provide optimal
conditions for rooting cuttings or germinating seeds. Mist chambers are commonly used in
nurseries, research facilities, and plant breeding programs.
The main purpose of a mist chamber is to maintain a high level of humidity around the
plant material, which helps prevent excessive moisture loss through transpiration. This
high humidity promotes the development of roots in cuttings or the germination of seeds.
Mist chambers also provide a stable microclimate with controlled temperature and light
levels, further supporting successful propagation.
3.4.5 Cold Frames
A cold frame is a simple and inexpensive structure used in gardening to extend the
growing season and protect plants from cold temperatures, frost, and harsh weather
conditions. It is essentially a low, enclosed structure with a transparent cover that allows
sunlight to enter and traps heat inside. Cold frames are commonly used by gardeners,
especially in cooler climates, to start seedlings early, harden off plants, or grow cold-
tolerant crops during the colder months.
3.4.6 Hotbeds
Hotbeds are structures used in gardening to create a warm and controlled environment for
seed germination and early plant growth. They are similar to cold frames but are

specifically designed to provide heat to the plants. Hotbeds are commonly used to start
seeds earlier in the season, promote faster growth, and extend the growing season.
3.4.7 Greenhouses
Greenhouses are enclosed structures made of transparent materials, such as glass or

plastic that allows sunlight to enter while trapping heat inside. Greenhouses provide
controlled environments for plant growth, protecting plants from extreme weather
conditions and pests. They regulate temperature, humidity, and light levels, creating
optimal conditions for plant growth. Greenhouses can be used for seed germination,
propagation, and growing plants throughout the year.
3.4.8 Shade Houses
Shade houses are structures covered with shade cloth or other materials that provide
partial shade to plants. They are used to protect plants from excessive sunlight and heat,
especially in regions with high temperatures or intense sunlight. Shade houses allow for
the cultivation of shade-loving plants or provide a transition area for plants before they are
exposed to full sunlight.
3.4.9 Propagation Facilities
Propagation facilities are dedicated spaces for plant propagation, including techniques
such as seed sowing, cutting propagation, grafting, or tissue culture. These facilities may
have specialized equipment, such as misting systems, propagation beds, or growth
chambers, to create optimal conditions for successful propagation.
3.4.10 Office and Administrative Spaces
Larger nurseries often have office spaces for administrative tasks, customer service, and
record-keeping. These spaces may include desks, computers, filing cabinets, and other
office equipment. Administrative areas are used for managing orders, inventory, sales, and
other business operations.
These structures and components work together to create a functional and efficient
environment for plant production, care, and management in nurseries. The specific
structures and components present in a nursery can vary depending on its size,
specialization, and the types of plants being grown.

3.5 Types of Greenhouses
The major types of greenhouses can be broadly categorized into passive greenhouses and
active greenhouses. Here is an overview of each type:
3.5.1 Passive greenhouses
Passive greenhouses rely on natural elements such as sunlight, thermal mass, and airflow
to create a stable and energy-efficient environment for plant cultivation. They do not rely
heavily on mechanical systems for heating, cooling, or ventilation. The characteristics of
passive greenhouses include utilization of design features like orientation for solar gain,
thermal mass storage, natural ventilation, and insulation to maintain optimal growing
conditions without active intervention. Examples are earth-sheltered greenhouses, Walipini
greenhouses, and passive solar greenhouses are common examples of passive
greenhouse designs.
a) Earth-sheltered Greenhouses: These greenhouses are partially or fully buried in

the ground, taking advantage of the earth's thermal mass to regulate temperature.
The soil acts as insulation, helping to maintain a more stable internal climate.
b) Walipini Greenhouses: Walipini greenhouses are partially underground

structures with a transparent roof that captures sunlight. The design utilizes the
thermal mass of the earth to retain heat and create a warm environment for plant
growth.
c) Attached Solar Greenhouses: These greenhouses are attached to a south-

facing wall of a building to capture solar heat. The building acts as a heat sink,
absorbing and radiating warmth into the greenhouse during the day and night.
d) Passive Solar Greenhouses: These greenhouses are designed to maximize

solar gain through orientation, glazing materials, and thermal mass. They rely on
the sun's energy to heat the interior space without the need for additional heating
systems.
e) High Tunnel Greenhouses: High tunnels are simple, unheated greenhouse

structures covered with plastic or polyethylene film. They rely on natural ventilation
and solar radiation to create a favorable microclimate for plant growth.

f) Glass Greenhouse: A glass greenhouse can be considered a type of passive

greenhouse due to its reliance on natural light for plant growth. The glass covering
of the greenhouse allows sunlight to enter the structure, providing plants with the
necessary light energy for photosynthesis. This passive design feature eliminates
the need for artificial lighting during daylight hours, reducing energy consumption
and operating costs. Glass greenhouses have a classic and aesthetically pleasing
appearance. They provide excellent light transmission and durability. Glass
greenhouses are often used for high-value crops or in areas with extreme weather
conditions. However, they can be more expensive to construct and require careful
maintenance.
Additionally, glass greenhouses can also incorporate passive ventilation

strategies, such as roof vents or windows, to promote natural airflow and regulate
temperature and humidity levels. By utilizing natural light and ventilation, glass
greenhouses can create a sustainable and energy-efficient growing environment
for plants. A glass greenhouse can also be classified as a passive greenhouse
due to its utilization of natural light and potential incorporation of passive
ventilation systems. It is important to note that the term passive greenhouse can
encompass a variety of design features beyond just the covering material,
including insulation, thermal mass, and shading techniques etc.
These examples demonstrate various passive design strategies that can be

incorporated into greenhouse structures to reduce energy consumption, promote
sustainability, and create optimal growing conditions for plants.
g) Net houses: Net houses are also known as shade houses or screen houses.
These are the structures used in agriculture, horticulture and forestry to provide
protection to plants from various unfavorable or harmful factors such as excessive
sunlight, wind, pests, and others. These structures are usually made from a
framework covered with a specialized netting material that offers varying degrees
of shade, ventilation, and protection. Some of the important features and uses of
net houses are as follows:
i) Control of shade and sunlight: Shade house or net houses regulate the
amount of sunlight reaching the plants. The netting material used in these
structures can filter sunlight, reduce heat stress and prevent sunburn on
delicate crops.
ii) Ventilation and Airflow: Natural ventilation and airflow is maintained inside
the net houses thus, it creates adequate ventilation for plant species under
propagation inside it. It also helps in maintaining optimal temperature and
humidity levels inside the structure.
iii) Protection from Insect-Pest: The fine mesh of the netting material acts as a
barrier against insect-pests and birds. Thus, it helps in protection of crops from
damage and contamination.
iv) Crop Protection: Net houses provide protection against adverse weather
conditions such as strong winds, heavy rain, and hail, safeguarding plants
from physical damage and stress.
v) Crop Specificity: Net houses are used for a variety of crops including
vegetables, fruits, flowers, and nursery plants. They are particularly beneficial
for sensitive crops that require controlled growing conditions.
vi) Cost-Effective Solution: Net houses offer a cost-effective alternative to

traditional greenhouses, providing growers with a practical and efficient way to
protect and nurture their crops.
Overall, net houses play a crucial role in modern agriculture by offering a

protective environment that promotes healthy plant growth, reduces crop losses,
and enhances overall productivity. Their versatility and effectiveness make them a
popular choice for growers looking to optimize growing conditions and maximize
yields.
3.5.2 Active greenhouses
Active greenhouses incorporate mechanical systems such as heaters, fans, vents, and
automated controls to actively manage temperature, humidity, and other environmental
factors within the greenhouse. Active greenhouses rely on technology and equipment to
regulate climate conditions, provide supplemental lighting, control irrigation, and optimize
plant growth. They require ongoing energy input for operation. The examples of such
greenhouses include High-tech greenhouses, hydroponic greenhouses, and glass

greenhouses with climate control systems are typical examples of active greenhouse
structures.
a) Plastic-Film Greenhouse: Plastic-film greenhouses are cost-effective and widely

used for various crops. They are constructed using metal or PVC frames covered
with plastic film. Plastic-film greenhouses provide good light transmission and can
be easily ventilated. However, they may require more frequent replacement of the
plastic covering.
b) High Tunnel/Greenhouse Tunnel: High tunnels, also known as hoop houses or

greenhouse tunnels are simple structures with a curved or semicircular shape.
They are typically covered with plastic film and have no permanent foundation.
High tunnels provide protection from the elements and extend the growing season.
They are often used for season extension, crop experimentation, or small-scale
production.
c) Venlo Greenhouse: Venlo greenhouses are commonly used in commercial

horticulture. They have a modular design with a gable roof and a grid of vertical
and horizontal supports. Venlo greenhouses often use glass panels for better light
transmission and durability. They are designed for efficient use of space, optimal
light distribution, and advanced environmental control.
Greenhouses can be also be classified into different types based on ventilation. Some
common types include:
3.5.3 Natural Ventilated Greenhouses
Natural ventilated greenhouses rely on passive airflow mechanisms to regulate

temperature and humidity inside the structure. These greenhouses are designed to take
advantage of natural forces such as wind and convection to provide adequate ventilation
for the plants. These greenhouses are popular for their energy efficiency and cost-
effectiveness, as they rely on natural processes to maintain a healthy growing environment
for plants. Key features of natural ventilated greenhouses include:
a) Roof Vents: These greenhouses typically have roof vents that can be opened or
closed to control airflow. Hot air rises and escapes through the vents, creating a
natural circulation of air.

b) Side Vents: Some natural ventilated greenhouses also have side vents that can
be opened to allow fresh air to enter and circulate within the structure.
c) Louvers: Louvers are slatted openings that can be adjusted to control the amount
of airflow entering the greenhouse. They help regulate temperature and humidity
levels.
d) Shade Cloth: Shade cloth can be used to reduce the amount of sunlight entering
the greenhouse, helping to maintain optimal growing conditions for plants.
3.5.4 Forced Ventilation Greenhouses
Forced ventilation greenhouses utilize mechanical systems such as fans to actively

circulate air and control the environment inside the structure. These greenhouses are
designed to provide precise control over temperature, humidity, and airflow to create
optimal growing conditions for plants. Forced ventilation greenhouses are ideal for growers
who require precise control over environmental factors and need to ensure optimal
conditions for their crops. These systems are effective in regulating temperature, humidity,
and air quality to promote healthy plant growth. Key features of forced ventilation
greenhouses include:
a) Fans: Forced ventilation greenhouses are equipped with fans that help circulate
air throughout the structure. Fans can be strategically placed to ensure uniform
airflow and prevent stagnant air pockets.
b) Air Ducts: Ductwork is used to distribute air from the fans to different areas of the
greenhouse. This helps maintain consistent temperature and humidity levels
across the entire growing space.
c) Thermostats and Sensors: Automated systems with thermostats and sensors

are often used to monitor environmental conditions and activate the ventilation
system as needed. This allows for precise control over the greenhouse climate.
d) Cooling Pads: Some forced ventilation greenhouses may also incorporate cooling
pads or evaporative cooling systems to help lower temperatures during hot
weather.

3.6.5 Passive Ventilation Greenhouses
Passive ventilation greenhouses are designed to utilize natural forces such as wind,
convection, and thermal buoyancy to regulate airflow and maintain optimal growing
conditions for plants. These greenhouses do not rely on mechanical systems like fans or
blowers for ventilation. Key features of passive ventilation greenhouses include:
a) Roof Ventilation: Passive ventilation greenhouses often have roof vents that
allow hot air to escape and create a natural airflow pattern. The vents can be
opened or closed to control temperature and humidity levels.
b) Side Vents or Windows: Some passive ventilation greenhouses also have side
vents or windows that can be opened to allow fresh air to enter the structure. This
helps promote air circulation and prevent overheating.
c) Ridge Vents: Ridge vents are openings along the peak of the greenhouse roof
that allow hot air to escape. They take advantage of thermal buoyancy to create a
natural convection current.
d) Shutters and Louvers: Adjustable shutters or louvers can be used to regulate the
amount of airflow entering the greenhouse. They help maintain a balance between
ventilation and temperature control.
While both naturally ventilated greenhouses and passive ventilated greenhouses rely
on natural airflow mechanisms to regulate temperature and humidity, there are some
subtle differences between the two terms. Naturally Ventilated Greenhouses refer to
greenhouses that use natural forces such as wind and convection for ventilation. These
greenhouses may include features like roof vents, side vents, or windows that can be
opened to allow air circulation.
The term "naturally ventilated" emphasizes the reliance on natural airflow patterns whereas
Passive Ventilated Greenhouses also refers to greenhouses that utilize natural forces for
ventilation, but it may encompass a broader range of passive strategies beyond just
airflow. Passive ventilation can include design features like thermal mass, insulation, and
shading to help regulate temperature and humidity levels in a greenhouse. The term
passive ventilation emphasizes the use of passive design elements to create a comfortable
growing environment. In essence, while there is overlap between the two terms, i.e.,

passive green house and naturally ventilated greenhouses, however, the former
encompass a wider range of passive design strategies beyond just ventilation whereas
later term may focus more on the natural flow of air.
3.6.4 Mixed-mode Ventilation Greenhouses
Mixed-mode ventilation greenhouses combine both natural ventilation systems and

mechanical ventilation systems to optimize airflow and temperature control within the
structure. These greenhouses are designed to take advantage of the benefits of both
natural and forced ventilation methods to create an ideal growing environment for plants.
Key features of mixed-mode ventilation greenhouses include:
a) Natural Ventilation Components: These greenhouses incorporate elements such as

roof vents, side vents, or windows that can be opened to allow natural airflow when
weather conditions permit. This helps reduce energy consumption and promote air
circulation.
b) Mechanical Ventilation Systems: Mixed-mode ventilation greenhouses also include

mechanical systems like fans or blowers that can be used when natural ventilation
alone is insufficient to maintain optimal conditions. These systems provide additional
control over airflow and temperature.
c) Automated Controls: Many mixed-mode ventilation greenhouses are equipped with

automated controls that can switch between natural and mechanical ventilation modes
based on environmental conditions. This ensures that the greenhouse maintains the
desired climate for plant growth.
d) Energy Efficiency: By combining natural and mechanical ventilation strategies,

mixed-mode ventilation greenhouses can achieve a balance between energy
efficiency and precise environmental control. This can result in cost savings and
improved crop yields.
Mixed-mode ventilation greenhouses are suitable for growers who want to leverage the
benefits of both natural and mechanical ventilation systems to create a flexible and
efficient growing environment for their plants.

3.6 Factors Affecting the Environment of Greenhouse
The environment of a greenhouse depends on several factors that need to be carefully

managed to create optimal growing conditions for plants. Here are some key factors that
influence the greenhouse environment:
3.6.1 Heat or Temperature
Temperature control is crucial in a greenhouse. The temperature affects plant growth,

development, and overall health. Greenhouses use various methods to regulate
temperature, such as ventilation, heating systems, shading, and insulation. Monitoring and
maintaining the desired temperature range is essential for different stages of plant growth
and specific plant requirements.
3.6.2 Humidity
Humidity levels influence plant transpiration, water uptake, and overall plant health.
Greenhouses need to maintain appropriate humidity levels to prevent excessive moisture
buildup, which can lead to fungal diseases. Humidity can be managed through proper
ventilation, misting systems, and careful watering practices. Different plants may have
specific humidity requirements, so it's important to consider their needs.
3.6.3 Light
Light is a vital factor for photosynthesis and plant growth. Greenhouses should provide
sufficient light levels for optimal plant development. The amount and quality of light can be
managed through the use of transparent or translucent coverings, shading systems,
supplemental lighting, and proper positioning of plants within the greenhouse. Different
plants have varying light requirements, so it's important to consider their specific needs.
3.6.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Levels
Carbon dioxide is essential for photosynthesis. Greenhouses may require supplemental

CO2 to enhance plant growth, especially in enclosed or low-ventilation environments. CO2
can be supplied through burners, generators, or by introducing outside air. Monitoring and
maintaining appropriate CO2 levels can significantly impact plant growth and productivity.

3.6.5 Ventilation and Air Circulation
Proper ventilation is crucial for maintaining a healthy greenhouse environment. It helps

regulate temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide levels, and prevents the buildup of
excessive heat, moisture, and stagnant air. Ventilation can be achieved through the use of
vents, fans, louvers, or automated systems that open and close based on environmental
conditions. Further, adequate air circulation within the greenhouse helps prevent stagnant
air, reduces the risk of fungal diseases, and promotes even distribution of temperature,
humidity, and CO2. Fans or natural ventilation systems can be used to ensure proper air
movement throughout the greenhouse.
3.6.6 Watering and Irrigation
Proper watering and irrigation practices are crucial for plant health and growth.
Greenhouses may use various irrigation systems, such as drip irrigation, overhead
sprinklers, or misting systems, to deliver water to plants. Watering schedules and
techniques should be tailored to the specific needs of different plants, taking into account
factors like plant size, growth stage, and environmental conditions.
3.6.7 Nutrient Management
Greenhouses often use soilless growing media or hydroponic systems, where nutrients are
supplied through water. Proper nutrient management is essential to provide plants with the
necessary elements for growth. Regular monitoring of nutrient levels and pH, along with
appropriate fertilization practices, ensures optimal plant nutrition.
3.6.8 Pest and Disease Control
Greenhouses are susceptible to pests and diseases that can damage or destroy plants.
Implementing integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, such as regular scouting,
biological controls, cultural practices, and judicious use of pesticides, helps minimize pest
and disease issues. Maintaining a clean and sanitized greenhouse environment is also
important for preventing the spread of diseases.
3.6.9 Seasonal Considerations
Greenhouse environments may need adjustments based on seasonal changes. For

example, shading systems may be used to reduce excessive heat during summer, while

heating systems may be required to maintain warmth during winter. Monitoring and
adapting to seasonal variations is essential for maintaining optimal growing conditions.
Managing these factors effectively and consistently is crucial for creating a favorable
greenhouse environment that promotes healthy plant growth, maximizes productivity, and
minimizes the risk of pests and diseases. Regular monitoring, adjustments, and attention
to plant-specific requirements are key to successful greenhouse management.
3.7 Pre-requisites for Establishment of Nursery
Establishing a nursery requires careful planning and consideration of several prerequisites

to ensure its success. Here are some key prerequisites to consider when setting up a
nursery:
 Knowledge and Expertise in plant propagation, cultivation, and nursery

management is essential. Familiarize yourself with different plant species, their
growth requirements, propagation techniques, pest and disease management, and
general nursery practices. Consider gaining relevant education or experience in
nursery management to enhance your skills.
 Market Research is needed to identify the demand for plants in your target area.
It is conducted in order to understand the preferences of potential customers, such
as landscapers, garden centers, homeowners, or other nurseries. It helps in
determining the types of plants that are in high demand and also helps in
assessing the competition in the market.
 Business Plan is needed that outlines the purpose and goals of nursery
establishment, target area, marketing strategies, financial projections, and
operational details.
 Site Selection– Site selection is done beforehand. A number of factors are

considered for this such as accessibility, proximity to target markets, availability of
utilities (water, electricity), and the area etc. It should be ensured that the site has
adequate space for plant production and storage etc.
 Infrastructure and Facilities: Assessment of the infrastructure and facilities

required for the nursery is made. This may include greenhouses, shade houses,

irrigation systems, potting areas, storage facilities, and office space. Make a list of
necessary equipment and tools for plant propagation, potting, and maintenance. It
is also ensured that the infrastructure and facilities may be able to meet the
specific needs of the plants planned to be grown in the nursery.
 Legal and Regulatory Aspects: One should understand the legal and regulatory
requirements for establishing a nursery in an area. This may include obtaining
necessary licenses, permits, and certifications. Environmental regulations and
local regulations and specific requirements related to plant health and quarantine
must be well understood.
 Capital and Financing: Capital is required to establish the nursery and also its
operation. Cost of land acquisition, infrastructure development, plant materials,
equipment, labor, marketing, and ongoing operational expenses should be
calculated well beforehand. If required, homework for financing options such as
personal savings, loans, grants, or partnerships etc. should be well planned.
 Plant Material and Suppliers: Identify reliable sources for plant materials, such
as seeds, cuttings, or young plants. Establish relationships with reputable
suppliers or consider developing your own propagation methods. Ensure that the
plant material you acquire is of high quality and suitable for your target market.
 Marketing and Sales Strategy: A marketing and sales strategy should be ready
in hand to promote your nursery and attract customers. This may include creating
a brand identity, developing a website, participating in local events or trade shows,
advertising, and building relationships with potential customers. Consider offering
a diverse range of plants, competitive pricing, and excellent customer service to
differentiate your nursery from competitors.
 Staffing and Expertise requirements for the nursery should be adequately

assessed for skilled workers, such as propagators, sales staff, and administrative
personnel. Hire employees with relevant expertise and provide ongoing training to
enhance their skills and knowledge.
By addressing these prerequisites, one can lay a strong foundation for the nursery and
increase the chances of its success. Remember to continuously adapt and improve your

nursery operations based on market trends, customer feedback, and industry

developments.
3.8 Why nursery is needed?
Nurseries play a crucial role in the forestry and horticultural industry and serve various
purposes. Here are some reasons why nurseries are required:
 Plant Production: Nurseries are essential for the production of plants, including
ornamental plants, trees, shrubs, flowers, and edible crops. They provide a controlled
environment for seed germination, propagation, and growth of young plants. Nurseries
produce a wide variety of plants to meet the demand of homeowners, landscapers,
garden centers, and other customers.
 Plant Availability: Nurseries ensure a consistent supply of plants throughout the year.
They grow plants in different stages of development, allowing customers to find plants
at various sizes and maturity levels. Nurseries provide access to plants that may not
be readily available in the wild or in local ecosystems.
 Plant Diversity: Nurseries contribute to plant diversity by cultivating a wide range of

plant species, varieties, and cultivars. They offer a diverse selection of plants with
different colors, sizes, shapes, and growth habits. Nurseries play a vital role in
preserving and promoting biodiversity by growing and distributing rare, endangered, or
native plant species.
 Landscaping and Garden Design: Nurseries provide plants for landscaping projects,
garden design, and beautification purposes. They offer a wide selection of plants
suitable for different landscape styles, climates, and soil conditions. Nurseries help
homeowners, landscapers, and garden designers find the right plants to create visually
appealing and functional outdoor spaces.
 Environmental Benefits: Nurseries contribute to environmental conservation and

sustainability. They promote the use of plants for erosion control, habitat restoration,
air purification, and carbon sequestration. Nurseries also encourage the cultivation of
native plants, which support local ecosystems, attract pollinators, and provide food and
shelter for wildlife.

 Education and Research: Nurseries often serve as educational centers, providing

information and resources on plant care, gardening techniques, and horticultural
practices. They may offer workshops, seminars, or educational programs to promote
gardening knowledge and skills. Nurseries also collaborate with researchers and
contribute to plant breeding, disease resistance studies, and other horticultural
research.
 Economic Impact: Nurseries have a significant economic impact, generating revenue

and employment opportunities. They contribute to the local economy by creating jobs
in plant production, sales and landscaping etc.
 Community Engagement: Nurseries often serve as the places for community

gathering, attract gardening enthusiasts, plant lovers, and nature lovers. They provide
a common space for people share ideas, knowledge, and also helps in spreading
awareness among people. Events such as plant sales, workshops, trainings, seminars,
students’ visits can be organized in order to foster a sense of community and
environmental stewardship.
Overall, nurseries are needed to meet the demand for plants, provide plant diversity,
support landscaping and garden design, promote environmental benefits, facilitate
education and research, contribute to the economy, and engage communities in gardening
and horticulture. They play a vital role in enhancing the beauty of our surroundings,
improving the environment, and enriching our lives through plants.
3.9 Planning and Layout of Nursery
Planning and layout is n important step in nursery establishment. A well-designed nursery

layout ensures efficient operations, optimal plant growth, and a productive working
environment. Some key points that should be considered while making a plan and lay out
a nursery are as follows:
 Site Selection: A suitable location for your nursery is selected. Factors such as
accessibility, proximity to target markets, availability of utilities (water, electricity),
and the size of the site are considered. It is also ensured that there should be
adequate space for plant production, storage, and future expansion.

 Nursery Zones: Nursery is divided into different zones based on the specific
needs of plants and operational needs. Common zones include propagation area,
growing area, potting area, storage area, office area, and customer area. This kind
of zoning helps in better management of differed activities and also ensures
efficient use of space.
 Greenhouse or Shade House Placement: If you plan to use greenhouses or

shade houses, determine their placement within the nursery. Consider factors
such as sunlight exposure, wind direction, and accessibility. Position the structures
to maximize sunlight exposure and minimize shading from nearby buildings or
trees.
 Infrastructure and Facilities: Assess the infrastructure and facilities required for
your nursery. This may include greenhouses, shade houses, irrigation systems,
potting areas, storage facilities, and office space. Ensure that the infrastructure
and facilities meet the specific needs of the plants you plan to grow. Plan for
adequate space for plant production, potting, plant storage, and equipment
storage.
 Pathways and Access: Design pathways and access points that allow easy
movement of people, equipment, and plants within the nursery. Ensure that
pathways are wide enough to accommodate carts, wheelbarrows, or other
equipment. Consider using materials like gravel or concrete for pathways to
facilitate easy cleaning and maintenance.
 Water Supply and Irrigation: Plan for a reliable water supply and irrigation
system. Ensure that water sources are easily accessible and that irrigation lines
are strategically placed to provide adequate water to plants. Consider using
automated irrigation systems to ensure efficient water usage and minimize labor
requirements.
 Plant Display and Sales Area: If you plan to sell plants directly to customers,
allocate space for a plant display and sales area. Design an attractive and
organized display area that allows customers to easily browse and select plants.

Consider providing shade structures, benches, or tables for customers to

comfortably view and purchase plants.
 Equipment and Tool Storage: Allocate space for storing nursery equipment,
tools, and supplies. Designate an area for equipment maintenance and repair.
Ensure that storage areas are organized and easily accessible to facilitate efficient
operations.
 Office and Administrative Area: Allocate space for an office or administrative

area where you can manage nursery operations, handle paperwork, and
communicate with customers and suppliers. Include a desk, computer, filing
cabinets, and other necessary office equipment.
 Safety Considerations: Ensure that safety measures are incorporated into the
nursery layout. Designate areas for storing hazardous materials, such as
pesticides or fertilizers, and ensure they are properly labeled and secured. Install
safety equipment, such as fire extinguishers and first aid kits, in easily accessible
locations.
 Future Expansion: Consider future expansion possibilities when planning the

layout. Allow for additional growing areas, storage space, or infrastructure as your
nursery grows. This will help accommodate increased production and potential
changes in business needs.
When planning the layout, it is essential to consider the specific requirements of your
nursery, the types of plants you will be growing, and the workflow of your operations.
Regularly review and adjust the layout as needed to optimize efficiency and productivity.
Summary
Before starting a nursery business, it is essential to consider several key aspects to ensure
a thriving and sustainable venture. These include conducting market research, developing
a comprehensive business plan, determining the financial aspects of the nursery, and
developing a marketing strategy to promote the nursery and attract customers. After this
step, if we have decided that we have to start this venture, then a suitable site / location for
this establishment would be required. While choosing a suitable location for the nursery,
considering factors such as accessibility, proximity to customers, availability of water

sources, and favorable climate conditions etc. are given due importance. Those plant
species are chosen which are suitable for the climate and have a good market value.
Assess the infrastructure and equipment required for your nursery, including growing
areas, irrigation systems, potting and container areas, propagation facilities, storage areas,
and office space.
Familiarize yourself with the legal and regulatory requirements for operating a nursery in
your area, such as obtaining licenses, permits, and certifications, complying with zoning
regulations, and adhering to environmental and safety standards. Consult with local
authorities or seek legal advice to ensure compliance.
Acquire the necessary knowledge and expertise in plant cultivation, propagation

techniques, plant care, and pest and disease management. Stay updated with industry
trends, attend workshops or training programs, and network with other horticulture
professionals. Continuous learning and improvement will contribute to the success of your
nursery.
Modern nursery raising systems offer several advantages over traditional methods, such
as increased efficiency, reduced costs, and improved customer service. By focusing on
these aspects, one can create a successful and sustainable nursery business.
References
E-Gyan Kosh, IGNOU. Unit 1- Types and components of nursery in BAPI-007 Plant
Propagation and Nursery Management.
A Manual of Nursery Practices, Forestry Department, by Keats C. Hall, Forestry

Consultant, 2003, pp 77.
Plant Nursery and Management: Principles and Practices, editors P Radhakrishnan et al.,
Cebtral Arid Zone Research Institute, ICAR, pp 50

Unit 4: Nursery Tools and Nursery Equipments

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Nursery tools and equipments
4.2.1 Tools used for land preparation
4.2.1.1 Mouldboard plough
4.2.1.2 Disc plough
4.2.1.3 Rotary plough
4.2.1.4 Sub-soil single arm plough
4.2.2 Implements used for other basic works
4.2.2.1 Harrow
4.2.2.2 Plank
4.2.2.3 Cultivator
4.2.2.4 Mower
4.2.2.5 Bill hook
4.2.2.6 Crow bar
4.2.2.7 Spade
4.2.2.8 Garden hoe
4.2.2.9 Garden rake
4.2.2.10 Trowel
4.2.2.11 Sickle
4.2.2.12 Kudali
4.2.2.13 Shovel
4.2.2.14 Axe
4.2.2.15 Sprayer or Spray-pumps
4.2.2.16 Watering can
4.2.2.17 Wheelbarrow
4.2.3 Tools used in grafting and budding
4.2.3.1 Budding-cum-grafting knife
4.2.3.2 Secateur
4.2.3.3 Pruning shear
4.2.3.4 Pruning saw
4.2.3.5 Seedling trays
4.3 Soil treatment
4.3.1 Soil solarisation
4.3.2 Soil treatment by different chemicals
4.3.3 Soil-pasteurization
4.4 Seed treatment
4.4.1 Soaking in cold water
4.4.2 Soaking in hot Water
4.4.3 Acid treatment
4.4.4 Disinfestation
4.4.5 Disinfectations
4.4.6 Seed treatment with Bio-agents
4.5 Soil-less Media for Nursery Raising
4.5.1 Soil-less media
4.5.1.1 Coca peat

4.5.1.2 Vermiculite
4.5.1.3 Perlite
4.6 Sowing of Seeds
4.7 Requirements for Germination
Summary
References

• identify the tools and equipments used in nurseries;
• understand the concept of soil treatment;
• describe seed treatment;
• discuss different kinds of soil less media;
• understand seed sowing and requirements for germination.
4.1 Introduction
Different kind of tools and equipments are used in nursery for carrying out various
operations from the beginning to the end of seedling raising process. In olden days, tools
were made of bones, wood, stones and metals. However, with the advancement of
science and technology, the use of metals like copper, steel and iron has led to the
development of various kinds of tool and equipments used in preparation of beds to
uprooting and transplanting of seedlings in the main field.
4.2 Nursery tools and equipments

Many different equipment, tools, and accessories are required in the nursery to carry out
regular cultural operations on daily basis. The various functions of these tools and
equipment aid in the timely, easy, efficient, and cheap completion of daily farm activities.
These tools have completely changed gardening and farming around the world. Some
tools are basic and are meant to do simple operations, while other equipments are needed
to perform certain tasks. Below is list and brief descriptions of these are given:

4.2.1 Tools used for land preparation

The first step in the process of land preparation involves breaking of hard soil surface,
uprooting prior crop leftovers, and pulverizing the soil. Ploughing can be done with a
variety of ploughs. Mouldboard, disc plough, rotary and sub-soil ploughs are some of the
tools used for breaking the hard soil.
4.2.1.1 Mouldboard plough
It is composed of carbon or steel alloy, with a right-angled triangle base. The breadth of
the furrow determines the size of a mouldboard plough. It can typically open a furrow that
is at least 20 cm wide. It might only slice the furrow on one or two sides of the motion.
4.2.1.2 Disc plough
It is made up of rotating, circular steel

discs in different sizes. Discs used in
various ploughs have a diameter
ranging from 50 to 90 cm. The
thickness of discs can range from 2.5
cm at the cutting edge to 40 cm in the
center. Certain discs have an edge
thickness of 7.5 cm and a central Fig. 1. Disc plough
thickness of 20 cm. Both hard and dry Source: https://bit.ly/42TtnZS
soils and sticky soils can be worked using the plough (Fig.1).
4.2.1.3 Rotary plough
It is a tool used for breaking weeds or

soil with the help of several blades
fixed on a shaft. It is a main tillage
instrument made up of a series of
blades or tines that are powered by a
source of rotation on a shaft (Fig. 2).
4.2.1.4 Sub-soil single arm plough Fig. 2. Rotary plough
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/gnrUsLfLjynTXSXA8
This plough has a single adjustable

arm with a base shear and works well in heavy soils. It breaks the hard pan that has
formed beneath the soil surface. It enhances drainage and can be inserted up to 50 cm
deep in the ground and works well in 5 to 7 cm broad trench.
4.2.2 Implements used for other basic works

Some important tools used in nursery are given below:
4.2.2.1 Harrow
Harrow is employed for thorough tillage of the soil by loosening up and levelling the hard
surface that is perfect for seeding.
Chain-disc, disc, tine (including spring-
tooth), and chain harrows are the four
types of harrows used in nursery
operations. Disc harrow is used for
deep ploughing and turning of soil,
weeds, agricultural leftovers, and other Fig. 3. Harrow
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/aS8wHBx1VJBcgTqH9
detritus in the soil (Fig. 3).
4.2.2.2 Plank
The most essential operations for sowing, planting and irrigation of crops is levelling the
field and smoothening of the soil surface. Wooden plank, patela, and level boards are
some of the equipments that are utilized to complete these tasks quickly and efficiently.
Usually, levelling is completed in two stages.
4.2.2.3 Cultivator
It is an efficient tool for tilling soil that

is pulled by a tractor. It has high-
quality carbon tyres with varying
diameters based on the depth of the
plough. Nowadays, small cultivators
that are operated by hand are more
common. It has a ploughing depth of
½ to 1 foot. It is used to break up
Fig. 4. Cultivator
clods in the soil, loosen it, and get rid Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/mcuv8Hgrhh1Kkixm8
of weeds that are growing in it.

Harrowing and intermediate ploughing are done by cultivators. It also keeps the pH
balanced, promotes aeration, eliminates runoff, and reduces evaporation losses. There are
three types of cultivators: shovel, disc, and blade. To achieve a fine tilth, the soil is worked
with tine and spike cultivators (Fig. 4).
4.2.2.4 Mower
In fields and lawns, grass is cut with

a mower. High-carbon steel is used
to make the mower's discs or blades.
Field grass and weed plants are
chopped with discs, that rotates
rapidly and are spirally arranged on a
central shaft. A progressive cutting
action is produced across the anvil
blade by the rotating cutting blades Fig. 5. Mower
Source:
with spiral mounting. The anvil blade https://images.app.goo.gl/2pp5zDTNd3XX6A3E6
is a flat, adjustable blade with edges
that have been honed. Shearing action traps and cuts grass and weed plants in between
the sharp, revolving blades (Fig. 5).
4.2.2.5 Bill hook
It is commonly called as darat and is hook-shaped tool with a single or double cutting
edge, made up of a curved blade fixed to a wooden or plastic grip. The blade is composed
of manganese and high-carbon
steel. The blade measures 2 cm
in width and 13 cm in length. A
bill hook is used to prune old or
dead tree branches and trim
plants (Fig. 6).
4.2.2.6 Crow bar Fig. 6. Bill hook
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/evxYj3JYVDfNrgeN6
One end of crow bar is pointed
and other is wedge shaped. It is an iron rod, used for digging and removal of huge or
heavy rocks from the ground.

4.2.2.7 Spade
Spade is made of cast iron and is used

for small-scale gardening, to dig,
lift and turn the soil. It is also used in
channel preparation for irrigation and
drainage lines (Fig. 7). Fig. 7. Spade
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/omCSX4tiP2pYUUabA
4.2.2.8 Garden hoe
The handle is lengthy and has a blade and paddle at the end. It may be used to cultivate
garden soil and perform weeding tasks. There are various types of garden hoe designed
for particular purposes, like hoe-cum-rake. It is a metal blade in the shape of a rectangle
with a fork-like front edge. It is employed for weed collection, earthing, hoeing, and
excavating.
4.2.2.9 Garden rake
A rake is used to remove weeds, stones,

brick bits, and fallen leaves from the bed.
It helps in creating a fine tilth on the soil's
surface in order to prepare it for seeding.
For these kinds of tasks, a toothed rake is
Fig. 8. Garden rake
always preferable (Fig. 8). Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/HRsBp8vjRJUdfwdt8
4.2.2.10 Trowel
It has a wooden handle and an iron blade, resembling a little shovel and is called as
kurphi. It is designed to be used for weeding, hoeing, lifting plants and seedlings at a
nursery, and to carry out different gardening tasks. It can be manufactured in a variety of
shapes as per local designs and requirements.
4.2.2.11 Sickle
Sickle is used for cuttings grasses and

leafy vegetables (Fig. 9).
4.2.2.12 Kudali
It is a basic but important tool used for

Fig. 9. Sickle
digging of soil, pits or any work which Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/XJ7ypdhkaXm6XDDn7

occurs before nursery bed preparation. It has a hardwood handle with a metal (iron) blade
attached and is manually operated.
4.2.2.13 Shovel
Its wooden handle and spoon-shaped iron blade are used for transporting soil within the
field to prepare it for planting nursery beds.
4.2.2.14 Axe
Axe is usually used for cutting and felling of

trees and branches (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10. Axe
4.2.2.15 Sprayer or Spray-pumps Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/V1MsMgG55gnp85Yt7
Spray pumps are very important tools to spray protective material like insecticides,
fungicides, herbicides, fertilizers and various other chemicals in a field. Pumps come in a
variety of sizes and forms. Knap-sack sprayer, rocker sprayer, hand sprayers or power
sprayers and foot sprayer are some of the commonly used sprays. Depending upon the
volume of nursery and special purpose, a variety of sprayers are available in the market.
4.2.2.16 Watering can
It is used for irrigating annual flowers, vegetables and newly transplanted seedlings to
prevent damage to young seedlings and also protect the soil from being washed away.
4.2.2.17 Wheelbarrow
It is used to collect trash in the garden

and to move heavy things from one place
to another like nursery plants, compost,
fertilizes, leaf litter, horticultural produce
and stones. On the basis of requirements,
it can be created into a variety of shapes
(Fig. 11). Fig. 11. Wheelbarrow
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/zro6JrJzJBC6h3dE8
4.2.3 Tools used in grafting and budding

Several tools are used in the process of grafting and budding. Some of the important tools
are explained below:

4.2.3.1 Budding-cum-grafting knife
A combination of two knives used for both grafting and budding process is called a
budding-cum-grafting knife. It is made up of two blades: one for grafting and the other for
budding. The ends of a handle are attached to these knives. Steel with alloy or high carbon
content is used to make both knives and these knives typically have a fixed or folding
blade. The knife may have a length of 6.5-7.5 cm and a width of 1.5 cm.
4.2.3.2 Secateur
The most essential instrument for

propagation is secateur and is employed in
training and pruning procedures, scion
removal, lopping off the rootstock, scion stick
preparation, and the removal of undesired
shoots or sprouts from the stock. The best
secateurs should have premium carbon
Fig. 12. Secateur
blades to ensure that the stock and scions Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/sfijUKDEBdCV235W8
are cut smoothly (Fig. 12).

4.2.3.3 Pruning shear
It has a wooden handle and is made of iron. It serves in pruning of undesirable

branches, trimming of hedges and margins, and collecting scion. Different types of shears
like hand shears, lopping shears, tree trimmers are used in nursery.
4.2.3.4 Pruning saw
It is used in pruning and propagation of

horticultural plants. Commonly used
pruning saws are crescent saws,
tapered saws and straight saws. All are
equipped with long, widely spaced teeth
that make trimming and chopping green
wood easier. Its blades ought to be thin
in order for it to squeeze through Fig. 13. Pruning saw
Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/zanR9QTQHJpojdVh7

branches that are tightly spaced or thin (Fig. 13).

4.2.3.5 Seedling trays
These are mostly utilized for germination

of various horticultural crop seeds and
for hardening the micro propagated
plants. These trays range in size from 25
to 250 cavities, depending on the
quantity of cavities. The seedling trays
with varying capacities can be selected Fig. 14. Seedling trays
by the propagators based on their Source: https://images.app.goo.gl/jYmRw4wBeAYwXb377
requirements and the type of crop to be grown (Fig. 14).
There are several other tools and equipments present in the market that are used in
nursery operations these are ladder, pruning or slashing knife, hedge shear, grass shear,
garden rake, tree pruner, flower scissors or cutters. Various tying and wrapping material
are used in grafting and budding that includes waxed string and cloth, raffia fiber, rubber
and polythene strips.
4.3 Soil treatment

The soil of nursery bed should be light, cohesive and rich in organic matter. It is very
important to treat nursery soil to produce healthy disease-free seedlings, as most of the
diseases are soil borne. Basically, the soil utilized in nursery contains harmful pathogens
that are detrimental to the growth and development of the seedlings. When pests are
present in the soil, there is a significant loss to the crops grown in the nursery and the
infection can migrate to the field through seedlings or clinging media on the roots. As a
result, it is recommended that the harmful pathogens should be eliminated from the soil
through various methods like soil-pasteurization, soil solarisation and treating soil with
chemicals and bio-agents. Different methods of soil treatment are given below:
4.3.1 Soil solarisation

Controlling soil-borne plant pathogens, such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insect pests,
and weeds, can be done in an environmentally friendly manner. In this method, soil
temperature is raised around 5-8°C with the help of solar radiation, which helps in the

suppression of numerous soil-borne diseases. The soil is covered by transparent plastic

sheet for 3-4 weeks on the beds and April - June is the best time for soil solarization due to
high temperature (45°C or above). In this process, soil undergo various chemical,
biological, and physical changes.
4.3.2 Soil treatment by different chemicals

Chemicals like formaldehyde, sodium methyl, and methyl bromide are commonly used to
sterilize soil. In our country, methyl bromide and sodium methyl are prohibited by law and
cannot be used. Therefore, soil is sterilized by using formalin solution.
Soil is also treated by using fungicides like captan or thiram to control soil-borne
pathogens. To kill insects, ants, nematodes, white ants and their eggs chloropyriphos, an
insecticide is used. Trichoderma is a biological agent used to control soil-borne
pathogens is mixed in the soil before seed sowing.
4.3.3 Soil-pasteurization
Soil-pasteurization is done at 60°C for 30 minutes to kill harmful organisms present in the
soil. However, this technique also eliminates a number of beneficial soil microorganisms.
As a result, steam pasteurization is popular nowadays, which exclusively destroys
dangerous pathogens. Furthermore, this method is not employed by the common man
because it requires expensive instruments.
Check your progress
1. Explain different tools used for land preparation.
2. Name some of the basic tools used in nursery operations.
3. Write the difference between pruning saw and pruning shear.
4. Why soil treatment is important?
5. Explain different methods of soil treatment.
4.4 Seed treatment

Some seeds require pre-treatment, as they pass through dormancy during which the
physiological maturity of the embryo is attained. The nature of pretreatment depends on

the hardness of the seed coat. If contaminated seeds are planted, they might not
germinate effectively, and if they do, the seedlings might grow slowly and possibly die
soon after. Seeds which have soft seed-coats generally do not need any seed pre-
treatment. However, it is always advisable to put the seeds in water for 24 hours and dry
them in the shade before sowing. Some of the methods of pre-treatment are given below:
4.4.1 Soaking in cold water

Soaking in water is the most popular treatment for a number of species. The seeds are
soaked in cold water for one to several days depending upon the hardness of the
seedcoat. Water absorbed softens the seed coat. When soaking is required to be done for
a long period, it is advisable to change the water regularly. Water soaking for most of the
species is advantageous also even when no exogenous dormancy is noticed. After
soaking, treatment seed should be sown without loss of time as the drying seriously
reduces the viability of seed.
4.4.2 Soaking in hot Water

Seeds of leguminous trees have extremely tough seed coat which will restrict germination
for years together unless hot water treatment is applied. Seed is immersed in two to three
times its volume of boiling water and allowed to soak until it turns cold.
4.4.3 Acid treatment

Seeds with hard, smooth shiny coats are not difficult to germinate and the germination
percent is also quite high. Germination period of these species is spread over some
weeks. The most effective method of obtaining quick germination is to soak dried seeds in
concentrated H₂SO₄ for varying period. After soaking, the seed must be immediately
washed in clean water. For each species, period for soaking should be worked out as over
exposure can seriously damage the seed.
4.4.4 Disinfestation
It is a process that removes organisms from the surface of the seed. To prevent infections
from spreading to the seedbeds, a lot of chemicals are used to sterilize the seeds before
they are sown. The most often used disinfestation are mercuric chloride, calcium
hypochlorite, and ethanol alcohol. The size and kind of the seeds mostly determine the

concentration and timing of the treatment. Depending on the size and type of seed, the
treatment may last between 5 - 30 minutes. Prolonged exposure of the seeds to
disinfestants should be avoided, as this could harm the embryo and impair germination.
The seeds are immediately sown in the nursery after receiving chemical treatment and
being rinsed with tap water.
4.4.5 Disinfectations
It involves treatment of seeds in such a manner that the pathogens reside within the
seeds gets eliminated. Hot water treatment and treatment of seeds with formaldehyde and
mercuric chloride works best for disinfection.
4.4.6 Seed treatment with Bio-agents

To produce healthy seedlings in the nursery, the seeds are treated with Trichoderma
species prior to sowing.
Check your progress
1. Why seed treatment is important?
2. Differentiate between Disinfestation and Disinfectation.
3. Explain different methods of seed treatment.
4.5 Soil-less Media for Nursery Raising

Soil less media is very useful in raising seedlings of any species in nursery. Another
important component used in nursery plantation is growing medium.
Growing medium
Different substrate or medium used to grow plants is called growing medium. It supplies
nutrients, air and water to the roots of plants, thus facilitates maximum root growth
provides water and physical support to plants. Growing medium must have adequate
aeration, drainage and water-holding capacity. The pH of medium ranges from 6-6.5 and is
free of weeds, pests and pathogens. The growth of the plant is influenced by the chemical
and physical properties of the medium. Different types of growing medium such as garden
soil, compost, sand, sphagnum moss, peat, coca peat, vermiculite, perlite and sawdust are
used as per the requirement of plants.

4.5.1 Soil-less media

To grow healthy and vigorous seedlings of vegetable crop in plastic pro-trays, artificial soil-
less media is basically required. A combination of three ingredients- cocopeat, vermiculite,
and horticultural perlite is utilized as the root medium. Before adding the components to
the necessary containers or plastic pro-trays, they are combined in a 3:1:1 ratio. Coarser-
textured peat media improve drainage and aeration, which in turn promotes greater root
formation in transplants. Soil-less media such as coca peat, vermiculite and perlite are
discussed below:
4.5.1.1 Coca peat
It is made with the leftover coconut husk. This media is acidic in nature, a pH value of 5
and offers enhanced air movement activity, better drainage. There is not a single bug or
disease infestation on this media. Coco-peat is frequently used as a medium for growing
vegetable and ornamental plant nurseries as well as for the sheltered cultivation of
decorative crops.
4.5.1.2 Vermiculite
Chemically hydrated magnesium, aluminum, and iron silicate is known as vermiculite. It is

created by heating mica. The folded structure associated with this mineral is produced by
heating it around 1,400°F or 760°C. It weighs relatively little, has a strong water-holding
capacity, and contains minerals like potassium and magnesium to enhance the mixture.
The biggest particles are found in grade 1, whereas the textures of grades 4 and 5 are
fine. The grades 2 and 4 are the most often utilized ones. In addition, because of its
fineness, it can readily get compressed in a mixture. A mixture that contains vermiculite
should not be compacted too firmly to limit its possibilities.
4.5.1.3 Perlite
It is a thin layer of light volcanic rock. In essence, it is aluminum silicate rock that has been
heated. To create the white granular product, the volcanic ore is roasted to extremely high
temperatures-roughly 1800°F. This causes the rock particles to expand. Its function in a
mix is to enhance drainage and aeration. The horticultural grade of this item should be
chosen if it is going to be used in a mix since it has a larger particle size and is therefore
more effective. With the exception of trace levels of sodium and aluminum, perlite reacts
neutrally and adds very little nutritional value to the mixture. The fact that perlite floats

when, the medium is wet makes its low weight a limiting factor. Additionally, it creates dust
when mixing, which is removable. The major advantages of soil-fewer medium include
uniformity of mix, ease of handling, versatility, sterility, ready to use, good drainage and
better moisture retention.
4.6 Sowing of Seeds

Seeds should be sown in seed flats or in germinating beds if they are of small size. Sowing
of seeds in beds is either done by broadcast method, drilling or dribbling. Dibbling is done
for large sized seeds which can also be sown by drilling. Usually, broadcasting is practiced
for small sized seeds. Very small seeds are mixed with sand, soil or wood ash for uniform
settling on the soil surface. Medium and large sized seeds may be broadcasted without
any medium. Line seeding or drill sowing is advantageous as it facilitates weeding and
hoeing. Closeness of sowing lines and seed in the line depends upon the germination
capacity of the seeds and or whether entire transplants are used or whether root-shoot
cuttings are needed. For large sized seeds, sowing is done along lines, each seed
touching the next. The depth of sowing should be equal to 2 or 3 times the diameter of the
seed, if the seeds are known to have a comparatively long germination time, the sowing
should be deeper, though the soil cover should not be compacted. Seeds can be sown
deeper in light soils than in heavy soils.
4.7 Requirements for Germination

The process of germination is done in greenhouses for subsequent transplantation in the
greenhouses or open fields. When seeds are sown in greenhouses, germination rates are
extremely high. Likewise, plants propagated in greenhouses are of higher quality than
those grown in open fields. Even in greenhouses with controlled environment, certain
microenvironment is necessary for the proper germination of some finer seeds. The plastic
or glass covers are taken off after the seeds begin to germinate in order to keep the
developing plants from etiolating. When ready, these seedlings are placed in small
containers to establish themselves before being placed in larger containers or in fields.
Seed germination is an extremely complex process as it entails several biochemical,
physiological and morphological changes within a seed. Three requirements need to be
achieved in order for germination to start.

i. The embryo must be alive and able to germinate.

ii. Second, the seed must not be dormant, meaning that there should be no chemical
barrier or dormancy.
iii. Third, the right amount of moisture, temperature, air (O2), and light must be present
in the environment.
The process of seed germination requires several stages; however, the main 3 stages are
Activation or awakening stage, Translocation stage and Seedling growth stage. Seeds
germinate through radicle and plumule parts.
Check your progress
1. Explain growing medium.

2. Differentiate between vermiculite and perlite.
3. Explain coca peat and the importance of soil-less media.
4. What do you understand by seed germination and how it was achieved?
5. Discuss about sowing of seeds.
Summary
In this unit, we have discussed about different tools and equipments that are used in land
preparation, grafting and budding process and for other basic operations performed in the
nursery. This unit also covers the concept and importance of seed and soil treatment.
Basically, the soil utilized in nursery contains harmful pathogens, so to eliminate these
harmful pathogens from the soil various methods like soil-pasteurization, soil solarisation
and treating soil with chemicals and bio-agents are done. Similarly, seed treatment is also
very important and is performed by various methods. This unit describes about soil less
media and various soil-less media such as coca peat, vermiculite and perlite that are
common in use. This unit summarizes about seed sowing and the basic needs for seed
germination.
References
1. Chaudhary, V., Kalia, S., Mishra, S. (2019). In: Modern Nursery Techniques, ICFRE Manual.
Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun, India.
2. Luna, R.K. (2006). In: Plantation forestry in India. International Book Distributors. Rajpur road.
Dehradun. Pp. 1-93.
3. Sharma, R.R., Srivastav, M. (2004). Plant Propagation and Nursery Management.
International Book Distributing, Co. Lucknow. India.

Unit 5: Establishment of Nursery-I

Unit Structure

5.1 Introduction
5.2 Low - Cost Nursery Techniques
5.2.1 Seedlings Raising in Plastic Bags
5.2.2 High Humidity Chamber
5.2.3 Drought Hardening
5.2.4 Plastic Mulch
5.2.5 Mini-greenhouse
5.2.6 Compost
5.2.7 Use of a Shade Net
5.2.8 Use of Supplementary Light
5.2.9 Hormones
5.3 Modern Nursery Raising Techniques
5.4 Advantages of Plug Tray Nursery Raising
5.5. Components of Transplants
5.5.1 Height Control
5.5.2 Controlling temperatures
5.5.3 Pillowing and Control
5.5.4 Transplants Watering
5.5.5 Required Water Quality
5.5.6 Watering Frequency
5.5.7 Irrigation
5.5.8 Transplant Fertigation
5.5.9 Deficiency in Seedlings
5.5.10 Hardening in Seedling
5.6 Uprooting /digging
5.7 Labeling and Packaging of Nursery Material
5.8 Scheduling for Holding Plugs
Summary
References

After you have studied this unit, you should be able to understand about:
 Low cost nursery practices
 Learn about modern nursery raising procedures.

 Understanding transplant components.
 Learn about labeling and packing of nursery materials.
5.1 Introduction
Several more effective methods have been created and established for nursery raising in
various horticultural crops, particularly vegetable crops, because the old nursery raising
system is incapable of resolving numerous problems that arise during nursery raising.
Similarly, various additional techniques, such as the use of plastic mulch, tiny
greenhouses, shade nets, and insect proof nets, have improved the traditional nursery
rearing system.
As a result, individual producers must be completely aware of the latest nursery growing
techniques. Common farmers can employ inexpensive technology, whereas progressive
educated farmers can use a more modern system. However, before using the modern
system, complete knowledge of all the components of the modern nursery raising system,
viz., use of insect proof nets, shade nets, use of PGRs, height control in plug tray system,
fertigation in plug tray seedlings, quality of water required for fertigation, preparation of
stock solution, frequency of injection or fertigation, hardening of seedlings, disease
management in seedlings, and packing of seedlings for transporting them over long
distances.
5.2 Low - Cost Nursery Techniques

Several improvised methods have been created and attempted, and they have proven
beneficial for small and medium-sized plant farmers. Some of the more successful types
are:
5.2.1 Seedlings Raising in Plastic Bags
This technology allows that a high number of seedlings can be produced in a small space
under optimal and controlled conditions. The seeds, saplings, or cuttings are planted in
plastic bags containing a carefully prepared potting mix. The bags have holes on their
bottoms. They are kept in shallow holes lined with plastic film to keep the roots from

reaching the earth below. Water is poured into the pit and then into the bags through the
apertures. The potting medium must be permeable to prevent water logging and contain
essential plant nutrients.
Normally, 1:1:1 ratio of soil, sand (or crushed stone), and compost is utilized; however, if
the soil is sandy, the sand content is reduced. The potting material should have a pH of 6.
For seasonal flowers and vegetable crops, use elevated potting media beds with strip
mulching.
5.2.2 High Humidity Chamber
This technique deals with the common problem of grafts or cuttings dying from desiccation
when placed in soil for rooting by maintaining a humid environment surrounding the
cuttings, preventing excessive evaporation. The cuttings/grafts are planted on a sand bed
that is surrounded on all sides by a dome constructed of galvanized (GL) wire and
wrapped in a transparent, colourless plastic film. The cuttings stay fresh and turgid for a
long time. The dome must be shaded because direct sunshine will heat up the internal
atmosphere and destroy the plants.
5.2.3 Drought Hardening
Plants raised in high relative humidity and shade often die due to transplanting shock when
shifted to the fields. To prevent this, the plants are toughened by gradually adding outside
dry air into the room.
This is accomplished by partially raising the plastic sheet on two opposing sides of the
high humidity chamber, resulting in a small opening. Every day, the openings widen,
allowing the entire film to be removed after around 8 days. This allows the plants to
gradually adjust to the dry air. Such plants can be transplanted in the field, but as a
precaution, transplantation will be done on a rainy or cloudy day.
5.2.4 Plastic Mulch
Mulch is a soil-covering layer that inhibits weed development, decreases water loss from
the soil, and increases soil temperature. Mulching seed beds with opaque black plastic film

reduces weed growth, increases soil temperature, and promotes early germination and
seedling growth. When the seeds are evenly scattered, the bed is covered with a single,
continuous piece of black plastic film. Holes are punched into the plastic to plant the seed
and allow the seedlings to grow. If the seeds are planted in rows, add plastic strips
between them.
5.2.5 Mini-greenhouse
Plants require carbon dioxide to produce food through photosynthesis. The greenhouse
aids in giving additional carbon dioxide (CO2) to the plants, improving their rate of
photosynthesis and so enhancing growth and output. This can be carried out by enclosing
the plants in a box-shaped container made of bamboo and colourless translucent plastic,
with a lid on top. The lid is closed after nightfall, allowing CO2 from respiration to collect in
the box. After sunrise, plants begin photosynthesis, and because there is more CO2
around the plant, the rate of carbon assimilation increases. After a few hours, the lid is
opened to prevent overheating. Alternatively, a plot or bed of plants can be covered with
plastic film border held by bamboo pillars (about 120 cm tall), and CO2 will settle around
the plants because it is heavier than air.
5.2.6 Compost
Composting includes soaking agricultural waste in water including cow dung, urea, and
superphosphate. The agricultural trash is strewn on the ground in a thickness about 20 cm
deep. The microbial culture is spread across the layer, which is subsequently coated with
another layer of agro waste. The heap may reach a height of one meter. It is further
protected with a plastic covering. The heap is stirred and covered once a month,
depending on the ' state' of decomposition of the agricultural waste; overall decomposition
time is 2-4 months.
5.2.7 Use of a Shade Net
Shade nets are effective for avoiding heat harm to young plants, as well as reducing plant
water requirements by slowing transpiration. Shade nets are available in a variety of
colours and densities.

5.2.8 Use of Supplementary Light
When the days get shorter, many plants go into winter hibernation. Additional light from
tube lights after sunset creates long-day conditions, preventing plants from entering winter
dormancy. Light towards the end of the day (photoperiod) promotes plant development. If
light is filtered by a layer of green leaves, the plants grow tall but do not develop lateral
branches. On the other hand, when exposed to fluorescent light (tube lights) placed on the
ground, they sprout side branches and grow bushy. This is caused by the activation of
phytochrome, a pigment found in all green plants that detects and responds to various
types of light. To obtain the desired results, only about half an hour of light exposure is
required right after.
5.2.9 Hormones
Several growth-promoting hormones are now commercially available. When used

correctly, these compounds provide extraordinary outcomes in terms of shoot growth and
roots. The appropriate combination and quantity should be determined in cooperation with
the resource agency.
5.3 Modern Nursery Raising Techniques

Vegetable seedlings or nurseries can be grown in a number of containers, such as
moulded trays and pots. Polystyrene and/or plastic trays are generally acknowledged as
industry standards in many regions of the world. Plastic trays of uniform size with equal-
sized cells cemented in Styrofoam are extensively used because they produce more
consistent root zone temperature and moisture. In the United States, only Styrofoam flats
are commonly preferred over plastic pro-trays. Cell morphologies vary within the seedling
flats, with available shapes including inverted pyramid, circular, and hexagonal. While it is
unknown if cell shape influences seedling field performance, cell size appears to have a
definite effect because it varies by crop. The deeper celled trays generally, have a larger
cell volume which makes available more water and nutrients to the transplants. Deeper
cells, therefore, tend to support faster growth of transplants than shallow cells, which
require frequent watering. To promote good root growth of the transplants in deep cell
trays, water well and saturate the media all the way to the bottom of the plug. Deep and
shallow celled trays should not be blended for a single crop or batch of transplants to
ensure uniformity. Larger cell sizes often result in higher yields in the field, particularly for
longer-cycle crops such as tomatoes and watermelons. Short-cycle vegetable crops, on
the other hand, require smaller cells.
The normal cell size in the business is 1.0 inch by 1.0 inch (200 plants per plastic pro-tray).
The economics and duration of the nurseries stay in the greenhouse influence the cell size
of the tray for a specific crop. Vegetable nursery containers must have sufficient drainage
and be capable of holding soilless media. They are also quite easy to handle.
Plastic trays: Plastic trays or pro-trays with varying cell sizes are often used to raise
vegetable seedlings. In numerous European nations and Israel, two types of plastic pro-
trays are primarily used for seedling cultivation: one with cells of 3.75 cm (1.5") in size and
another with cavities measuring 2.5 cm (1.0"). The size of the cells is closely related to the
type of crop to be seeded in the nursery trays. These trays aid in optimal germination,
minimize mortality rates, ensure uniform and healthy seedling growth, and are easy to
handle and store, as well as reliable and cost-effective for transportation. These plastic
trays can be fixed in thermocol base trays with the same number and size of cells before
being filled with media.
5.4 Advantages of Plug Tray Nursery Raising

i. Because there is no competition between plants, seedling homogeneity improves.
ii. Healthy seedlings can be developed in a short time.
iii. There is no possibility of soil-borne fungal or viral infection of the seedlings because
the nursery is grown in soil-free sterilized media and insects cannot find their way
under the protected conditions.
iv. Significantly lower seedling mortality when transplanted compared to the typical
nursery rearing approach.
v. This nursery-raising approach facilitates early planting.
vi. It is useful for developing the nursery of sexually and asexually propagated
vegetables, as well as ornamental crops.

vii. Managing insect pests and diseases in greenhouse/protected settings is quite

simple, particularly for viral infections.
viii. Easy to move after packing for extended trips.
ix. Farmers can have the nursery ready at any time as needed.
5.5. Components of Transplants

5.5.1 Height Control
Height management is critical because elongated seedlings are more susceptible to biotic
and abiotic stressors after transplantation. Heat, over-fertilization, over-watering, and low
light conditions in a greenhouse or nursery can all produce excessive stem elongation. As
a result, the height of transplants can be controlled by maintaining optimal temperature
and light conditions, as well as controlling water and fertilizer dosages. Normally, 4-5°C
DIF provides good control over seedling height. Seedling height can also be reduced by
spraying growth retardants such as cycocel at a rate of 5-10 ppm, depending on crop and
temperature, immediately after seedling emergence.
5.5.2 Controlling temperatures
Controlling temperatures is another method for controlling plant height. Cooler

temperatures often slow down growth, while higher conditions accelerate it. Root and
shoot growth increase linearly with temperature between 25°C and 35°C.
Another technique is to keep daytime temperatures below nighttime levels. Although many
species respond positively to this type of therapy, some have chlorotic (yellow) leaves or
stunted growth. Similarly, altering moisture, nutrients, and light can either inhibit or
accelerate seedling growth. Chemical growth retardants are another option for controlling
growth.
5.5.3 Pillowing and Control
Pillowing is defined as uneven growth caused by varied air circulation in the nursery
greenhouse or building, as well as variances in watering patterns between cells within
trays. In general, cells near the trays' periphery face drying conditions, resulting in stunted

seedling growth when compared to transplants in the tray's middle. When larger plants
begin to shade the growth media, the problem becomes even more serious. In contrast,
shorter plants enable more evaporation since solar rays flow through them. As a result,
individual flats are dome-shaped or "pillowed". This could be due to lose flat placement or
abundant sunlight on one side of the trays, which results in a higher degree of drying.
5.5.4 Transplants Watering
Before initiating watering of vegetable seedlings, it is essential to know the quality of water
to be used for the purpose.
5.5.5 Required Water Quality
The greenhouse fertilization approach may need to be adjusted depending on the pH,
bicarbonate level, and nutrient content of the available water supply. If good quality water
is not accessible, an alternative source should be sought. Water can fluctuate dramatically
over time, so a comprehensive water analysis should be performed every year. This is
especially true when water is pumped from shallow wells or areas with a high water table.
The pH of the water used for plug transplants should be 5.5 to 6.5. Micronutrients are
readily available to plants at the pH levels set in the nursery. Pond and well water is
frequently alkaline (pH more than 7.0) and requires acid treatment to reduce pH.
5.5.6 Watering Frequency
The amount and frequency of watering differ according on cell size, growing media,
greenhouse ventilation, crop, seedling age, and weather circumstances. Water thoroughly,
to saturate the entire plug and encourage root growth from the bottom. If the plug is not
completely irrigated, root growth is restricted to the top of the plug. Allow the plug to dry
out before watering, but don't allow it wilt too much, as this will harm the transplants' root
systems. Plug transplants should be fully irrigated in the morning, not in the late afternoon.
If the plants remain damp overnight, fungal diseases may develop.
5.5.7 Irrigation
Watering is crucial for successful plug and transplant production. Water stress slows plants
down and increases the likelihood of poor performance after they are planted outside.

Automatic or semi-automatic watering saves time, but it does not replace the need for
personal touch-ups and watering on a regular basis. The plants will thrive, especially in
plastic trays, if they are lifted off the ground to allow for good air circulation and water
drainage. As a general rule, they should not be watered in the late afternoon to avoid
becoming too damp at night. Watering schedules are also influenced by the size of plug
cells.
One of the most common difficulties in greenhouses is overwatering. This not only inhibits
plant development and health, but it also promotes the spread of diseases that thrive in
wet settings.
Young plugs are especially vulnerable to overwatering, whereas older plugs are more
prone to under watering. As a result, it is done as follows:
 Hand watering
 Stationary sprinklers
 Traveling boom sprinklers. Fogging
 Sub-irrigation
Hand watering and sub-irrigation are the best alternatives for small growers. The most
significant disadvantage of hand watering is the high expense of labour. It's also less
reliable than mechanical systems. Sub-irrigation addresses both of these difficulties;
however, it may result in overwatering due to rapid saturation. Sub-irrigation works
effectively for larger plugs. Plugs can leak fertilizer, sometimes excessively. Water per tray
may be affected by air humidity rather than temperature or plant condition.
5.5.8 Transplant Fertigation
A well-grown transplant will have enough nutritional resources to establish quickly in a

variety of field settings. Water-soluble fertilizers put into irrigation water are commonly
used to fertilize vegetable transplants. Several fertilizer studies for transplant production
differ in terms of nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5), potassium (K2O), and micronutrient
content. Growers should use fertilizers that contain the majority of their nitrogen in the form
of nitrate. Fertilizers with high quantities of urea should be avoided. The electrical

conductivity of a 100 ppm solution in micromhos was determined using a conductivity

meter and clean water.
Transplants should be watered as needed, and the nutrient solution content and
application frequency should be adjusted to achieve the optimum level of growth. Fertilizer
requirements vary according to cell size (bigger cells require less fertilizer) and nutrient
charge of the growth media.
5.5.9 Deficiency in Seedlings
Plants exhibit nutrient insufficiency more frequently than toxicity. Most farmers avoid over-
fertilizing for fear of "burning" the roots or stems. As a result, most fertilizer applications are
postponed well beyond the time when the plant requires nutrients. Transplants that are low
in phosphorus show purple pigmentation around the stem and underside of the leaves.
Plants having insufficient nitrogen will have pale-green leaves. However, too much
nitrogen causes white stems and dark-green leaves.
5.5.10 Hardening in Seedling
Hardening seedlings before transplanting into the main field is crucial for reducing
transplant shock and boosting crop stand. Plants should be gradually hardened, or
toughened, by exposing them to the anticipated growing conditions in the fields for at least
a week before planting. Slowing their growth rate enables them to withstand cold, dry
winds, a lack of water, and high temperatures. Withholding or using restricted amounts of
water are the most effective ways to harden a transplant. Seedlings generated in larger
cells have been proven to produce higher and earlier yields than smaller cells, but the
overall yield remains same. Generally, seedlings of any plant are ready for transplanting
28-32 days after sowing in plastic pro-trays.
5.6 Uprooting /digging

To avoid the damage to the roots, it is advisable to irrigate nursery, 3-4 days before the
actual date of lifting the plants. The lifting of (evergreen spp.) saplings should however be
avoided in case if there is heavy rain in the rainy season because earth ball does not form
properly if soil is too wet. To achieve high rate of yield survival of evergreen tropical or

subtropical plants, these should be uprooted with a ball of earth. Deciduous plants can be
lifted bare rooted.
5.7 Labeling and Packaging of Nursery Material

Plug plants are packed in corrugated card (CC) with styropor lining, but when CC
containers are not practicable, and the packing is available in two carton sizes. Depending
on plant height, the small carton can carry two or three trays. The huge carton carries five
or six trays.
Small: H x L x W = 215 x 585 x 340 mm

Large: H x L x W = 410 x 585 x 340 mm
Copper-treated plug flats improved root development and flowering in bedding plants.
5.8 Scheduling for Holding Plugs

Transplants are usually ready to plant outside before the weather allows. This has
prompted research into the effects of storing or holding plugs at low temperatures.
Controlling humidity, fertility, wetness, and light is essential when holding plugs.
Lower humidity helps to inhibit sickness, but it can also cause water stress. Plugs given
too much nitrogen do not store well. Michigan State University found that light above 5
foot-candles was good for stored plugs.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note : a) Space is given below for answers.
1) What are major components of transplant need to be considered?
.......................................................................................................................
2) What are the means of controlling disease of transplants in nursery?
.......................................................................................................................
3) Discuss components of transplants.
.......................................................................................................................

Summary
In this unit, we examined new significant knowledge on plant propagation and nursery
management to stay up with the changing times. Basic and up-to-date information about
plant propagation is presented. Green houses, soilless media, seed production, processes
for propagating vegetable and flower seedlings, transplant disease prevention, hardening
seedlings before transplantation in the field, and seedling packaging have all received
particular emphasis.
References
1. Sharma, R. R.; and Srivastav, M. (2004) Plant propagation and nursery
management, International Book Distributing Co. India.
2. Davidson, Harold, et al. (1999) Nursery Management: Administration and Culture

(4th Edition), Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA.
3. Singh, B. (2005) Protected Cultivation of Vegetable Crops, Kalyani Publishers,

Delhi, India.
4. Singh, B.; and Singh, M.C. (2006) A practical manual on “Protected Cultivation of
Horticultural Crops”, Division of Horticulture, IARI, New Delhi.

NURSERY TECHNOLOGY FRN-121
Unit 6: Establishment of Nursery II
Unit Structure

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Legal title of land, survey
6.3 Nursery Site Selection
6.4 Planning and Layout
6.4.1 Fencing
6.4.2 Making of Roads and Paths
6.4.3 Progeny Block
6.4.4 Generators, pipelines, wells, etc
6.4.5 Office/Combined Store
6.4.6 Seed Beds
6.4.7 Nursery Beds /Poly bag
6.4.8 Potting Mixture and Potting Yard
6.5 Planting pattern
6.5.1 Square system
6.5.2 Rectangular system
6.5.3 Triangular system
6.5.4 Hexagonal system
6.5.5 Quincunx system
6.5.6 Contour system
6.6 Enrichment planting
6.7 Nurse crops
Summary

After going through this unit you will be able to:
 Understand about the Planting layout
 Understand the criteria of site selection
 Formulate the planning and nursery layout.
 Identify the facilities required to establish a nursery.
6.1 Introduction
In a nursery, trees, shrubs, seedlings, and other plant materials are raised and cared
for until they are planted in a permanent location. Establishing a nursery is a long-term
and permanent venture. Any fault made at the beginning cannot be changed later.

Thus, a healthy crop is the foundation on the availability of high-quality planting

material. The present unit deal with the some important component while establishing
a nursery i.e., legal title of land, survey, site selection; planting layout, season or time
of planting, planting pattern, spacing, enrichment planting.
6.2 Legal title of land, survey

Enough ground should be available to raise the required number of seedlings, plus
additional space if needed for growth. It is advisable to conduct legal research to
determine the land's true ownership.
Generally, nurseries are establishment in the forest land, van panchayat land, as well
as in the private land. The forest department has the stakes on the nurseries
established in forest land and maintained by the forest department. The vanpanchayat
oversees and maintains the nursery in vanpanchayat territory. Similarly, in private land
the land owner have the stakes of nursery. However, the private nursery can be run
only after registration and getting the license from the line department. The first step in
a establishing the nursery is to carry out a survey of an area and preparation of
treatment map. Following points should be kept in mind while establishing a nursery:
(i) The nursery should be situated in the key producing areas as much as feasible.
(ii) There should be no soil-borne infections and the soil should be deep, fertile,
and well-drained.
(iii) A sufficient supply of sweet water should be available in the area.
(iv) The climate must be suitable for the plants to be multiplied or propagated.
(v) The location needs to be easily accessible and well-connected via various
communication channels.
(vi) To manage various tasks, there should be an adequate availability of labour,
budders, and grafters.
(vii) All necessary supplies, including lanolin paste, growth regulators, grafting
waxes, fertilizers, and insecticides, should be easily accessible.
(viii) Enough space should be set out for various propagation structures, such as net
homes and glasshouses.
(ix) In order to supply parent material (mother plants) for propagation, the nursery
should have sufficient resources.

6.3 Nursery Site Selection

Selecting a suitable nursery location is the most crucial choice influencing the effective
production of high-quality plants. Important factors to take into account when choosing
a nursery area are: The chosen region should have adequate drainage, be free of
water logging, have enough sunlight, have the nursery close to a water source for
convenient irrigation, and be well-protected from both domestic and wild animals.
Each nursery's ability to succeed is primarily dependent on the type of soil it has and
the quantity and quality of water it receives. Soil and water analyses must be
completed prior to nursery site selection, as most fruit and ornamental plants are
sensitive to salinity and alkalinity. Good fertility, enough water-holding capacity, light to
medium texture, and adequate drainage are all desirable qualities in soil. For any
nursery, soil with a pH of 5.5 to 6.5 is ideal. The salinity in soil and irrigation water
causes salt damage, which can cause nutritional shortages, marginal leaf browning,
and in severe cases, plant death, particularly during the summer. Consequently, the
success of a commercial nursery greatly depends on the careful selection of soil and a
high-quality irrigation water supply.
A nursery setup requires careful consideration of the following technical factors:
(i). Source of Water: A sufficient and dependable water supply is necessary. In

order to have good irrigation facilities it should be located close to, or bit
below, a source of a sufficient amount of water. The water source should be
closer to the nursery location and at a higher elevation. There should always
be water available.
(ii). Suitable Soil Availability: The nursery's actual soil is not important for
growing seedlings in polythene bags or tubes. The nursery needs to have easy
access to a good supply of soil, ideally forest topsoil and sand. Because of
their poor drainage and aeration, and risk of cracking in the summer, clayey
soils should not be chosen. The presence of symbiotic organisms, such as
Rhizobium and Mycorrhiza, in soil is necessary for most trees to grow to their
full potential. These symbionts aid in the nourishment of the trees' roots. In
most situations, artificial inoculation is required, but certain organisms are
present naturally.

(iii). Access to Nursery: The nursery should be situated as close to the centre of
the planting area as feasible. To ensure frequent and close observation, it
should ideally be close to the residence area. To make it easier to transfer
seedlings, the nursery should be close to the plantation site, and the access
road should be passable throughout the year.
(iv). Topography: A well-planned and laid-out slope can easily impress clients by
facilitating a smooth irrigation water flow and providing a spectacular
panoramic view. The area needed for the nursery is determined by the types
of plants to be grown or multiplied as well as the goals of planting materials for
various plant crops. At high elevations, a south-facing slope is preferred for hill
nurseries because it is warmer, whereas at low elevations, a north-facing
slope is preferred. That slope is appropriate since it is sufficiently steep to
enable adequate drainage. Avoid completely flat terrain as it would probably
get flooded during the rainy season. More steep slopes should be avoided as it
may be difficult to create a nursery bed and path on either side to provide
access to the beds.
(v). Flooding, High Winds, and Frost Exposure: Locations where frost damage
is particularly likely should be avoided at high altitudes. Similarly avoid those
locations which are vulnerable to high winds, have a risk of floods, or have
landslides.
(vi). Labour: Labour should be easily accessible, ideally close to a hamlet so that
workers won't have to travel far to get to work.
6.4 Planning and Layout

The nursery's layout is one of its most important operations. In order to improve the
nursery's aesthetic appeal and to ensure proper plant development and the required
number of plants per unit space, the plants have been carefully placed in the plot.
The nursery should be set up with consideration for the ideal "propagation
environment," hence everything about it should be designed with it in mind. Container
nurseries should always be arranged so that the propagation zones receive as much
sunlight as possible. Compounds for open growth should be positioned to maximize
sunshine exposure while providing enough wind protection. Large trees, structures, or
other impediments that can provide shade for the most of the day should not be placed

121
close to them. A developing complex oug

ought
ht to be situated at least 2.5 times the height
of the closest object to the south, east, and west as a general rule. Shelterbelts placed
correctly may reduce the negative impacts of wind. In addition to providing protection
from hazardous storms, a well
well-designed
esigned wind barrier or tree shelterbelt may
significantly decrease heat losses of propagation structures and irrigation wind drift in
shelter houses or open
growth compounds. The
most crucial phases in
growing seedlings in a
nursery include choosing an
appropriate location for the
seedbeds, planting seeds,
tending to the seedbeds,
caring for the seedlings, and
finally moving the seedlings.
Although it may appear

simple in theory, growing
plants in nurseries is a
challenging task that can only
be completed successfully
and efficiently with some
experience. Since there are Nursery Layout
many different kinds and components of nurseries, one must have a basic
understanding of the plants that will be cultivated, making it a specialized employment.
In the same way, one should be adequatel

adequatelyy familiar with the cultural needs of the
plants that will be grown in the nursery. Typically, seeds are sown three to four times
deeper than their actual size. In light soils, you can sow a little bit deeper than in heavy
soils. Many factors affect the selling
lling of seeds, but the species, purpose, and spacing
are the main determinants.
Following the location of the nursery's establishment, planning may be carried out with
the assistance of a nurseryman or professional horticulturist. In addition to carrying out
various nursery operations most effectively and economically, doing so can
significantly lower the costs associated with establishment, production, and marketing.

The following elements need to be considered and accommodations made for while
designing and arranging the nursery.
6.4.1 Fencing
In order to keep animals away of the nursery and to discourage theft, a strong fence
with barbed wire on top needs to be built around the nursery before establishment.
Furthermore to strengthen the fence, put in a live hedge with spiky fruit plants or
bushes. Through the sale of fruits and seedlings, this increases the aesthetic appeal of
bearing as well as generates extra revenue.
6.4.2 Making of Roads and Paths

In addition to adding aesthetic value, well-planned internal roads and pathways will
facilitate simple, cost-effective nursery operations. One way to do this would be to
create distinct areas and blocks within the nursery. However, space shouldn't be
wasted by building roads and trails which are not necessary at all. A point of attraction
inside the nursery area should be accessible to clients via each road and pathway.
6.4.3 Progeny Block

A progeny block is a group of plants kept in a nursery in accordance with the
requirements, where mother plants of superior varieties that are true to type are kept.
An immaculate progeny block, mother plant block, or scion block containing varieties
that are in high demand should be present in the nursery. The best places to get grafts,
layers, rooted cuttings, seedlings, or original breeders/research agencies from where
they are released are or should be renowned nurseries. It is important to keep in mind
that the first selection of mother plants or progeny plants for additional multiplication is
vital to the success of any nursery. The nursery's status will be damaged by any errors
done in this area. Because fresh scion material is available all season long within the
nursery and there is no waiting period between the division of the scion and the graft
age, a well-managed progeny block or mother plants block will not only encourage
confidence in the customers but also decrease production expenses and increase the
success rate of grafting, budding, and layering.
6.4.4 Generators, pipelines, wells, etc

Fruit and decorative nursery plants, which are planted in poly-bags or pots with little
potting mixture, need a lot of water for establishment, growth, and development. Thus,

the seedlings, seed beds, containers, etc. should be appropriately watered. It is

important to have a way to conserve enough water to irrigate nursery plants in places
with limited water yields and frequent interruptions in electricity. A backup source of
electricity, such as a generator, must be kept up to date in places where interruptions
in electricity are common to ensure the smooth operation of the pump-set. An efficient
PVC pipeline system may significantly reduce the issue of water scarcity, which is a
constraint in many regions, especially in the winter. Regarding pipeline layout, this may
be a good time to engage an expert agricultural engineer. This would make it easier to
distribute irrigation water to the different nursery components in an economical and
efficient manner.
6.4.5 Office/Combined Store

The nursery cannot be managed effectively without an office/stores combination. It is
possible to locate the office building in a way that allows for improved nursery monitoring
and makes it possible for the nursery employees to welcome and assist clients. The
office block could be furnished with eye-catching pictures of decorative and fruit kinds
grown in the nursery along with information about each one. Poly bags, tools, packing
supplies, labels, fertilizer, insecticides, and other items need to be kept in a storage
space of an appropriate size.
6.4.6 Seed Beds

To raise the seedlings and rootstocks in a nursery, this component is necessary.
Considering their regular watering and irrigation needs, they should be placed close to a
reliable source of water. Beds should be prepared that are one meter wide or any
suitable length. Between each bed, there must be a 60-centimeter working space. Which
makes it easier to water, spray, weed, sow seeds, and lift seedlings. Convenient
placement of irrigation channels is required. Or else the beds could be watered by a
sprinkler system of irrigation. Entire seedling growth along with regular germination is
facilitated by sprinkler irrigation.
6.4.7 Nursery Beds /Poly bag

When compared to nursery beds, growing seedlings or rootstocks in poly bags takes up
more room, but after transplantation, the death rate of the seedlings or rootstocks is
significantly lower. Furthermore, growing seedlings or rootstocks in poly bags allows for
the maintenance of consistency in their growth. In order to accommodate 500 grafts or

layers in each bed, the nursery bed area should also include a feature that allows the
grafted plants to be kept in trenches that are 30 cm deep and one meter wide. An
alternative arrangement for the grafts and layers would be to set them on the ground in
one-meter-wide beds with a 60-centimeter working space between each bed. These
beds can be irrigated by above micro sprinklers or by a rose attached to a flexible
hosepipe.
6.4.8 Potting Mixture and Potting Yard

A high-quality potting mixture is essential for better nursery plant performance. Potting
mixes can be made using a variety of ingredients and amounts, including well-rotted
FYM, oil cakes, vermin-compost, leaf mould, and fertile red soil. By adding enough super
phosphate to the potting mixture prior to time, it will decompose and solubilize more
easily. The potting mixture can be stored close to the area used for potting and
pocketing. Building a potting garden that is the right size makes it easier to perform
grafting/budding or potting of seedlings, even on rainy days.
6.5 Planting pattern

After taking consideration of the land's slope, the intended use of the area, convenience,
etc., the planting strategy to be used is chosen. In general, the six planting strategies are
advised. Learners, an overview is provided here; however, unit number 14 will provide
more insight regarding the planting pattern.
6.5.1 Square system

This system is frequently used and regarded as the most straightforward of all. The area
of land is divided into squares using this method, and plants are placed in straight rows
at right angles at each of the square's four corners.
6.5.2 Rectangular system

Instead of using squares to divide the plot, this method uses rectangles, and plants are
placed in straight rows at right angles to each other at the four corners of each rectangle.
The main difference is that this approach allows for more plants to be planted in each
row while maintaining more space between rows.

6.5.3 Triangular system

The plot is divided into squares for this scheme, and the planting is done similarly, with
alternating rows planted midway through. Other than offering more open space for trees
and intercrops, this layout offers no particular advantages over the square arrangement.
In addition to being a difficult layout, this system makes it harder to cultivate the plots.
6.5.4 Hexagonal system

Six trees form a hexagon with the seventh tree in its core when using this approach, with
the plants placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle. In areas with high land costs,
high fertility, and plentiful irrigation water supplies, this technique is typically used.
6.5.5 Quincunx system

The only difference between this method of planting fruit trees and the square method
is the addition of a fifth tree to the centre of each square. Consequently, the number of
trees in a unit area nearly doubles compared to the square arrangement.
6.5.6 Contour system

Usually, it is practiced on hills with steep slopes. It works especially well on land with
uneven terrain, where erosion is more likely and irrigation is more challenging. This
system's primary goals are to reduce soil erosion and retain soil moisture so that the
slope is suitable for growth.
6.6 Enrichment planting

A key method in the restoration of forests is the growth of enrichment crops. According
to the definition, it is "the introduction of economically important species into degraded
forests without eliminating valuable species that are already present at that specific
site." Enhancing the density of target species in the secondary forest is a popular
application for it. The term "enrichment plantation" refers to the beautification of an
area. Making rich or fertilizing are further meanings of the word enrichment.
It can be effectively applied to raise secondary forests' value and stop them from being
converted to other purposes. Therefore, in the context of the present worldwide
attempts to prevent deforestation in developing countries, enrichment planting and
reducing deforestation could be key land use strategies. Planting exotic and native
species in wide gaps is known as enrichment planting. Before planting, the plants can
be gathered from the forest floor seedlings or produced in nurseries.

6.7 Nurse crops

Nurse crops are grown primarily for use in the raising of a less hardy species. Usually,
they are eliminated early on after fulfilling the purpose for which they were created. The
primary crop is usually protected by the nursing crops from the sun, frost, and other
biotic and environmental factors. The primary purpose of raising nurse crops is to
support shade-bearing species, which are initially vulnerable to cold. Some species are
shade-tolerant. Some of these species are less shade-tolerant than others, but they
are all so vulnerable that they are killed by direct sunshine. For example, some firs
have a broad, open forest on the slope. This is because seedlings are initially
extremely sensitive, but as they grow older, they become resilient and light-sensitive.
For example the nurse crop of Abies pindrow, is Pinus wallichiana (blue pine). Walnut
and Poplar can also serve the same purpose.
Summary
In this unit, you have studied about the purpose of survey, site selection, planting
layout, season or time of planting, planting pattern, enrichment planting, designing etc.
You have also learnt about different types of key points of the establishment of the
nursery, their construction method and raising seedling. We have also discussed about
the need of nursery, planning and layout of nurseries. We have also learned about the
enrichment of the planting and the nurse crops.
Check Your Progress
1. Discuss the importance of nursery. Why not one can directly raise seedlings in an open field
environment?
2. Discuss the pre-requisites for establishment of a nursery.
3. What do you mean by the nurse crops?
4. Describe the Planning and Layout of nursery in detail.
5. What are nursery beds? Describe.
References
https://www.slideshare.net/ParmarManishkumarNar/nursery-types-structure-
components-planning-and-lay-out-of-nursery
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=1578
https://courseware.cutm.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/SEED-BED-converted.pdf

Unit 7: Maintenance of Nursery

Unit Structure

7.1 Introduction
7.2 Fencing and types of fencing
7.3 Soil fertility
7.4 Plant Nutrients
7.5 Watering, Weeding and Nutrient Management in Nursery
7.6 Use of Hormones and Plant Growth Regulators in Nursery
7.7 Maintenance of Nursery Records
Summary

On completion of this unit you will be able to understand:
 About fencing and its types.
 About the soil fertility
 About the plant nutrients
 Watering, weeding and nutrients management in nursery
 Use of hormones and growth regulators in nursery
7.1 Introduction
Learners, in the previous units you have learnt about the nursery, its importance,
establishment, types of nursery, nursery tools etc. Now you have got the basic
understanding of nursery. Since plants grown in a nursery, care must be taken in
nourishing them in order to ensure their growth, development and better production
(Quality Planting Martial). In order to understand this the present unit deal with the
maintenance of the nursery which covers about the fencings, kinds of fencing,
importance of fencing in nursery, soil fertility, plant nutrients, watering, weeding, use of
hormones and growth regulators etc.

7.2 Fencing and types of fencing

The nursery need to be protected from external factors such harm caused by domestic
and wild animals feeding on them. Fencing is necessary for the nursery for this reason,
and the following improvements can also be implemented in the nursery:
 Barbed wire fencing measuring 1.5 metres in height is used for a temporary
nursery.
 Constructing a fence or stone wall to keep animals out of the permanent

nursery.
 Planting wind barriers and shelter belts to offer cover in arid regions.
 Putting spiky shrubs on the bed will protect it from birds.
The following kinds of fencing are effective for use as protection:
(a) Live-Hedge Fencing: The live hedge-fencing gets more flexible and dense with
time. It is best to choose a spiky species. By cuttings, it ought to be able to arise.
Better coppicing power is also expected. For live-hedge fencing, the following
plants are appropriate:
Euphorbia spp, Agave sislana, Agave americana, Jatropha curcas, Acacia

nilotica, Acacia tortilis, Acacia catechu, Prosopis juliflora, Ipomaea, etc. Similarly,
brushwood cuttings can be temporarily utilised as a fence material.
(b) Wire Fencing: There are three types of wire fencing, which are as follows:
(i) Barbed wire fencing: This works best, although it is really expensive. On
angle iron or cement posts, four to six strands of horizontally knitted galvanized
iron barbed wire are utilized in a crosshatch pattern. U-nails are used to secure
the barbed wire strands.
(ii) Plane wire fencing: Sheep and goats cannot be contained by the wooden
posts and wire fencing made of plane wire, which works well against larger
animals. Bamboo stakes can also be used in replacement of wooden posts (poles
or sawn timber). Bamboo is utilised for both vertical and crisscross stakes and
posts, as well as for attaching wire and posts. Mud or preservatives such as
arsenic-copper sulphate (ASCU) should be applied to the wood or bamboo that is
to be utilized.

(iii) Woven wire fencing: Wooden, cement, or angle iron pillars are used to hold
woven wire net. Even little animals are unable to get through the woven wire
fencing. It's hard for the pigs, rabbits, deers, swine, and even rodents to find their
way through. Plants that are vulnerable and highly prized should be protected with
woven wire fencing. This type of fencing is also known as porcupine or game
proof fencing. It is also possible to utilise the woven wire in addition to the barbed
wire. The upper section of the fencing is tied with barbed wire.
(c) Trench cum Mound (TCM) Fencing: There is no fencing material needed for this
kind of fencing. The entire area is surrounded by the trench. The mound is
composed of excavated soil. Its dimensions are 1 m deep, 1.90 m broad at the
top, and 0.60 m wide at the bottom. While there is 1250 m3 of earth work required
per km, the TCM slope along the afforested region would be nearly vertical. A 20
hectare plot with 500 m x 400 m sides would have 1800 m as its perimeter. TCM
would require 112.5 m3 of ground work and an average length of 90 m per acre.
On the outside of the TCM's inner wall, the top fertile soil layer can be built, and
next to it, the lower infertile layer may be pushed inward. The TCM gap is filled in
by rubble or a high enough stone walls to keep animals out of the area when
digging is not feasible due to the hard, stony substratum. Frequent maintenance
and repairs of the TCM should receive regular attention. In areas with
exceptionally high cow populations and high grazing pressure, there would be
total protection against biotic interference and cattle population.
(d) Rubble Wall Fencing: Where stones are widely and reasonably available, stone
walls or rubble wall fencing are constructed. The 1.25 m high and 1 m thick wall is
composed of chunks of stone or rubble. Cattle occasionally manage to get
through the barricade of rubble. Strong enough woven iron-wire netting should be
used to tie off these rubbles.
(e) Stone Walling: In western Rajasthan, where stones are easily accessible, this
type of stone plank fencing is popular. Nearly one-foot-wide and 1.5–2.5-meter-tall
stones are set into the earth along the edge. Although quite strong, this kind of
fencing requires frequent maintenance.
(f) Electric Fencing: This is uncommon in our nation and there are a number of
reasons why this is uncommon. Although several national parks have tried this

kind of barrier, the locals do not find it acceptable. The type of issue at hand, the
depth of the soil, and the fencing project budget should all be taken into
consideration when selecting a fence.
(g) Combinedd Fencing

Fencing: This kind of fencing is created by merging together two or
more fence varieties. e.g. (i) Barbed wire and TCM (ii) Stone and live hedge (iii)
live hedge and barbed wire (iv) barbed wire, and woven wire (v) dwarf pakka wall,
barbed wire and live hedge and so on.
Fig. 2: Different kinds of fencing
7.3 Soil fertility

The ability of the soil to support plant growth i.e., to give plants a home and produce
high-quality
quality crops over time” is referred to as soil fertility. It also refers to the soil
capacity to provide ccrop
rop and plant nutrients in the proper amounts and forms over an
extended length of time. The characteristics of fertile soil are as follows:
 The capacity to provide necessary supplies of water and nutrients to plants in

order to support their development and regeneration.
 The absence of harmful compounds that might hamper on plant growth, such
as Fe2+, which causes nutrient toxicity.
In most cases, the following characteristics increase soil fertility:
 enough soil depth to support healthy root development and retention of water;
water

 Appropriate internal drainage that permits enough aeration for ideal root
development (while many plants, like rice can tolerate water logging);
 There is enough soil organic matter in the topsoil, or horizon O, to support a

strong soil structure and soil moisture holding;
 The pH range of 5.5 to 6.5 is ideal for most plants (while some are more
tolerant of or prefer more acidic or alkaline environments).
 Sufficient amounts of necessary plant nutrients in forms that are accessible to

plants;
 A variety of microorganisms which stimulate plant growth are present.
7.4 Plant Nutrients

There are 16 elements which are necessary for healthy plant growth. 95% of plant
solids are made up of nitrogen found in the soil, hydrogen, and oxygen derived from air
and water, and carbon. Despite the fact that 78% of the atmosphere is nitrogen, plants
cannot use it. But some bacteria can fix nitrogen from the air so that plants can use it.
These bacteria grow in nodules on the roots of legumes. Phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, copper, manganese, zinc, boron, chlorine, and
molybdenum are the remaining 12 important elements. The soil is the source of these
elements. All of these elements—aside from phosphorus, potassium, calcium, and
magnesium—are often present in sufficient amounts in the soil to support crop growth.
Table 1. Macronutrient Elements

Element Symbol Chemical form most frequently
absorbed
Carbon C -
Hydrogen H -
Oxygen O O2
Nitrogen N NO3- NH4+
Potassium K K+
Calcium Ca Ca++
Phosphorus P H2PO4- HPO4+
Magnesium Mg Mg++
Sulfur S SO4+
Table 2. Micronutrient Elements

Element Symbol Chemical form most frequently absorbed
Molybdenum Mo MoO42-

Copper Cu Cu+ Cu++

Zinc Zn Zn++
Manganese Mn Mn++
Iron Fe Fe++ Fe+++
Boron B BO3- B4O7-
Chlorine Cl Cl-
As listed in Tables 1 and 2 there are sixteen elements that are necessary for plant
growth. Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon are derived from water or air. As plants need a
comparatively high amount of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium for optimal
growth, these elements are referred to as fertilizer macronutrients. Secondary
macronutrients like calcium, magnesium, and sulphur are typically provided
inadvertently together with other minerals, such lime, or they are present in adequate
amounts. Even though they are needed in lesser amounts, the remaining seven
nutrients—known as micronutrients—are equally essential. Plants will show indications
of a nutritional shortage if any of these components are low. Nutrient toxicity may be
increased by excessive amounts.
7.5 Watering, Weeding and Nutrient Management in Nursery

Water is an essential component in seed germination and seedling growth, but too
much water can be just as hazardous as too little. The size of the nursery, the type of
soil, the species, the quantity of seedlings, and the watering technique all affect how
much water is needed. As the sandy soils in dry regions are not very good at retaining
water, more water is required in these nurseries. During the dry season, an
approximate hectare-sized nursery would need 60,000 liters of water each day. The
ability to retain water for a minimum of three days must ensure a steady and
dependable supply of water, preventing seedlings from drying out. The quality of the
water utilized for irrigation must also be assured. Water with a pH of 7 or below is ideal
for "damping off" fungal assaults, but normal pH water is the best choice. Watering
should ideally be done in the morning and avoided at midday because the sun will
cause significant evaporation. Growth regression and mild to severe yellowing are the
obvious signs of overwatering. The watering mechanism may not always distribute
water evenly across a big cluster of seedlings, resulting in "wave" formations. This
condition should not be confused with clusters of plants that grow slowly, which is
usually the result of a nutrient shortage. One of the initial indicators of under watering

is wilting. For very small nurseries, the obvious way to water them is by hand using
cans with rose spray or backpack mist nozzles. Overhead sprinkler irrigation is the best
technology for large nurseries while it is the most uniform way to apply water and is
very easy to operate.
Any plants that are in the cultivation area but are not in our interest are considered
weeds. Because weeds typically develop more strongly and quickly than seedlings,
they constrain the growth of seedlings by competing with them for nutrients, water, and
light. Grass and other dicotyledonous plants that develop from a root stock are the
most problematic. It is necessary to remove the entire plant because if a weed of this
type is chopped off at the ground, it will grow back from the carbohydrates stored in its
root tissue. Weeds can be eradicated before transplanting by watering the soil used for
planting and the pre-filled containers beforehand, as it is more challenging to remove
them once they have infected seedlings growing in containers and transplant beds.
For this reason, if weed-free soil for potting is not available, containers should be filled
up to four weeks before transplanting or direct sowing operations. Weed seeds that
would normally be carried in by wind are kept out of the nursery by a dense hedge
surrounding it. Proper seedling development requires the presence of sixteen plant
food nutrients. Despite the fact that each is equally essential to the plant, the levels
needed for each vary significantly. In nurseries, the most commonly needed nutrients
are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which are classified as primary or
macronutrients. Although seedlings would show deficiency symptoms in the event of a
nutrient shortage, the appropriate fertilizer should be applied as needed.
In nurseries, FYM and compost are usually used for general nutrient support when the
available soils are either excessively heavy or sandy and of poor quality. It enhances
the soil's ability to retain water, helps to create a healthy soil structure, and supplies
plants nutrition. It significantly lessens the requirement for chemical fertilizers and
decreases those that are used when combined in modest amounts, increasing the
amount of usable fertilizer that is available. Thus, it is a cost-effective method of
applying readily available chemical fertilizers and, like humus, is a natural fertilizer in
and of itself.
When seedlings are placed in unprocessed compost, their leaves generally become
yellow. This is because the plant cannot get all the nutrients it requires, and the

immature compost keeps absorbing all the accessible nitrogen. A nursery mixture
supplemented with well-decomposed manure will guarantee the generation of healthy
and high-quality seedlings. Phosphorous must be supplied to promote rhizome growth,
and urea management will result in good vegetative/foliar growth of seedlings. In the
meantime, it is advised to use bio-fertilizers to promote seedling growth, such as
vermin-compost, VAM, and Azatobactor, Azospirillum, and Phosphobacteria (5 to 10 g)
per container-raised seedling.
7.6 Use of Hormones and Plant Growth Regulators in Nursery

For growth and development, plants need light, water, oxygen, minerals, and other
nutrients. In addition to these external demands, plants are dependent on certain
chemical molecules for indicating, regulation, and growth control. Certain hormones or
stimulants are utilized in nurseries to help them produce as much as is wanted. While
people apply plant growth regulators to plants, plants naturally create hormones.
Growth regulators and plant hormones are substances that influence: Flowering;
Aging; Root growth; Distortion and killing of organs; Prevention or promotion of stem
elongation; Color enhancement of fruit; Prevention of leafing, leaf fall or both; Many
other conditions
Significant alterations in growth are observed at very low concentrations of these

compounds. compared to naturally existing plant hormones, plant growth regulators
might be synthetic substances (like IBA and Cycocel) or naturally occurring hormones
derived from plant tissue (like IAA).
Table 3. Uses/Effects of compounds on plant growth
Compound Effect/Use
Gibberellic acid (GA) Stimulates cell division and elongation, breaks
dormancy, speeds germination
Ethylene gas (CH2) Ripening agent; stimulates leaf and fruit abscission
Indoleacetic acid (IAA) Stimulates apical dominance, rooting, and leaf
abscission
Indolebutyric acid (IBA) Stimulates root growth
Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) Stimulates root growth, slows respiration (used as a dip
on holly)
Growth retardants (Alar, B-9, Prevent stem elongation in selected crops (e.g.,
Cycocel, Arest) chrysanthemums, poinsettias, and lilies)
Herbicides (2,4-D, etc.) Distorts plant growth; selective and nonselective
materials used for killing unwanted plants

When these compounds are applied, their concentrations are often expressed in parts
per million (ppm) or, in rare circumstances, parts per billion (ppb). Most frequently, a
liquid drip or spray application of these growth-regulating agents is made to the soil
surrounding a plant's base or to the foliage. They may need to be reapplied in order to
get the desired result because their effects are usually temporary.
.Groups of plant-growth-regulating compounds
Plant growth-regulating chemicals can be divided into five groups: auxin, gibberellin
(GA), cytokinin, ethylene, and abscisic acid (ABA). Each group primarily consists of
both synthetic and naturally occurring hormones.
(i) Auxin: Auxin triggers a variety of reactions in plants:
 Phototropism or bending towards a light source.

 Geotropism or the downward growth of roots in accordance to gravity.
 Encouragement of apical dominance, which is the ability of an apical bud to
secrete hormones that inhibit the growth of buds on the stem below it.
 The formation of flowers.
 Fruit setting and growth.
 The emergence of accidental roots.
The majority of rooting chemicals, in which cuttings are dipped during vegetative
propagation, contain auxin as their active element.
(ii) Gibberellins: Gibberellins break seed dormancy, promote growth and

multiplication of cells, and accelerate germination. Certain species' seeds are
challenging to germinate, but you can try soaking them in a GA solution to help.
(iii) Cytokinins: Cytokinins are present in both plants and mammals, in contrast to
other hormones. They frequently contain them in the sterile conditions used to
grow plants from tissue culture because they promote cell division. The tissue
culture explants, or small plant portion, will sprout many shoots if the medium's
mixture of growth-regulating chemicals is high in cytokinins and low in auxins.
However, the explants will generate more roots if the mix has a high auxin to
cytokinin ratio. Moreover, cytokinins are utilised to avoid senescence, or the
ageing process.

(iv) Ethylene: The only way that ethylene may be discovered is as a gas. Senescence
is encouraged, ripening is induced, and leaves droop and drop Ethylene is
frequently produced in larger amounts within plant cells near the end of its life, and
plants frequently boost its synthesis in response to stress. A certain amount of how
leaves fall from trees is due to the increased ethylene in leaf tissue in the fall. Fruit
(like green bananas) is also ripened by ethylene.
(v) Abscisic acid: A common inhibitor of plant growth is Abscisic Acid (ABA). It
produces abscission of leaves, fruits, and flowers; it closes stomata; it induces
dormancy and stops seeds from developing. Stomatal closure during drought
stress is likely influenced by high ABA concentrations in guard cells.
7.7 Maintenance of Nursery Records

It is necessary to keep up-to-date records of all purchases (seed, chemicals, media,
etc.); data observation (sowing, germination dates and germination percentage,
growth, etc.); labour engagement and attendance; sales; pest and disease outbreaks;
permanent and temporary stocks (including species-specific seedling stocks); and
movement registers. Multiple records detailing expenses and earnings are kept in
separate books, such as purchase books, sales books, ledgers, cash books, dispatch
registers, etc. For the following reasons, keeping books of accounts is advised:
 They offer up-to-date data on nursery business and planning guidelines.
 They assist in analysing the effectiveness of the nursery activities.
Summary
 The nursery need to be protected from external factors such harm caused by
domestic and wild animals feeding on them. Fencing is necessary for the nursery
for this purpose.
 The ability of the soil to support plant growth i.e., to give plants a home and
produce high-quality crops over time” is referred to as soil fertility. It also refers to
the soil capacity to provide crop and plant nutrients in the proper amounts and
forms over an extended length of time.
 There are 16 elements which are necessary for healthy plant growth. 95% of plant
solids are made up of nitrogen found in the soil, hydrogen, and oxygen derived

from air and water, and carbon. Despite the fact that 78% of the atmosphere is
nitrogen, plants cannot use it. But some bacteria can fix nitrogen from the air so
that plants can use it. These bacteria grow in nodules on the roots of legumes.
Phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, copper, manganese,
zinc, boron, chlorine, and molybdenum are the remaining 12 important elements.
 Water is an essential component in seed germination and seedling growth, but too
much water can be just as hazardous as too little. The size of the nursery, the type
of soil, the species, the quantity of seedlings, and the watering technique all affect
how much water is needed. As the sandy soils in dry regions are not very good at
retaining water, more water is required in these nurseries. During the dry season,
an approximate hectare-sized nursery would need 60,000 litres of water each day.
The ability to retain water for a minimum of three days must ensure a steady and
dependable supply of water, preventing seedlings from drying out.
 Any plants that are in the cultivation area but are not in our interest are considered
weeds. Because weeds typically develop more strongly and quickly than
seedlings, they constrain the growth of seedlings by competing with them for
nutrients, water, and light. Grass and other dicotyledonous plants that develop
from a root stock are the most problematic. It is necessary to remove the entire
plant because if a weed of this type is chopped off at the ground, it will grow back
from the carbohydrates stored in its root tissue.
 For growth and development, plants need light, water, oxygen, minerals, and other
nutrients. In addition to these external demands, plants are dependent on certain
chemical molecules for indicating, regulation, and growth control. Certain
hormones or stimulants are utilized in nurseries to help them produce as much as
is wanted. While people apply plant growth regulators to plants, plants naturally
create hormones. Plant growth-regulating chemicals can be divided into five
groups: auxin, gibberellin (GA), cytokinin, ethylene, and abscisic acid (ABA). Each
group primarily consists of both synthetic and naturally occurring hormones.
 It is necessary to keep up-to-date records of all purchases; data observation;

labour engagement and attendance; sales; pest and disease outbreaks;
permanent and temporary stocks and movement registers. Multiple records

detailing expenses and earnings are kept in separate books, such as purchase
books, sales books, ledgers, cash books, dispatch registers, etc.
Check your progress

1. What do you understand from the maintenance of nursery?
2. Discuss the importance of fencing in nursery.
3. Describe the different kinds of nursery?
4. What do you understand from the plant nutrients?
5. Explain briefly about the groups of plant-growth-regulating compounds.
6. Describe the watering, weeding and nutrient Management in Nursery.
References
[1] https://pressbooks.lib.vt.edu/emgtraining/chapter/2/
[2] “Soil Food Web” section adapted from “Soil Food Web” By Elaine R. Ingham,
USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service.
[3] https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/soils/health/biology/?cid=nrcs142p2
_053868
[4] “Urban Soils” section adapted from VCE Master Gardener Tree Steward
Manual Chapter 6: Soil Properties and Management by Gwen Harris and Cherilyn Kern.
[5] “Salinity” section adapted from Chapter 5: Abiotic Stress by David Orcutt “Soil orders
found in Virginia” section from VCE Master Gardener Tree Steward Manual Chapter 6:
Soil Properties and Management by Gwen Harris and Cherilyn Kern.
[6] Bassuk, N., Curtis, D., Marranca, B.Z., Neal, B. (n.d.) Recommended Urban Trees: Site
Assessment and Tree Selection for Stress Tolerance. Urban Horticulture Institute,
Department of Horticulture, Cornell University. http://www.hort.cornell.edu
[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertility#:~:text=A%20fertile%20soil%20has%20the,whi
ch%20leads%20to%20nutrient%20toxicity.
[8] https://extension.oregonstate.edu/gardening/techniques/how-hormones-growth-
regulators-affect-your-plants
[9] Krishnan, P.R., Kalia, R.K., Tewari, J.C. and Roy, M.M., (2014). Plant Nursery
Management: Principles and Practices. Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur,
40 p.

NURSERY TECHNOLOGY FRN121
Unit 8: Asexual Method of Propagation:

Unit Structure

8.1 Introduction
8.2 What Are Asexual Methods of Propagation?
8.3 Propagation by Seed
8.4 Propagation by Cutting
8.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propagation by Cuttings
8.5.1 Advantages of Propagation by Cuttings
8.5.2 Disadvantages of Propagation by Cuttings
8.6 Propagation by Layering
8.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propagation by Layering
8.7.1 Advantages of Propagation by Layering
8.7.2 Disadvantages of Propagation by Layering
8.7.3 Methods of Layering
8.8 Propagation by Budding
8.8.1 Methods of Propagation by Budding
8.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Budding
8.8.2.1 Advantages of Budding
8.9 Propagation by Grafting
8.9.1 Methods of Grafting
Summery

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
 Explain the asexual method of propagation
 Study different methods of asexual propagation
 Advantages and disadvantages of sexual and asexual methods of plant

propagation
8.1 Introduction
Plants cannot increase their population to survive in the natural world without the
process of propagation, which is a crucial component of the plant life cycle. You may
have observed how gardeners propagate quality plants to be used in the current or
upcoming season. Plants have been intentionally or unintentionally propagated for
hundreds of years. Propagating plants is a crucial first step in maintaining a specific
plant's desirable traits from one generation to the next. For propagating horticulture

plants, various techniques may be applied. Both asexual and sexual techniques are
among them. These techniques for propagation can be applied to horticulture plants
based on their significance and usefulness. One of these is asexual propagation, which
uses a plant's vegetative elements, such as cuttings or segments of the stem, budding,
layering, grafting, etc. While plants propagated from seeds are not always true to their
original parent plant, plants propagated by asexual means are true-to-type. Certain
plants can reproduce asexually or sexually at will, whereas others can only be
reproduced sexually or by asexual means. Bananas are only propagated vegetatively,
although fruit plants like papaya are commercially propagated through seeds. Mango,
guava, citrus, grapes, apple, and so forth are propagated using both techniques.
Vegetable crops and ornamentals are no different.
8.2 What Are Asexual Methods of Propagation?

Asexual propagation is the process of multiplying a plant using any portion other than
its genuine seed. It's also referred to as the vegetative propagation method. Plant parts
such as stems, leaves, branches, cuttings, branch layering, budding, grafting, etc. can
be used for propagation. The plants that are produced using this technique are true to
type.
8.3 Propagation by Seed

When using an asexual technique, seed production is mostly taken into account when
true-to-type plants are anticipated as the end output. Only in the case of polyembryonic
seedlings is it true. As the name suggests, polyembryony describes seeds that contain
many embryos. The term "gametic and sexual embryo" refers to an embryo that is
created when male and female gametes unite, while the other embryos are created by
simple mitotic division of nuclear embryo cells without the assistance of male gametes.
Nuclear embryos are a frequent occurrence in citrus and mango.
8.4 Propagation by Cutting

Using a portion of a stem, root, or another plant part for plant multiplication is known as
cutting, which is a type of vegetative propagation. Cutting-derived plants are true to
their mother plants. This technique is frequently applied to plants since they root easily
and readily, making plant multiplication swift and expensive. Commercial cuttings are
used to produce ornamental plants like carnations, chrysanthemums, and numerous

foliage plants, as well as fruit plants like phalsa, Baramasi lemons, and grapes, among
others.
The two most popular ways of propagation are hardwood and softwood cuttings, which
are made from completely developed and immature tissues, respectively. Immature
angular cuttings are not favored over round cuttings. Cuttings of hardwood are easily
prepared from shoots that are at least a year old. Cuttings are taken from deciduous
fruit plants, such as figs, pomegranates, grapes, and phalsa. Cuttings from decorative
foliage plants and evergreen fruit trees, such as Baramasi lemon, can be prepared in
the spring (February to March) and rainy season (August to September). Typically, 3-5
bud cuttings, around 15-20 cm in length, are taken. To improve nutrition absorption,
the bottom cut is made slantingly directly below the bud or node. The uppercut is made
as far away from the upper bud as feasible to prevent drying and at right angles to
minimize the size of the wound. The cuttings should be left to dry after they are
processed. Fruit plant cuttings are typically bundled into small bundles of 20 to 25
cuttings, buried in wet soil or sand for a certain amount of time to promote wound
healing (a process known as "callusing"), and then planted in the field to take root.
Ornamental plant cuttings are either directly planted into media for rooting, or they are
dipped in water to ensure proper absorption of water, followed by the application of
rooting hormones to the lower cut below the node.
8.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propagation by Cuttings
8.5.1 Advantages of Propagation by Cuttings

i. It's an easy, affordable, and practical solution.
ii. The costs are kept to a minimum.
iii. A great deal of technical expertise is not needed.
iv. There are no intricate issues about stock-scion connections.
v. Quick multiplication is feasible in a brief amount of time.
vi. Traveling is simple.
8.5.2 Disadvantages of Propagation by Cuttings

i. Not every plant can root readily.
ii. It is not possible to fully benefit from rootstock.

8.6 Propagation by Layering

Using layering, roots are induced on shoots while they are still joined to their mother
plants. For fruit and decorative plants that are difficult to root after being separated
from their mother plants, this is an alternate propagation technique. Mound, ground,
and air layering are the three most popular layering techniques.
8.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Propagation by Layering
8.7.1 Advantages of Propagation by Layering

i. It is simple to do and doesn't need a lot of equipment.
ii. Dependable technique for plant species that are difficult to root.
iii. Doesn't need exact environmental control parameters.
iv. It is feasible to grow big plants quickly.
8.7.2 Disadvantages of Propagation by Layering

i. Comparatively more scion wood is needed than with other techniques.
ii. It is not feasible to generate a large number of plants quickly.
iii. The resulting plants have fragile, tiny roots.
iv. Rootstocks' advantageous benefits are not usable.
v. Layer mortality is typically high.
8.7.3 Methods of Layering

i) Air Layering: Air Layering: This technique involves layering in the air, as the name
would imply. More specifically, while the shoot is still linked to the mother plant, it is the
shoot that undergoes roots. This approach involves choosing a straight, healthy shoot
that is one year old, and then removing a 2.5-cm-tall ring of bark that is located directly
below a bud. This section is surrounded by moist sphagnum moss, which is covered
with a polythene strip. It has a very high water-holding capacity and weighs relatively
little. Any material that can hold moisture for an extended length of time can be used in
its place if sphagnum moss is unavailable. While allowing gaseous exchange, the
polythene covering keeps moisture within. Additionally, there is no need to water the

layers afterward, saving a significant amount of labor. Another name for this layering
technique is the "goottee" approach.
Air layering is possible with decorative plants such as guava, litchi, sapota, loquat, etc.
in February through March and July through August. A few weeks later, the roots have
grown and are visible through the polythene layer. Then, at least 15 days before they
are permanently removed from the mother plant, the rooted layers on the parent
branch should have a halfway cut. A few leaves or a tiny stem are kept at the moment
of separation. Additionally, it is preferable to put these rooted layers in a nursery where
they will receive more care than if they are planted in the wild. In February or
September through October of the following year, these layers can be sown in the
fields.
ii) Ground Layering: Using this technique, a plant branch that is close to the ground is
selected, and a 2.5 cm-diameter ring of bark is cut off right below the bud. Then, while
still linked to the mother plant, this branch is twisted and buried in the ground. Watering
the soil regularly keeps it moist. The baby plant splits off from the mother plant after a
few weeks of root formation. It is important to separate plants so that the newly
developed roots accompany the severed plant. Before being planted in the fields,
these young plants should ideally be grown in nursery rows or pots to allow for the
development of a stronger root and shoot system. This technique is frequently used to
propagate ornamentals like jasmine and Baramasi lemons, among other plants.
iii) Mound Layering, also known as "Stooling": Using this technique, the plant is
returned in either July or February. The fresh shoots emerge from the earth in April and
September. These shoots have a bark ring removed, and the soil is mostly covered
over them. During the wet season, the rooted stools from April stooling are separated,
and those from August stooling are removed in the spring. These stools will be planted
in a nursery once they have split off from the parent plant. This technique, sometimes
called stool layering, is employed in guava growth. Early rooting can be facilitated by
applying hormones for rooting around the ring using a paintbrush.
8.8 Propagation by Budding

One bud is placed into the rootstock using the budding technique. This process is
quick and simple. In comparison with cutting and grafting procedures, this propagation
technique preserves budwood. The ideal moment for budding is said to occur when the

bark begins to slip on the scion and the stock. This demonstrates the activity of the
cambium, the tissue in charge of union. Typically, this technique is used in the spring
and during the rainy season. T-budding, patch-budding, and chip-budding are the three
most used budding techniques.
8.8.1 Methods of Propagation by Budding

There are various budding techniques, which are thoroughly explained below:
i. T-Budding: Another name for this technique is shield budding. The stock (stem),
which is located 15–20 cm above the ground, has a horizontal cut that is
approximately 1/ 3rd of the distance around the stock. Using the ivory end of the
budding knife, make another vertical cut 2-3 cm long downward toward the center
of the horizontal cut, loosening the bark flaps to reveal the bud. The bud is taken
out of the bud stick once the 'T' has been formed in the stock. A slicing incision is
made starting at a place on the bud stick, around 1.25 cm below the bud, and
continuing below, approximately 2.5 cm above the bud, to remove the covering of
bark encasing the bud. To remove the shield piece, another horizontal cut is
performed 1.25 to 2 cm above the bud. A very thin chunk of wood is removed
coupled with the shield. After that, the shield is pushed beneath the two elevated
bark flaps until the stock's upper horizontal cut corresponds with it. The shield
should firmly adhere to the bark, leaving the bud visible but the two bark flaps
covering it. To securely hold the two parts of the bud union together until the union
is finished, polythene strips should be wrapped around it. T-budding is possible
year-round as long as cell sap runs unhindered. Most fruit trees, roses, and a few
other wooden ornamental plants undergo this process in the spring, from March to
April, or during the rainy season, from July to September. This is an especially
popular way for growing roses and citrus trees.
ii. Patch budding: It is a highly effective method for growing guavas, yielding a
success rate of 60-70% when carried out in May and June. Use freshly cut,
angular budwood from the current growing season for the scion. At a distance of
roughly 15-20 cm above ground, a square or rectangle-shaped patch or piece of
bark, measuring 1.5 cm in width and 2.5 cm in length, is cut away from the
rootstock. Care must be taken while removing a comparable patch with a bud from
a bud stick so as not to fracture the bark underneath the bud. After that, the patch

is moved to the rootstock, smoothly adjusted, and fastened with a polythene strip
right away. Instead of using a single bud as the scion, a patch with two buds can
be utilized for greater success. This technique is known as the "improved patch
budding" technique.
iii. Chip Budding: This technique is typically used right before fresh growth begins,
while the stock and scion continue to remain dormant. Using this technique, a 2.5
cm long slanting cut is made into the stock, and then a second cut is made at the
bottom of the first cut to remove a bark chip. To match the cuts specified in the
rootstock, the bud within the scion wood was removed in the same manner. This
bud-adorned chip is easily inserted into the rootstock cut, being careful to ensure
that the stock and scion's cambium layers join on at least one side. To keep the
bud from drying out, it is then knotted and wrapped with a polythene strip.
8.8.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Budding

8.8.2.1 Advantages of Budding
i. Compared to grafting, this mode of propagation is faster and more effective.
ii. Less scion material is needed.
iii. It helps plants that discharge a lot of wound gum (stones fruits) after an injury that
was transmitted to the xylem during the grafting process.
iv. Because the union is stronger than with grafting, there is less chance of storm
damage and severe winds harming the budded plant.
v. Compared to grafting, this method of propagation is somewhat simpler.
8.9 Propagation by Grafting

Another technique for vegetative propagation is grafting, which involves joining two
plant sections so that they merge and grow into a single plant. The scion twig in this
manner has more than two buds upon it. Fruits like pears, peaches, plums, almonds,
mangos, etc. are frequently grafted. Grafting is done during dormancy in seasonal
fruits like peaches, plums, and almonds, but during active development in mango
trees.

8.9.1 Methods of Grafting

There are several grafting techniques, including veneer, approach, side, cleft, and
tongue grafting.
8.9.1.1 Tongue Grafting: When the diameters of the stock, as well as the scion, are
equal, this technique is frequently applied. Initially, a 4-5 cm long, smooth, sloping cut
is made on the rootstock. A second downward cut is made, this time about 1/3 of the
way from the top and measuring 3–4 centimeters in length. The scion wood is similarly
sliced, precisely matching the cut specified in the rootstock. After that, the scion, which
has two to three buds, is firmly placed into the rootstock, being careful to ensure that
the cambium layers of the scion and stock join on at least one side. Next, a polythene
strip is used to wrap this.
8.9.1.2 Cleft Grafting: Another name for this is wedged grafting. When tongue grafting
is not an effective technique and the rootstock is wider than the scion, this procedure is
helpful in the nursery. Using this technique, a stock with a thickness of up to 8 cm can
be grafted. A secateurs or blade is used to cut the rootstock that will be grafted
smoothly. Next, it is divided in half, separating it by roughly 4 cm. With three or four
buds, the bud stick is trimmed at its lowest point into a wedge shape, with the outside
side being somewhat wider than the inner. To ensure that both the cambium layers of
the stock and scion are precisely matched, the lower bud of the scion should be
situated just well within the stock.
8.9.1.3 Approach Grafting: Approach grafting is the name given to this technique of
grafting because the scion is approached by the rootstock whereas it continues to be
linked to its mother plant. As an alternative, the stock is sown beneath the canopy of
the mother plants, which have been taught to have low heads. The ideal time to
approach graft is during the final week of July or the start of the week of August. The
rootstock and scion diameters for this procedure should be almost equal. Matching
sections of the scion and stock are cut, and a thin section of wood, about 4 cm long,
and a slice of bark are removed. After that, they are brought together, being careful to
ensure that at least one side of their cambium layers makes touch.
Then, using polythene strips or any other kind of tying material, these grafts are
securely linked. To speed up the union, the scion and stock plants receive frequent
irrigations. In roughly two to three months, the union is finished. The scion branch is

then sliced through about half of its thickness. After about a week, if the shoot doesn't
show any signs of wilting, it has fully separated from its parent plant. Should the scion
begin to wither, it indicates that the union is incomplete. In these situations, once the
union is complete, the scions separate from the parent plants after a few days. The
process is frequently used with mango. "Inarching" is another term for this technique.
8.9.1.4 Side Grafting: At a height of approximately 15-20 cm above the ground, a

three-sided, rectangular cut measuring 4 x 1.25 cm is produced on the rootstock, and
the bark of the delineated area is peeled aside from the rootstock. To reveal the
cambium, a corresponding cut is also performed at the scion's base. It is best to
prepare the scion well in advance of the grafting process. For this purpose, nutritious
scion shoots from the most recent mature flush are chosen. The terminal buds of the
chosen scion shoots have to be plump. Extract the leaf blades after choosing the scion
shoots, being careful to preserve the petioles. The petioles will drop and the terminal
buds will swell in around 7 to 10 days. At this point, the stock should be grafted onto
the scion stick once it has been separated from the mother tree. To bring the exposed
cambia of both of the components into close contact with one another, the previously
prepared scion is placed beneath the rootstock's bark flap. The rootstock's bark flap is
arranged in its original place. Next, a strong polythene strip tie is used to secure the
graft union. To promote the growth of the scion, a portion of the rootstock is removed
once the grafting procedure is finished. The rootstock section above the union of grafts
needs to be removed once the scion has grown and its leaves have become green.
The months of March through October are good for side grafting; however, the months
of May and October are not as successful. Mangos are widely propagated using this
technique.
8.9.1.5 Veneer Grafting: Using this technique, a 4 cm-long, shallow downward cut is
made on the rootstock between 15 and 20 cm above the ground. To remove a portion
of wood and bark, a second, short, downward cut is made at the base of the first cut,
joining it. The preparation of the scion is the same as for side grafting. For the cambial
layers of the scion shoot and rootstock shoot to match, the cuts on both should be the
same width and length. Next, the ready-made scion is placed within the rootstock and
fastened firmly using a polythene strip. The stock is reduced once the union is finished
to allow time for veneer grafting.

Summery
You have learned about many asexual plant propagation techniques and nursery
management tactics in this course. Plants can be mass-propagated using asexual
techniques. The technique used will vary depending on the plant being propagated.
Certain fruit plants, such as papayas, can only be commercially propagated through a
seed, which is asexual propagation; in contrast, bananas can only be propagated
through vegetative (asexual) techniques, such as suckers. With both asexual and
sexual methods, which have benefits and drawbacks, the majority of horticultural
plants are propagated. While homogeneous plants cannot be produced via sexual
propagation, true to-type plants can be produced using an asexual technique.
Understanding the many contemporary nurseries and the techniques—such as rooting
hormones or media—that are employed to generate commercially viable plants is also
crucial for the effective production of nursery plants.
Check your progress
1. What does approach grafting mean to you?
2. Which fruit plant is the subject of this plant propagation method?
3. What is the propagation method of ground layering?
4. What are the methods used by budding?
5. A brief outline of tongue and cleft grafting methods?
6. List the three benefits of propagating plants asexually.
References
[1] Plant Propagation and Nursery management, Propagation Methods, school of

agriculture, Indira Gandhi National Open University.
[2] Sharma, R.R. (2002). Propagation of Horticultural crops, Principles and

Practices, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
[3] Chawla HS (2005) Introduction to Plant Biotechnology, Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co Pvt Ltd, New Delhi.

Unit 9: Sexual Method of Propagation

Unit Structure

9.1 Introduction
9.2 Propagation Methods
9.3 Sexual Methods
9.4 Seed Production
9.4.1 Seed
9.4.2 Seed Components
9.4.3 Quality Seed Production
9.5 Process Involved in Seed Production
9.5.1 Pollination
9.5.2 Fertilization
9.6 Polyembryony
9.7 Apomixis
9.8 Seed Germination
9.8.1 Seed Viability
9.8.2 Seed Sowing
9.8.3 Phases of Seed Germination
9.9 Environmental Factors Affecting Seed Germination
9.9.1 Liquid
9.9.2 Light
9.9.3 Aeration
9.9.4 Temperature
9.9.5 Incidence of Infections
9.9.6 Acidity
9.10 Seed Dormancy
9.10.1 Types of Dormancy
9.10.2 Endogenous
9.10.3 Transplanting Seedlings
9.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation
9.11.1 Advantages of Sexual Propagation
9.11.2 Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation
Summary
References

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to:
 explain different methods of sexual propagation,
 aspects of seed production,
 describe seed germination,

 define dormancy, and
 advantages and disadvantages of sexual plant propagation
9.1 Introduction
You may have observed how gardeners propagate quality plants to be used in the
current or upcoming season. Plants have been intentionally or unintentionally
propagated for hundreds of years. Propagating plants is a crucial first step in
maintaining a specific plant's desirable traits from a single generation to the next. For
propagating horticulture plants, various techniques may be applied. Both asexual and
sexual techniques are among them. Sexual propagation is the process of propagating
a plant mainly by producing zygotic embryos for use as seeds. Asexual propagation,
on the other hand, is defined as propagation that occurs either by segmenting
vegetative portions or by using vegetative embryos (nucellar embryos). Plants can be
propagated by either an asexual or sexual manner, depending on the plant's value and
application. To breed new types, the sexual technique of propagation is typically
employed.
9.2 Propagation Methods

Since you are aware, there are various ways to propagate the plants. These include
both vegetative and non-vegetative methods. The former is sometimes referred to as
asexual propagation, whereas the latter is known as sexual propagation. The main
topic of discussion in this unit will be sexual plant propagation techniques.
9.3 Sexual Methods

The sexual mode of propagation is applied when a plant is multiplied through seeds.
The reason for this is that seed is created when the male and female gametes of both
parents fuse together. You may be curious about the process of seed production and
how it is used to propagate various plants, particularly horticulture species. Papayas
and other fruit plants are commercially reproduced using seeds. Similarly, as wooden
fruit plants are essentially composite structures sold in stores, made up of a scion and
a rootstock, the rootstock is mostly spread by seeds.

9.4 Seed Production

The state of the seed during harvest from the plant, the surrounding environment,
including the type of soil and moisture levels required for germination, and the
appropriate separation distances established in cross-pollinated crops are all factors in
seed generation. Above importantly, the seed needs to remain viable for extended
periods to be produced commercially. You need to understand seed, the seed
production process, maturity, ripening, compounds that can protect seed within soil
after sowing or during storage, and the elements that affect seed production if you
want to get engaged and succeed in seed production.
9.4.1 Seed
According to botany, a seed is a developed ovule that has enclosed an embryo,
typically the product of sexual fertilization. In the flower's ovule, gametes from both the
male and female can fuse to produce a single cell known as a zygote, or vegetative, or
unfertilized, reproductive cells can generate seed.
9.4.2 Seed Components

The endosperm, embryo, and seed coat are the three main parts of the seed. These
elements that come from nature have a certain function to perform. The seed coat
shields the developing embryo inside the seed from environmental anomalies such
excessive heat, light, or humidity, while the endosperm feeds the growing embryo until
it can sustain itself.
9.4.3 Quality Seed Production

Every nursery producer should be committed to producing high-quality seeds. The
following characteristics of high-quality seed are desired:
1) Seeds, like nuclear seeds, should be genetically faithful to type.
2) The shape and size of the seed should be uniform.
3) It must not be a blend of weed or other seeds.
4) The duration of its viability should be extended.
5) Seeds should be free of disease-causing organisms and insect pests.

9.5 Process Involved in Seed Production
9.5.1 Pollination
Pollination is the process that occurs during flowering when another
ther pollen grains land
on a flower's stigma and germinate to produce a pollen tube. The stigma must be
receptive and the pollen ripe or viable for effective pollination to take place. The
horticulture plants can be self
self-pollinated or cross-pollinated,
pollinated, depending on the
conditions for pollination. When there is cross
cross-pollination,
pollination, pollen might come from any
flower, but in self-pollination,
pollination, the stigma is pollinated by the same flower's pollen. Prior
to pollination, tests
ests for stigma receptivity, pollen germination, and pollen viability should
be conducted.
a) Pollen viability: A biochemical test can be used to assess pollen viability. Pollen
grains are placed on a cavity slide for this test, and they are dyed with an acetocarmine
(1-2%) solution. Stain-treated
treated pollen grains are regarded as viable, while unstained
pollen grains are regarded as non
non-viable.
viable. The dye is applied to the live protoplasm.
b) Pollen germination: Research on pollen germination, conducted before pollination,

llination,
ensures successful fertilization and robust seed yield. In cavity slides, the process of
germination for pollen is investigated at various sugar solution concentrations between
10 and 30 percent. The type and species of the pollen determines how long it takes for
it to incubate in a sugar solution.
c) Stigma receptivity: Stigmas that have a sticky quality are often thought to be
receptive. Stickiness aids in retaining pollen for a brief amount of time until it develops
into a pollen tube and travels
vels toward the ovary. This is particularly true for citrus fruits
and certain flowering plants, as stigma becomes shiny, sticky, and vibrantly colored
when it is open to receiving.
Fig 1:: Citrus flower showing Receptive (A) and Non Receptive (B) sstigma.

Cross-pollination occurs spontaneously in the majority of horticultural plants. Natural

cross-pollination can occur, or it can be done by hand (particularly when producing
hybrid seeds). Natural cross-pollination is accomplished by birds, insects such as
house flies (mango) or honey bees (citrus and blossom), or the wind (date palm).
9.5.2 Fertilization
Two male gametes are released into the embryo sac during this phase from the pollen
tube; one of them combines with a female gamete to form a zygote. Put another way,
following successful pollination, the pollen grains land on the flower's stigma and make
their way to the ovule. The pollen grains release their two nuclei inside the embryo sac.
Eight nuclei, including the cells of the egg, two synergists at one end, three antipodal
nuclei on the other, and two polar nuclei close to the center, are developing in the
ovule in the meantime. The pollen tube's two polar nuclei combine to form endosperm
when one of its nuclei unites via the egg cells, forming the seed embryo.
Fig 2: Reproductive parts of citrus flower.
9.6 Polyembryony
This situation refers to the development of many embryos within a single plant seed.
Numerous plant species experience this phenomena, but fruit species like citrus and
mango exhibit it the most. Both of zygotic as well as apomictic embryos are formed in
polyembryonic species, negating the need for fertilization stimulus.
9.7 Apomixis
It is the outcome of creating an embryo that eschews the typical meiosis and
fertilization procedure. The seedlings that are produced will have the same genotype
as their seed parent. Stated differently, asexual seed production occurs. One
significant example of apomixis is citrus. Growing rootstocks is one of the most

significant uses of apomictic seedlings due to their robustness, homogeneity, and

virus-free nature.
9.8 Seed Germination

The process by which a mature seed becomes a new plant is known as germination.
To put it another way, germination is the process by which the plumule (branch) and
radicle (root) emerge and begin to produce seedlings. The environment must be
suitable and the seed viable, which means the embryo would be alive and able to
germinate, for germination to begin. There are several stages involved in seed
germination:
i. a sharp rise in water absorption;
ii. a lag phase, during which there is minimal water absorption; and
iii. an increase in the fresh weight of the seed, resulting in the development of roots.
9.8.1 Seed Viability

A viable seed is the only one that germinates. Stated differently, only seeds containing
living embryos sprout. A few days to several years may pass before a seed becomes
viable, depending on the type of plant, the environment, and several other variables.
9.8.1.1 Elements Affecting the Viability of Seeds
The following variables have an impact on seed viability:
i. Environmental Conditions: Seed viability is impacted by the weather that

prevails during the stages of seed maturation, ripening, and harvesting. When
seeds are mature, warm, dry weather often encourages the formation of high-
quality seeds; on the other hand, unfavorable weather conditions such as frost,
heavy rain, or even drought during seed harvesting can negatively impact the
viability of the seeds.
ii. Mechanical Damage: Seed viability is negatively impacted if a seed sustains

mechanical damage during harvest or transportation. Damage to developing
embryos has a specific effect on seed viability in relation to seed germination.
iii. Genetic Factors: The viability patterns of seeds from several species or variants
within a species may differ.

iv. Storage Conditions: Seed viability is greatly influenced by the temperature,

light, and humidity during seed storage. High relative humidity generally reduces
the seed's life. If seeds are stored at extremely low temperatures, they can
remain viable for extended periods (cryopreservation). All kinds of seeds,
however, cannot be kept in storage at extremely low temperatures.
9.8.1.2 Method to Detect Seed Viability
There are various techniques for determining the viability of seeds; the following are
the most popular ones:
a) Germination test: This entails seed germination on synthetic media and calculating
the proportion of germination to cultivated seed. This is a common practice in many
plant species, particularly horticulture crops, to guarantee seed viability. Seeds can be
germinated in Petri dishes, filter paper layers, or plastic trays, or containers filled with
sand, soil, perlite, or vermiculite.
b) Excise embryo test: an embryo removed from the mature seed is cultivated in Petri
dishes having moist filter paper lining them, or on artificial media. When testing the
viability of seeds in species of trees whose embryos require extended periods of "after-
ripening" before real germination occurs, the excised embryo test is typically utilized.
c) Tetrazolium Test: Time-consuming and labor-intensive are the traditional ways of

determining a seed's ability to germinate in sand or petri dishes.
To test for germination, the majority of non-dormant fruit seeds need seven to eleven
days, while dormant seeds take a few months. Citrus seeds are kept under certain
storage settings since they quickly lose their vitality. It is therefore preferable to have a
rapid test that provides an approximate estimate of seed germinability. It takes 4–24
hours to determine the viability of a seed using the tetrazolium test. Its unique benefit
over other biochemical tests is its ability to examine specific seed organs and tissues
essential for seed growth. Seed embryos that are able to germinate and grow normally
possess reducing enzymes that cause the nearly colorless solution of
triphenyltetrazolium chloride to become a visibly noticeable crimson stain on the
sections of the embryo tissue that have been sliced.
Seeds are immersed in a solution of 2, 3, 5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) (0.1–

1.0%) for a few hours in order to conduct this test. The TTC is transformed into an
insoluble red chemical by living tissue. As a result, depending on when they are

incubated, healthy seeds can turn red all the way through, while non
non-viable
viable tissues or
seeds remain colorless.
9.8.2 Seed Sowing

It may or may not be necessary to pre
pre-treat
treat fruit seeds before sowing because they
vary in size, shape, seed
eed coat, and chilling requirement.
9.8.2.1 Pretreatment
Fruit seeds such as papaya, phalsa, citrus, jamun, mango, and loquat don't need to be
treated differently before being sown. The rocky endocarp that houses the seed makes
it extremely difficult for the seed to germinate while in ber. Seeds should be immers
immersed
in a 17–18%
18% salt solution for a full day prior to planting. Another way to sow the seeds
is to break the hard shell. Before planting, guava seeds should be immersed into water
for a minimum of two weeks. The time needed for germination can also be short
shortened
ened
by immersing the seeds into boiling water for roughly five minutes. Before they are
planted in the ground or in raised nursery beds, the seeds of pears, peaches, and
plums must be stratified. Seeds can be sowed in various states depending on the
cultural
ral media. For example, removing the outer seed coat (testa) and sowing the seed
in soil or poly bags might improve citrus seed germination. Both the testa and the
tegmen, the inner seed coat adjacent to the testa, should be removed at the same time
when seedlings
eedlings are to be grown in vitro.
Fig 3: Citrus seeds (A), without testa (B), without testa and tegmen (C).
9.8.2.2 Method of Sowing
Raised or level nursery beds can be used to sow the seeds. Mango, Ber, Loquat,, and
Jamun
amun seeds are typically sown on level beds, but citrus, guava, and phalsa seeds are
typically sown on 15-20
20 cm elevated beds in order to promote drainage. The seed

beds' soil needs to be finely ground and combined with well-rotted farmyard manure.
The seed beds are prepared; they are typically 1.2–1.5 meters broad and 2.0–2.5
meters long, with irrigation furrows that are 60 cm wide in between. The seeds are
planted in rows, spaced 10-15 cm apart and 2-4 cm deep. To stop crust formation, a
thick layer of sand mixed with leaf mold mixture is applied over the seed. After seeding,
seed germination takes place in two to three weeks. Evergreen fruit seedlings are
transplanted in February, March, and August–September, while deciduous fruit
seedlings are transplanted in December and January.
9.8.2.3 Media for Sowing Seed
Depending on the need and the value of the seed to be propagated, the seeds could
be sown on a variety of medium. The following qualities should be present in a suitable
media:
i. It needs to be cost-effective.
ii. It ought to permit appropriate aeration and drainage.
iii. Sterilization is the best option.
iv. Weed seeds should not be present.
v. It needs to supply enough nourishment to encourage the growth of seedlings.
vi. Its pH need to be ideal.
The commonly used media for sowing seeds are as follows:
(A) Soil: The most popular natural medium for seed sowing is garden soil. The
composition of soil's organic and inorganic constituents defines its texture and
structure. The proportions of sand, silt, and clay in the soil determine its
texture. To promote the growth of seedlings, soil should generally have
adequate drainage and be nutrient-rich.
(B) Sand: It can also be utilized as a seed-sowing medium, particularly for seeds
were damping off is a frequent issue. For example, the best medium to plant
papaya seeds in is sand.
(C) Peat: It mostly consists of the aquatic vegetation's partially degraded

components. The most popular propagation medium is peat moss.
(D) Perlite: A silicaceous, grey-white substance that originated from volcanic

eruptions. With a pH of 6–8, perlite is a sterile medium having a high capacity

for cation exchange and water retention. When used in conjunction with other
propagation media, it can increase aeration in a mixture and has no mineral
nutrients. Perlite's homogeneity and light weight make it an excellent choice for
improving drainage and aeration.
(E) Vermiculite: This substance is

micaceous. Because of its great
capacity for cation exchange,
vermiculite can retain nutrients
and release them gradually. Its
plate-like particles aid in drainage
Fig 6: Rooting media (A) Vermiculite (B) Perlite
and aeration while also having a
very high water-holding capacity.As a result, it solves the "damping off" issue
that would otherwise frequently arise with dirt acting as the media. Vermiculite
can offer magnesium and potassium and has good exchange and buffering
properties.
(F) Mixture: The ideal media for seed sowing is typically a blend of soil, sand, and
FYM. This is due to the fact that this kind of media satisfies nearly every
requirement for being suitable media. You can mix peat, perlite, and
vermiculite separately or with soil and sand. Typically, a combination of 2:1
Peat: Perlite or Sand and 2:1:1 Peat: Pertlite: Vermiculite can also be utilized.
These rooting medium are somewhat pricey seed sowing media, which means
they should only be chosen if traditional media, such as sand, soil, and their
mixture, are unable to sustain a sprouting of seeds or if the importer of seeds
requires it.
Above all, before utilizing any chosen media for seeding, it is crucial to ensure
that it has been rendered sterile (by pasteurization). Using pasteurized soil
helps shield young seedlings from the fungal disease known as damping-off.
Additionally, pasteurized soil helps deter pests, illnesses, and weeds.
9.8.3 Phases of Seed Germination

9.8.3.1 Water Uptake
Once fully developed and extracted from the fruits, the majority of the seeds have little
moisture in them. The seeds suddenly absorb water during this stage of germination. It

is also known as the "hydration phase," during which water is taken up by dry seeds
through the processes of osmosis and imbibation, softening the seed coat along with
other coverings and hydrating the protoplasm. The seed swells and the seed coverings
break upon imbibition of water, assisting the protoplasm in restarting metabolic activity
through its activation of enzymes. Cell elongation is the outcome of the hydrolytic
enzymes' ability to break down complicated dietary materials into simpler forms that
the embryo can easily translocate and absorb. In this stage, the seed expands in size.
9.8.3.2 Lag Phase
During this time, there is either no water intake or very little. But seed has a very active
physiological system. Cellular processes essential to healthy germination occur during
this phase.
9.8.3.3 Radicles Emergence
It is the first instance of germination that can be seen. The term "radicle" refers to the
root's growth point.
9.8.3.4Plumules Emergence
The plumule is a growth point located above the cotyledons on the upper end of the
embryonic axis.
9.9 Environmental Factors Affecting Seed Germination

A number of variables influence seed germination. Water, light, aeration, temperature,
and infection incidence are the most crucial of these.
9.9.1 Liquid
One important aspect influencing seed germination is the presence or absence of
moisture. Moreover, seeds should have access to the ideal quantity of water.
Insufficient water content causes seeds to wither away, while an excessive amount
causes anaerobic conditions that kill growing seeds. The type of seed coat, the
ambient temperature, and the amount of moisture present are just a few of the
variables that affect how quickly water is absorbed.
9.9.2 Light
It is an additional significant component that influences seed germination. It ought to be
at its best. Different seeds require varying amounts of light. Furthermore, light may not

be the only reason preventing some seeds from germinating. Certain plant seeds
require precise amounts of light to germinate; else, they will not. While photoperiod
along with wavelength have a more noticeable impact on seed germination, light
intensity has a relatively smaller influence. Generally speaking, red light promotes seed
germination, whereas far red light inhibits it. In addition to light's existence or absence,
light quality affects how well seeds germinate.
9.9.3 Aeration
For quick and consistent germination, gas exchange between the embryo and the
germination media is necessary. The respiration activities in the developing seed
depend on oxygen. Over-wetting of seeds restricts the availability of oxygen, which in
turn impacts seed germination. In another way, because germination occurs at a very
high rate, sufficient gas exchange and supply between the embryo and the germinating
medium are required for uniform and quick germination as well as the growth of
seedlings that follow. The availability of water is directly correlated with aeration. Less
leaching and hence less aeration within the germination media will occur with more
water.
9.9.4 Temperature
It should be at its best. The minimum temperature is the lowest that germination may
occur at, while the maximum temperature is the greatest that germination can occur at.
The type of seed determines the required temperature. For example, seeds that need
a low temperature to germinate will not germinate at a high temperature, and the
opposite is also true. The percentage and rate of seed germination are impacted by
temperature. Most plant species have an ideal temperature range that they need to
germinate, and any temperature below or beyond that range will prevent germination.
9.9.5 Incidence of Infections

Infections with fungi or bacteria restrict the germination of seeds in some
circumstances, particularly when the surrounding humidity is inappropriate. Some fungi
cause mortality in seedlings by attacking immature seedlings. A typical issue with
papaya seedlings is damping off.

9.9.6 Acidity
Salts have an impact on seed germination when they are present in soil or water,
especially at concentrations that are greater than ideal. When the growing media
is exposed to light and receives irrigation with inadequate water, salinity becomes an
issue. Regular light irrigation causes salt to accumulate on the top soil layer, where
seeds are often put, which prevents germination.
9.10 Seed Dormancy

Dormancy is the absence of viable seed growth brought on by either internal or
external variables. When extracted from the fruit and placed in ideal moisture,
temperature, and aeration conditions, the seeds of tropical and subtropical fruits
(mango, citrus) germinate right away. Nonetheless, even in favorable environmental
conditions, the viable seeds retrieved from temperate fruit plants such as plum, pears,
and peaches do not germinate; this phenomenon is known as dormancy. Such fruit
plants are fortunate to be shielded by nature from harsh winters. The dormancy of
these seeds must therefore be understood, as well as the elements that contribute to
or overcome it.
Dormant seeds may have either endogenous or external causes. Usually, one of two
factors causes exogenous seed dormancy: either the hard seed coat prevents water
and gasses from reaching the developing viable embryo, which prevents seed
germination, or both. Low seed germination in the case of endogenous seed dormancy
can be attributed to physiological immaturity of the embryo, a lack of certain
endogenous growth boosters, or an excess of endogenous development inhibitors.
9.10.1 Types of Dormancy

The following describes the various forms of dormancy that seeds might experience:
(A) Exogenous: Exogenous variables are those that induce dormancy through
external means, which can be mechanical, chemical, or physical in nature. These
are listed below:
i. Physical: A stiff seed coat that prevents the seed from absorbing solutes or
water or from aerating itself may be the cause of dormancy. It is important to
note that, even in these situations where the embryo in the seed is viable, seed
germination is unable to take place. As a result, dormant seeds do not sprout

until the hard seed coat is broken or eliminated. Peach and almond seeds, for
instance, have a hard seed coat that must be thinned by acid scarification or
sandpaper rubbing. Such strong seed coverings are naturally eroded by
constant weathering, microbial attack, or seed transit through animal digestive
tracts.
ii. Mechanical: This describes seed coverings that, despite being permeable to
water, are too tough to let the embryo to enlarge during germination. In all
species, dormancy is never caused solely by hardening of the seed covering;
nevertheless, hardening in conjunction with other conditions may induce a delay
in seed germination.Certain seed coats, for instance, appear to be permeable to
gasses and water but have an extremely high mechanical resistance that
prevents the embryo from expanding. Unless these seed coats are softened,
germination will not occur. Therefore, in order to overcome such dormancy, the
seed coating must be removed.
iii. Chemical: Chemicals, also referred to as inhibitors, can occasionally prevent

seeds from germinating because they have been found within the seed
coverings. Germination inhibitors, like as phenols and ABA, build up in the fruit
and seed coverings throughout development and are the cause of it. During
fruit development, these inhibitors build up in either the fruit coatings or the
fruits themselves. In these situations, inhibitor leaching is necessary to
guarantee regular seed germination.
9.10.2 Endogenous
In contrast to external causes, dormancy in this instance results from internal factors
like morphological, physiological, and other aspects.
i) Morphological: If the embryo is still immature during the time on fruit ripening or
maturity, dormancy of this kind is imparted. If you sow these seeds right away after the
fruits are harvested, they won't sprout. This kind of dormancy can be overcome with
the use of warm stratification.
ii) Physiological: It is believed to be regulated by external elements like light and

temperature as well as endogenous plant growth chemicals. The embryo's internal
components prevent germination. This kind of dormancy, which lasts for up to six
months and vanishes when stored, is typical of temperate fruits including apples,

pears, and peaches.Even in ideal circumstances, the latent embryos in these species'
seeds prevent them from germinating. Inappropriate light or temperature during seed
germination might also cause this kind of dormancy. Depending on the needs of a fruit
crop, this kind of dormancy can be avoided by storing seeds between layers of moist
sand at a cooling temperature for a few days to a few months. Fruit crop seeds with
moderate chill requirements might take a few days to break dormancy, while those with
high chill requirements might take several days.
9.10.3 Transplanting Seedlings

It is important to gently transfer the completely rooted plantlets or seedlings from the
rooting media to the field. The most important thing to remember is that seedlings have
to be transplanted on open fields at the ideal moment. To be more explicit, it is claimed
that the type of fruit plant—evergreen, deciduous, etc.—will determine this. For
example, to ensure 100% success, citrus seedlings (of rough lemon rootstock) are
transplanted in the field during July and August. Winter is the ideal season for grapes
because the seedlings are deciduous at this time. When young seedlings are little and
there is less transplant shock, it is the best time to transplant them. Firm the soil after
transplanting, and give it regular waterings.
9.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation
9.11.1 Advantages of Sexual Propagation

i. It is a reasonably priced technique for large-scale plant production.
ii. Nursery plant raising does not require specialist knowledge or expertise.
iii. Since most viruses cannot spread through seeds, plants that are
reproducedfrom seeds are often virus-free.
iv. Nucellar seedlings can be used to produce true-to-type plants. This

isparticularly true for polyembryonic seeds, such as citrus.
v. Due to their superior root systems, seedlings are used to propagate the
majority of rootstocks.
vi. For some fruit plants, such as phalsa and papaya, seed propagation is their
exclusive means of proliferation.

vii. Compared to plants created using asexual methods, plants grown from seeds
often grow quickly and have a longer lifespan.
viii. Compared to plants grown vegetatively, seedling plants are more resilient to
biotic and abiotic stressors.
ix. Seeds can be kept in storage for a longer period of time than vegetative
tissues.
x. It's possible to develop seedlings that are better than the mother plant due to
increased horticultural features.
9.11.2 Disadvantages of Sexual Propagation

i. Seed propagation is not usually used to create true to type plants, with the
exception of nucellar seedlings.
ii. Because not all seeds are naturally polyembryonic, homogeneous progeny
cannot be guaranteed.
iii. Compared to plants grown asexually, seedlings typically have a longer juvenile
phase.
iv. Because most seedling plants are tall and vigorous, cultural activities are
challenging.
v. Most plant seeds quickly lose their viability and cannot be kept for extended
periods.
vi. Some fruit trees, such as bananas and pineapple, are incapable of being
propagated from seeds because they do not yield viable seeds.
Summary
We have learned about various techniques for sexual plant propagation in this section.
Plants can be mass-propagated using sexual ways, and new types can be created.
The technique used will vary depending on the plant being propagated. The sole
commercially available means of sexual propagation for some fruit plants, such as
papayas, is seed. The sexual method offers benefits and drawbacks. Generally,
depending on the particular plant species and breeding objectives, sexual propagation
through seeds is a frequently used approach in horticulture with both advantages and
disadvantages.

Check your progress
1. Explain germination.
2. How does seed germination respond to aeration?
3. What does morphological dormancy mean to you? And how it can be

overcome?
4. How can the a person determine if stigma is receptive?
5. List the three main drawbacks of sexual reproduction.
References
[1] Plant Propagation and Nursery management, Propagation Methods, school of
agriculture, Indira Gandhi National Open University.
[2] Sharma, R.R. (2002). Propagation of Horticultural crops, Principles and

Practices, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
[3] Kanwar, J.S. and Bal, J.S. (2004). Practical Manual of Propagation and
Nursery Management, Department of Horticulture, PAU, Ludhiana.

Unit 10: Biofertilizer

Unit Structure

10.1 Introduction
10.2. Green Manuring
10.3 Organic Compost/ Manure
10.3.1 Type of Organic Manures
10.4 Biofertilizer
10.5 Mycorrhiza and fertilizer applications
10.5.1 Importance in Agriculture
10.5.2 Advantages of Mycorrhizal Application
10.6 Plant Propagation
10.6.1 Micro plant propagation
10.6.2 Advantages of Micro Propagation
10.6.3 Disadvantages of Micro Propagation
10.6.3 Macro plant propagation
10.6.4 Field Techniques
10.6.5 Detached Corm Techniques
Summary

After completing this unit, you will be able to:
 green manure and list the different types of manures
 brief introduction of Farmyard manure or FYM
 explain the biofertilizers and mycorrhiza application
10.1 Introduction
The primary obstacle facing humanity in the 21st century is providing food for the
world's rapidly expanding population, particularly in emerging nations, without
compromising environmental health. Millions of people suffer from chronic malnutrition
and hunger today. In an effort to boost production, farmers have been using fertilizers
and other agrochemicals carelessly, which has contaminated ground and surface
water, degraded soil quality, decreased biodiversity, raised air pollution, and inhibited
ecosystem functioning—all of which have an adverse effect on the health of the
environment. When we talk about a substance that contains one or more of the

essential elements (nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, magnesium, calcium,

iron, molybdenum, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, chlorine, cobalt, sodium,
vanadium, and silicon), we're talking about "fertilizing material or carrier."If excessive
fertilizer use is not controlled, it can cause leaching in the soil, volatilization,
acidification, and the release of ammonia, methane, nitrous oxide, and elemental
nitrogen from the soil system due to a result of de-nitrification. The loss of water-
soluble nutrients results in eutrophication, which is dangerous for aquatic and human
health because it causes the luxuriant development of algae along with other water
weeds. By boosting the effective nutrition accessible in the soil in an environmentally
responsible manner, organic manures along with biofertilizers are the sustainable
solution to the ecological issues brought on by the excessive or careless use of
fertilizers. After breaking down, the organic manures provide mineral nutrients that
enhance the soil's chemical, biological, and physical characteristics, hence increasing
soil fertility. Organic acid is generated during the breakdown of organic matter, which
aids in the gradual dissolution of minerals and increases their availability to plants.
However, when applied to soils, seeds, or plant surfaces, biofertilizer is defined as
"microbial inoculants containing living microorganisms that colonize the plant roots or
plant interiors and promote growth by increasing the availability or supply of primary
nutrients to the target crops." These technologies hold great promise for lowering the
amount of traditional inorganic fertilizer needed for crop production that is sustainable.
This lesson will provide you with an overview of biofertilizers and manures for
managing agriculture sustainably.
10.2. Green Manuring

Crops raised with green manure are planted to boost or restore the amount of organic
matter in the soil. Crops introduced into the cropping system through the practice of
"green manuring" are either cultivated in-situ or are brought in from outside. The
process of green leaf manuring entails gathering green biomass from adjacent
locations, wastelands, and bunds and putting it into the soil. Essentially, adding young,
green biomass to the soil that is receptive to rapid microbial degradation is what
combined organic manure along with green leaf manuring entail. Since leguminous
crops are able to fix nitrogen, the majority of green manure crops are members of this
family. Among the important crops grown using green manure are Indigofera tinctoria,

Centrosema pubescens, Stylosanthes hamata, Tephrosia purpurea, Phaseolus

trilobus, Sesbania aculeate, Glyricidia, Cassia auriculata, Ipomoea cornea, Derris
indica, Thespesia populnea, Azadirachta indica, Pongamia glabra, Calotropis, and
other plants are examples of green leaf manure crops.
Among the advantages of green manuring are the following:
i. The main benefit is that green manuring helps to improve the soil's chemical,
biological, and physical characteristics.
ii. Green manuring replenishes organic matter in arable crop fields, preserving soil
organic carbon, which is essential to the health of the soil ecosystem.
iii. Green manuring raises the nitrogen content of the soil due to the symbiotic link
that exists between nitrogen-fixing organisms and crops, particularly those in the
leguminous family.
iv. Green manures facilitate improved microbially mediated breakdown of organic

matter by feeding the soil microbiota.
v. Green manuring enhances soil structure and significantly raises soil tilth.
vi. It has been observed that green leaf manure, such as Azadirachta indica and
Pongamia glabra, can suppress insect pests.
vii. The translocation, or transfer, of nutrients from beneath the soil to the surface is
aided by the growth of green manure crops.
viii. In terms of improving the soil, green manuring helps to restore sodic soils.
ix. As regards the soil amelioration, green manuring aids in reclamation of sodic
soils.
10.3 Organic Compost/ Manure

Chemical fertilizers are used in crop husbandry to boost crop output in order to feed
the growing population, however both chemical fertilizers and pesticides have a
negative impact on the environment. Organic manures are made from plant and animal
waste and are a significant byproduct for farming and related sectors. Organic
manures are waste materials derived from plants or animals that contain nutrients that
can be utilized to both meet crop needs and replenish soil nutrients.

10.3.1 Type of Organic Manures

Organic manures can be divided into bulky and concentrated categories based on their
composition and nutrient concentration.
(A) Bulky Organic Manure: Although organic manure is bulky by nature, it does
provide small amounts of plant nutrients. Many tons of manure are added to the
soil since bulky organic manures have low levels of plant nutrients. Despite having
a lower nutrient concentration, manure creates a soil ecology that is conducive for
crop growth. Farmyard manure, green manure, green leaf manure, and rural/urban
compost are examples of common bulky organic manure.
The following enabling characteristics make bulky organic manure favored.
i. These manures provide vital micronutrients in addition to macronutrients like

nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium
ii. The functioning of the soil ecosystem is indicative of interactions &

interrelationships among the elements of the soil environment. The soil
ecosystem's ecological integrity is maintained as a result of the bulky organic
manure's promotion and enhancement of soil microbial activity. The soil
microbiome increases the availability of nutrients.
iii. Beneficial soil physical and chemical features are made possible by the
organic manures' enhancement of the biological qualities of the soil. The
physical characteristics of the soil, such as its structure, porosity, and ability to
hold water, are significantly enhanced by the addition of manure.
iv. Furthermore, applying manure to the soil improves its chemical characteristics,
such as its cation exchange capacity.
v. Soil-borne fungus as well as additional parasitic organisms is subject to

population control by a favorable soil microbiota.
(B) Concentrated Organic Manures-Concentrated organic manures are those that

are found in nature and have a greater proportion of plant nutrients—such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash—than bulky organic manures. Cake oil that is
edible and cake oil that is not edible are two categories of manures derived from
plants. Sesamum, groundnut, and linseed cakes are examples of common edible
oil cakes; neem, castor, and cotton seed cakes are examples of non-edible cakes.

Conversely, concentrated organic manures derived from animals include fish meal,
bone meal, hoof meal, blood meal, poultry manure, etc.
(C) Farm Yard Manure: Farmers may easily obtain farmyard manure, also known as
FYM, which is the conventional type of manure. It is the end result of the liquid and
solid animal excrement that has been dried and preserved on a farm. In rural
farms, part of the cattle manure is used as fuel. Farmyard manure is primarily
made up of the decomposing mixture of leftover litter, dry feed, roughages, and
animal waste from the cattle shed, such as dung and urine. The majority of the
time, microbial activity, leaching, and volatilization cause the nutrients in manures
to be lost during field storage. By using care and better composting techniques, the
amount of nutrients lost can be reduced.A well-rotted FYM typically has 0.5% N,
0.25 P2O5, and 0.5% K2O in it. These data allow us to predict that 112 kg of N, 56
kg of P2O5, and 112 kg of K2O are supplied by an average dressing of 25 tonnes
per hectare of farmyard manure. Since nitrogen acts slowly, the first crop often
receives less than 30% of it. Roughly 75 percent of the potash and 60 to 70
percent of the phosphate are made available to the crop right once. The
succeeding crop can use the remaining plant nutrients. We refer to this as a
residual impact.
(D) Compost: Decomposed waste materials such as leaves, twigs, roots, stubble,
bhusa, crop residue, and biodegradable kitchen trash are considered compost
manures. Fertilizers and other nitrogenous materials like cow dung speed up the
breakdown process. This waste is consumed by a vast number of soil
microorganisms, which turn it into well-rotted manure. Put differently, compost
might be thought of as well-rotten organic matter that has been obtained from
waste. Farm compost can be made from waste materials from the farm, such as
trash, straw, weed plants, etc. Composting can turn organic wastes or wastes
originating from the biological, animal, or agro-industrial sectors into usable
manure. Organic waste sources can be categorized as follows:
i. Agriculture: Weeds, etc., and crop leftovers (paddy, straw, sugarcane, etc.).
ii. Animal husbandry: chickens, pigs, goats, sheep, etc.
iii. Agro-industries include the sago industry, the sugar industry (pressmud), the
coir industry (coir pith), and the industries that process fruits and vegetables.

iv. Municipal Activities: Market waste (vegetable, fruit, and flower markets),
household and municipal solid garbage, etc.
According to percentage figures, agricultural compost typically contains the following

nutrients: "0.5 percent N, 0.15 percent P2O5, and 0.5 percent K2O." The town
compost that is made from waste materials such as dustbin waste, human waste, and
street sweepings has an average of 1.4% N, 1% P2O5, and 1.4% K2 O in terms of
nutrients. In order to prepare farm compost, trenches of 4.5 m to 5.0 m x 1.5 m to 2.0
m x 1.0 m to 2.0 m are typically dug, and wastes are layered inside of them. Cow dung
slurry is spread on top of each layer to supply the bacteria needed for composting.
Typically, the trenches are then filled with soil up to 0.5 meters above ground, then
plastered to reduce nutrient loss and create an ideal environment for composting.
When the compost was ready to be applied to the soil after six months, the C:N ratio
would have decreased. Compost possesses the exceptional capacity to enhance the
physical, nutritional, and biological qualities of soils as well as growing media.
Composting has several advantages, including:
 Improving the physical characteristics of the soil, such as bulk density,
porosity, and structure, which improves the root environment of plants.
 Improving water-holding capacity lowers water loss and leaching in sandy
soils. It improves the infiltration of moisture and permeability of heavy soils,
reducing erosion and runoff.
 Provides both macro- and micronutrients in diverse amounts.
 May inhibit or suppress some plant diseases that are carried in the soil.
 Provides substantial amounts of organic materials.
 Enhances soils and growth media's cation exchange capacity (CEC),
enhancing their capability to retain nutrients for plant uptake.
 The microorganisms that are useful are added to growing media and soil.
 Raises and maintains the pH of soil.
 Able to bind and break down particular contaminants.
10.4 Biofertilizer
Live formulations of these advantageous microbes, known as biofertilizers, are ready-
to-use and when applied to seeds, roots, or soil, they increase the availability of
nutrients through their biological activity. Additionally, they support the development of

soil health and microflora. Application results in improved plant growth, higher yields,
improved soil fertility, and decreased pollution. Stated differently, biofertilizers are
described as mixtures that comprise active or dormant cells of effective strains of
microorganisms that aid in the uptake of nutrients by plants through interactions with
the soil or rhizosphere when delivered via seed or soil. They augment the degree of
nutrient availability in a form that is easily absorbed by plants.
They serve as an inexpensive and environmentally beneficial substitute for artificial

fertilizers by providing plant nutrients. When utilized on a regular basis, biofertilizers
boost yield and improve resilience to environmental challenges like insect and disease
issues, severe heat, early frost, and drought. A biofertilizer is a broad population of a
particular or group of advantageous microorganisms that improve soil productivity
through fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere, solubilizing phosphorus from the soil, or
inducing growth-promoting compounds in the soil to promote plant growth. In general,
bio-fertilizers can be divided into two groups: phosphorus-mobilizing microorganisms
and vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza are examples of phosphorus-solubilizing
microorganisms; and nitrogen-fixing organisms like Rhizobium, Azotobacter,
Azospirillum, Acetobacter, Blue Green Algae, and Azolla. In recent times, commercial
operations have identified fungal cultures such Pencillium citrinum as a manganese
solubilizer, Thiobacillus species as a zinc and sulfur solubilizer, and Frateuria aurentia
as a potash mobilizer.
10.5 Mycorrhiza and fertilizer applications

Mycorrhiza means fungus root, was first applied to fungus free associations described
in 1985 by the German forest pathologist A.B. Frank. Mycorrhizae are mutualistic
symbiotic association formed between many plants roots and certain fungi. There are 4
main mycorrhizae viz. ecto, vesicular arbuscular (VA), ericoid and orchidaceous. In
Ectomycorrhiza, the fungus forms a compact mantle or sheath over the root surface
and the hyphae grow out into the soil. These are generally found in forest trees
including many gymnosperms (e.g. pines, spruce, fir, larch) and angiosperms (e.g.
oak, beech, eucalyptus, poplar). The mycorrhizal hyphae assume at least partly the
functions of root hairs. Pinus spp. showed better results with VAM as symbiont. The
ectomycorrhizal fungi help the plants in phosphorus uptake through increased surface

area of absorption, offer protection from some soil-borne plant pathogens and enhance
rooting and survival of cuttings through production of growth hormones.
10.5.1 Importance in Agriculture

Mycorrhiza apart from providing nutrients to the plants also contributes to soil health
and other benefits which include
 The threads of mycorrhizal fungi, or filaments, facilitate drought tolerance in

the partner plant by improving the soil's water-holding ability.
 The fungi specifically exclude the passive absorption of toxic components that
restrict the sensitivity of the partner plant to heavy metals, such as lead &
cadmium.
 Mycorrhizal fungi degrade and absorb nutrients from primary rock surfaces at
high latitudes, high altitudes and other rocky conditions.
 Mycorrhizal fungi can also protect plants both directly and by fostering plant
vigour against pests, such as nematodes, and diseases.
 The fungi may shield their partner plants against high salt concentrations in
saline soil.
 The filaments' outer walls produce gluey compounds that cause fine earth
particles to clump together, forming soil structure and make the soil less
susceptible to erosion.
In addition to plant growth promotion, by fixing more carbon in the vegetation,

mycorrhizal fungi may also contribute directly or indirectly to the stabilization of soil
carbon. First, the filaments of fungi have a portion rich in carbon that can remain for
decades in the soil. Second, it provides the first step in transforming plant waste into
stable soil carbon for other soil fungi.
10.5.2 Advantages of Mycorrhizal Application

 A single treatment can last for the whole lifetime of the plant.
 Minimizes fertilizer use, watering costs and plantation management costs.
 It is compatible with herbicides and insecticides that are commonly used.

 Mycorrhizal plants exploit nutrient sources in the soil at maximum making it a

sustainable approach of cultivation and production systems while using the
minimum of agrochemicals.
 Artificial inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi brings mycorrhiza to new planted

plants and trees helping them in their establishment, growth and survival rate.
10.6 Plant Propagation

10.6.1 Micro plant propagation
It refers to propagation from small plant tissues using tissue culture method. In other
words, plants are propagated from small plant tissues under aseptic conditions on
synthetic nutrient media.
10.6.1.1 Technique of Micro Propagation: Micro propagation can be accomplished

through four stages i.e. explant establishment, explant proliferation, in vitro rooting and
acclimatization.
i. Explant establishment: Any part of a plant such as shoot tip, root tip, nodal
segment etc used for culturing on synthetic nutrient media is termed as explant.
Establishment of these tissues is done on basal media containing macro and
micro nutrients, vitamins, amino acids and a source of carbohydrates. Most
commonly, Murashige and Skoog (MS) media is used as basal media for raising
most of tissue cultures.
ii. Explant proliferation: The “in vitro” established cultures are subsequently
cultured on MS media supplemented with appropriate growth regulators. For
instance, cytokinins like Benzyl Amino Purine (BAP) or Benzyl Adenine (BA) are
most commonly used for shoot proliferation.
iii. In vitro rooting: The individual shoots are separated out of proliferated shoot
cultures and then are cultured on MS media supplemented with suitable auxins
for root induction. Most commonly, Indole Butyric Acid (IBA) or Naphthalene
Acetic Acid (NAA) is used for in vitro root induction in the proliferated shoots.
iv. Acclimatization: The rooted plantlets are then acclimatized (hardened) before
transfer to the field. Acclimatization is done by planting in vitro rooted plantlets in
appropriate rooting media and by maintaining desired relative humidity during
hardening.

10.6.2 Advantages of Micro Propagation

i. The rate of multiplication is much faster and quicker than the conventional
methods of propagation.
ii. True-to-type plants can be produced through this method.
iii. Disease free plants can be produced, especially if meristem (0.1-0.5 mm tip of
shoot) is the source tissue for multiplication.
iv. Year round production- As the uniform temperature and humidity is maintained in
the incubation room throughout the year, tissue culture plants can be produced
all the year round.
v. Easy exchange of germplasm- Using the technique of tissue culture propagation,

germplasm can be easily carried across the counties.
vi. Saves time and space- Large number of plants can be produced in a very little
space (as small as a culture vessel).
vii. Exhibit better quality and yield- Micropropagated plants come into bearing early
and exhibit better yield and quality.
10.6.3 Disadvantages of Micro Propagation

1. Needs expertise and expensive set up for in vitro plant production.
2. All plant species/varieties cannot be propagated at will-some are difficult to

propagate (recalcitrant).
Thus, this technique of propagation should only be used as supplemental technique for
plant propagation, especially in case if it is not possible to conventionally propagate the
plants.
10.6.3 Macro plant propagation

One relatively simple method that may be done in a shed or even in the field is macro-
propagation. It includes of eliminating apical dominance to produce suckers from clean
planting material. Two types of macro-propagation exist detached corm techniques that
are carried out in a shed and field-based techniques that rely on whole or partial
decapitation.
For macro-propagation, the starting material must be clean. There are numerous
methods for obtaining clean beginning material:

 paring suckers
 treating them in hot or boiling water
 employing tissue culture plants
 chemically treating the suckers
10.6.4 Field Techniques
There are two methods of beheading. By eliminating the pseudostem's meristem, or
active growing point, the two decapitation procedures encourage the formation of
lateral buds. In the field, both methods promote sucker proliferation and sprouting. The
pseudostem is rendered slightly perforated by false decapitation, which allows the
meristem to be killed. After then, the foliage continues to be physiologically active for
almost three months. The meristem is destroyed by completely decapitating the
pseudostem.
10.6.5 Detached Corm Techniques

In this a greater number of seedlings that are produced as well as consistent seedling
growth. Once growing in the field, seedlings derived from detached corm procedures
also exhibit reduced susceptibility to stress. Techniques for detached corms consist of:
 whole corm
 split corm
 excised buds
 meristem-drilling
 PIF (plants issues de fragments) / plants resulting from stem fragments.
Summary
Agricultural production increased in the recent past increased due to technology
intensive agricultural activity. Use of synthetic fertilizers is perhaps essential for
growing fertilizer responsive crop varieties. Nevertheless, the environmental concerns
associated with excessive use of synthetic fertilizer brought to the forefront the need
for an alternative to synthetic fertilizer. Manures and biofertilizers are exceedingly
important as they have potential to cater to the demands of agriculture and also
maintenance of ecological integrity of soil ecosystem. We have studied in this unit
about the role of manures and biofertilizers in augmenting agricultural production and
benefits of using the same in agroecosystem. This can be summarised in the following,

Scientific underpinnings of manures and biofertilizers.Types of manures from the

perspective of nutrient composition, and bulkiness of the manure.
Check Your Progress
1. What are bulky organic manure?
2. What are the Benefits of green manuring?
3. What are concentrated organic manure?
4. Write the advantages and disadvantages of micropropagation?
5. What is the Acclimatization technique?

Unit 11: Nursery Disease and their management

Unit Structure

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Diseases of nursery
11.2.1 Damping-off
11.2.2 Fusarium root disease
11.3 Control measures
11.3.1 Silvicultural Control
11.3.2 Biological Control
11.3.3 Mechanical Control
11.3.4 Chemical Control
11.4 Chemicals used for disease control
11.4.2 Seed Treatments
11.4.3 Soil Treatments
11.4.4 Protective sprays and dust
11.5 Nursery pests in the nursery
11.6 Minor nursery pests in the nursery
11.6.1 Crickets
11.6.2 The borers
Summary
References

After you have studying this unit, you should be able:
 To have basic understanding about diseases of nursery
 To understand control measures for nursery disease
 To know about the nursery pests
11.1 Introduction
The nursery stage of a forest is particularly vulnerable to disease. Large-scale afforestation
initiatives and the industrial need for wood, which is scarce, have occurred recently. There
is a need for planting stock because of large-scale plantation operations, for which

nurseries have been set up. At the lowest feasible cost, there should be a sufficient
quantity of plantable height seedling stock available. If a disease outbreak occurs in a
nursery, the planting stock will be severely impacted, upsetting the plantation programmes.
Therefore, it's essential to understand the various diseases that affect forest nurseries and
how to manage them. Nursery stock can be severely damaged by pest and disease
problems, which can cause both direct and indirect harm that could render the stock
unsuitable for sale.
11.2 Diseases of nursery

Pests and environmental variables work together to create plant diseases. Insects or
pathogens are more prone to attack plants that have already been weakened by
environmental stress. For instance, weak trees are frequently attacked by wood-boring
insects. Plants under stress take more hits and recover from injuries more slowly. Plant
attractiveness in landscapes is improved by removing the stressor. Also, it makes them
more resistant to insect infestations. Plant diseases can be caused by microbes such as
bacteria, viruses, and fungi. In addition, there are a lot of helpful microbes. Soil organisms
related to fungi and bacteria assist plants in fending off disease. Others target disease-
causing nematodes and pathogens.
Three key factors are involved in the development of a plant disease. These are: (i) The
pathogen, or organism that causes
disease (ii) A plant host that is
prone to the infection (iii)
Environmental factors that
encourage the growth of
pathogens. The plant disease
triangle (Fig. 1) illustrates this
concept. All three sides of the plant
disease triangle must be present
for disease to occur. Remove one Fig1. Plant Disease triangle
or more of the sides of the disease triangle to prevent plant diseases.

Diseases of the underground parts of seedlings, known as root- and soil-borne diseases,
can develop from the time of planting till lifting. It encompasses diseases of the root crown,
taproot, lateral roots, tips, and pre- and post-emergence damping-off. One of the hardest
disease conditions to diagnose is a root disease. The majority of root illnesses share a
great deal of similarities with one another when it comes to their above-ground symptoms,
as do those brought on by adverse soil conditions as high plough pan, excessive soil
moisture, toxicity, and certain nutrient deficiencies. Most significant and prevalent soil- and
root-borne diseases found in nurseries are as follows:
11.2.1 Damping-off
Damping-off is one of the first ailments that the nurseryman notices in his newly sowed
beds (Figure 2). Many fungi induce damping-off, but the most prevalent ones are
Phytophthora spp., Pythium spp., Fusarium spp., and Rhizoctonia solani. The disease,
which can
cause 15% or
more mortality
of viable seed,
must be
considered of
critical
importance.
Only very young
seedlings are Figure 2: Damping off disease
attacked as the stems begin to form woody tissue (about 4 to 6 weeks following seed
germination). The majority of conifer species are vulnerable, with the notable exception of
junipers.
Symptoms: Symptoms vary according to when the illness starts. Early attacks on the
growing radical may destroy the seedling before it leaves the earth. Such pre-emergence
damping-off may go unnoticed or be explained away as "poor seed." Post-emergence
infection usually develops at or just below the ground level, leaving a water-soaked or

121
necrotic patch on the succulent stem. In conifers, this tissue collapses, causing the
seedling to become floppy and fall over. Hardwood seedlings, on the other hand, typically
stand Damping off is frequently confused with heat
and upright until wilting and breaking off. Damping-off
lesions, which appear as whitish sunken regions on the stem just above ground level. Heat
lesions, on the other hand, are typically limited to one side of the stem.
Disease Development: The causative fungi are typically native to nursery soils. Some
live on dead organic matter, while others exist as resting or dormant spores, waiting for a
new host to infect (Figure 3). With each succeeding year of cropping, populations of these
harmful funguses grow in
nursery soils, increasing
verage seedling losses. Any
circumstance that lowers
seedling development and
vigour typically leads to an
increase in infection. The illness
is frequently more severe in
nursery soils that are veryy damp.
After just one or two rainy days,
a stand of seemingly healthy
seedlings can experience severe Figure 3: Disease development cycle
off. Sideboards and shade frames that block ventilation may promote infection
damping-off.
development.
since the mattresses do not dry quickly. Temperature also affects development.
Temperature influences the progression of this disease, depending on the fungus species
involved. Some fungi, such as Pythium spp., thrive at high temperatures (27°
(27°-35°C).
Nitrogen fertilizers administered before or during seedling susceptibil ity might also boost
susceptibility
losses. Soil pH also causes considerable losses, which are typically greatest at high pH
levels and minimal near pH 5.5.
Control: Damping-off
off can be managed through cultural or chemical ways. Losses have
rocedures that improve the rate and consistency of
generally been decreased by pprocedures
germination, as well as the speed with which seedlings grow in the early weeks. Soil

moisture regulation may prevent fungal losses. Thiram, a seed-protecting fungicide, is

occasionally useful but generally variable in minimising losses in conifer beds. Fungicides
may limit the amount and rate of germination when temperatures are high. Soil treatment
prior to seeding is possible. Inorganic acids have been shown to be effective in reducing
pH in soils with pH levels ranging from 6 to 8. Drenching the soil with the fungicide captain
is also useful, but once symptoms appear, it is usually too late for recovery. Soil
fumigation before sowing can yield good results. Methyl bromide, chloropicrin, vorlex, or
mixtures of these fumigants effectively suppress damping off and other soil-borne diseases
in hardwood and pine seedlings.
11.2.2 Fusarium root disease
Fusarium root disease is one of the most common diseases affecting conifer seedlings
around the world. Besides causing root disease, F. oxysporum and other Fusarium
species are frequently responsible for damping-off in the early phases of seedling
development.
Hosts and Damage: Most conifer seedlings are susceptible to Fusarium root disease. The
pathogen exists in numerous host-specific forms. Only one specialized form has been
described for conifer seedlings, F. oxysporum fusarium species pini. F. oxysporum attacks
and kills a seedling's roots, resulting in chlorosis, stunting, wilting of the top, and eventual
death. As with many root diseases, the primary impacts are (a) seedling mortality in the
nursery bed, (b) an increase in the number of cull (stunted) seedlings and (c) greater
losses after out planting due to weakened root systems.
Life History: The F. oxysporum, like other root disease fungi are inactive in the soil in the
absence of a host and usually remain dormant in the form of chlamydospores
(microscopic, thick-walled, single-celled resting spores). When a seedling root grows by a
dormant chlamydospore, exudates from the root supply nutrients to the spore and
stimulate its germination. The fungus grows over the root surface, penetrates between two
epidermal cells, and spreads intracellular through the cortex. The fungus colonizes the
cortex and the xylem elements of the infected seedling. Most pathogenic forms of F.
oxysporum cause a vascular wilt, although many descriptions of the disease in conifers
suggest it is a cortical rot. Either or both may be involved in seedling death. The

microcondia are large, multicelled spores which may infect other roots, but which usually
convert themselves into chlamydospores, when conditions become unfavorable and await
next season's crop. The Fusarium fungus may be carried with the plant when it is
outplanted and continue to attack the infected seedling roots, causing unexpectedly high
transplant mortality. Although this fungus may continue activity for a year or two, the
outplanted seedling may outgrow the infection if the infection is light.
Control measures: Cultural techniques have not been useful in managing this disease.
Soil additives, which showed promise in preventing certain Fusarium diseases in
agricultural crops, have yet to be proven useful in the forest nursery. In the current
situation, the most effective technique of control is to fumigate the soil with methyl
bromide, chloropicrin, or other soil fumigants before planting. Fumigation has been
beneficial in various areas of North America.
11.3 Control measures

Insect pests are a major problem in natural forests, plantations and nurseries and the
forester is required to prevent and control the damage done by them.
Principles of Prevention and control
The most significant aspect of pest management is early detection and timely reporting to
exporters for advice. A control measure's action on the pest can be direct or indirect,
preventive or remedial. The most crucial aspect of pest management is early detection and
timely reporting to professionals for help. In terms of forest protection, control methods are:
(1) Silvicultural control
(2) Biological control
(3) Mechanical control
(4) Chemical control
It should be mentioned that it is impossible in practice to remove a forest insect infestation.

The goal of artificial control, as opposed to natural control, is to limit the number of pests to
a level where the damage caused by them is within financial tolerance. In other words, if
the loss is viewed as an unavoidable consequence of forest management objectives, the

pest may be regarded under economic control. Under economic control, it fluctuates much
below the threshold at which it becomes problematic.
11.3.1 Silvicultural Control
By silvicultural control is understood the regulation of the abundance of a forest insect

species by factors of silvicultural practice. Silvicultural practice may be designed and
employed so economic control of an insect problem, but it acts independently of any goal
on the part of the forest officials, and sometimes unrecognized by them. If a forester
changes a mile insect into a pest by applying previously established silvicultural
procedures, the pest can only be avoided from causing irreversible damage by actions of a
similar order to those that created it.
Pure stands (management of forest composition, influencing food supply and quantity). (I)
Pure stands offer the most favorable conditions for the multiplication of pests because the
area gives the maximum number of food supply (ii) the pest in all phases has no trouble in
locating food supply and breeding material (iii) an abundance of natural adversaries, such
as parasites of nesting or insectivorous birds. Thus, even aged plantations or forests under
the uniform system are vulnerable to insect infestations. All of the major pests of Indian
forestry are most harmful in forests of this class; for example, (1) the behole borer of teak
Xyleutes ceramicus, teak canker grub (Dihamus cervinus), defoliator (Calopopla leavane),
the phassus borer (Phassus rnalabaricus), champaca bug (Drastylus punetigera), and teak
defoliators (Hapalia machaeralis and Hyblaea purerna) are all plantation pests and rarely
so in natural forests. The structure of natural and virgin forests is completely disrupted in a
pure stand, resulting in insect outbreaks in such regions. In pure stands, it is critical to
preserve natural forest strip regions.
Mixed forests
The value of mixtures in protecting the principal timber species in the crop lies in the
following advantages
(1) Reduction in the quantity of food supply available to the pest in the area;
(2) varied food and suitable shelters are made available for parasites and predators that
are maintained at a high level owing to the existence of alternate hosts;

(3) Insectivorous birds get a continued food supply throughout the year.
(4) Mechanical observation is offered to the dispersal crawing defoliators (larvae) that drop
to the ground from crowns and try to reclimb the trees, and they die out of starvation,
mechanical obstruction is also offered to the flying adult insects in finding the food plant of
choice.
Thinning: Abrupt thinning at longer intervals is undesirable, gradual thinning at smaller

intervals does not interfere with the natural balance between the pest, parasite and plant
community.
Density: Density of the crop influences the physical conditions by modifying the intensity
of light, evaporation, air, environment and fluctuations of temperature. All these factors
indirectly affect insect life in forest.
Regeneration areas: Regeneration by small areas is advantageous since it restricts food

supply of pests. Regeneration approaching natural process achieves immunity from insect
damages. Artificial regeneration suffers more than natural regeneration.
Fire: The effects of fire can be considered from the aspect of burning and fire protection.
(1) Burning: Burning of refuse in clear felled areas prior to artificial stocking destroys all
the insects and small animal life that are unable to fly or run at the time of burning. The
result is that the area is cleared of pests and as well as all beneficial or harmless
members of the community are exterminated. Controlled burning in high forest destroys
many of the free living animals mice, lizards, etc. and kites, hawks later feed on their
corpses; insects in the canopy or high up in the trunk drop to the flames. Under no
ordinary circumstances is it wise to use ground fire as a remedial measure for an insect
epidemic.
(2) Fire protection: The exclusion of fires from forests previously exposed to periodic
burning has far reaching effects, i.e„ it permits tree growth in deciduous forests, fire-
tender species, particularly the evergreens are protected and a forest occurs but scrub-
growth protected thus invade forest trees. The direct effect of continuous fire protection
on animals is marked by the increase and performance of animal populations and
particularly of the natural enemies of insect pests.

11.3.2 Biological Control
In modern usage biological control means the employment of natural enemies and
diseases of a pest for the purpose of maintaining economic control. It is not confined to the
utilization of parasites only. In forestry biological controls are used in conjunction with the
silvicuitural control and may be regarded as an extension of the same. In forestry tree
biological methods may be utilized:
i. Mass production and release of selected parasites and predators as a regular

annual operation.
ii. (Importation and Colonization of species that is not indigenous. This is a non-
recurrent operation.
iii. The natural enemy complex of an indigenous pest is incomplete in a particular

locality owing to the absence of certain efficient species of its parasites or predators.
iv. Improvement the environmental resistance to the pest by modification of plant

community. Measures designed to increase the environmental resistance to a pest
can only be used when the crop is grown on a long rotation as • in forestry (not
applicable in agriculture)
11.3.3 Mechanical Control
In forestry, the following mechanical measures are tried:
i). Racking and compacting the humus to eliminate oviposition.
ii). Sticky bands to trap or work as barriers to insects climbing the trees (deodar
defoliator. moth, shishann defoliator, salix defoliator etc.)
iii). Hand collection of egg masses, caterpillars, beetles, hagworms during hibernation.
iv). Traping sinking earthen pots flush with the ground in nurseries, light-trap, trap by
baiting.
v). Flooding, burning, trenching, crickets in nursery, grass-hoppers etc.
vi). Burning and charring.

vii). Barking (against bark borers, salai and other serious sap and heartwood borers).
viii). Sack banding and pruning (loon and semul shoot borer, etc.)
ix). Repellants and attractants.
Following are some of the chemical measures adopted:
i. Wood Borers in storage: Debarking, prophylactic insecticides DDT, BHC etc.

preservation under pressure with creosote and others, existing infection by
sterilization.
ii. Termites: DDT, BHC to kill colony in mounds, soil poisoning to keep off termites,
use of resistant varieties of timber that are naturally resistant, special measurement
in building etc.
iii. Tree Poisoning: Sodium arsenite, ammonium sulphanate, sodium silicoflouride etc
in paste form.
iv. Defoliators, sapsuckers: Spraying and dusting contact or stomach insecticides.
v. Stored products: Fumigation with carbon disulphide dischlorobenzene, etc.
vi. Sprays: Crude oil emulsion, kerosene oil emulsion, nicotine solution, DDT, BHC,
soap solution (contact poisons). Deem leaf extract, paris green, arsenates (stomach
poisons).
vii. Repellents: Derdeaux mixture, mosquito ointment.
viii. Fumigants: Carbon disulphide, calcium cyanide, naphathalene, dichlorobenzene.
ix. Wood preservatives: Creosote (Standard wood preservative) fuel oil, boric acid,
sodium fluosilicate, zinc chloride.
x. Sticky bands: Tar-pitch oil (coaltar, pitch, dry soap, castor oil, earth, in the
proportion - 37.5 : 7.5 : 10 : 12).

11.4 Chemicals used for disease control
Certain chemicals are employed as fumigants, sterilants, or disinfectants to kill pathogenic

organisms before planting, even though they are hazardous to the majority of living things.
Less hazardous pesticides can be used to control diseases that might otherwise cause
large losses in horticultural or agricultural crops. Depending on the target species, these
substances can be classified as fungicides, bactericides (also known as antibiotics), or
nematicides. An "ideal" chemical control agent must be effective at concentrations that do
not damage plants when applied to plant structures or growth phases. It should not trigger
allergic reactions and should present the least amount of danger to both humans and
animals. Long-term negative effects on the normal soil and plant microbiome should be
minimal. Some chemicals commonly used to control plant diseases are listed in table 1.
Table 1: Some chemicals commonly used to control plant diseases

CHEMICAL AND USE RELATIVE TOXICITY
ORAL DERMAL
SEED TREATMENTS (ALL FUNGICIDES)
Chloraneb Low Low
Dichlone Low High
Thiram Moderate High
Carboxin (systemic and therapeutic) Low Low
SOIL TREATMENTS
Methyl bromideb (general pesticide) Very high Very high
PCNB (fungicide) Low Moderate
SMDC [vapam] (fungicide, nematicide) Moderate Moderate
MIT ["Vorlex"] (fungicide, nematicide) Moderate Moderate
D-D mixture (nematicide) Moderate Low
PLANT-PROTECTIVE TREATMENTS
Copper compounds (fungicides, bactericides) Moderate Low
Sulfur (fungicide) Low Moderate
Maneb (fungicide) Very low Low
Zineb (fungicide) Very low Low
Captan (fungicide) Very low Very low

Dinocap (fungicide for powdery mildews) Low Low

Streptomycin (bactericidal antibiotic) Very low Low
Cyclohexamideb (fungicidal antibiotic) Very high Very high
Benomyl (protective and therapeutic fungicide) Very low Very low
It is predicted to have minimal detrimental long-term effects on normal soil and plant
microbiota. The agricultural product should be persistent and chemically stable enough to
meet harvesting needs, but not so persistent as to cause issues with residue management.
It is improbable that the disease or pathogens will rapidly develop chemical resistance. It
should have characteristics that make accurate and effective application to the plant or
crop material possible. It should be compatible with other biocidal agent formulations both
physically and chemically. It should have a long shelf life, which allows it to be stored in
ordinary climates for extended periods of time without losing any of its effectiveness.
Including all of these needs in a single molecule is inherently difficult. Additionally, The
chemical control of plant diseases is classified in three categories: seed treatments, soil
treatments, and protective sprays and dusts.
11.4.2 Seed Treatments
Plant diseases in, on, and surrounding planted seed may be effectively controlled by
chemical treatments of the seed. Treatment for seeds is classified as eradicative when it
eliminates fungal spores that contaminate seed surfaces, protective when it stops soil-
borne fungus from penetrating seedling stems, and therapeutic when it eliminates bacteria
or fungi that infect embryos, cotyledons, or endosperms beneath the seed coat. Typically,
certified seed receives the appropriate treatment to prevent certain diseases. There are
two kinds of seed treatment: chemical and physical.
i ) . Physical treatments: It include hot-water treatment, solar-heat treatment (loose smut

of wheat), and the like.
ii). Chemical treatments: It involves applying bactericides and fungicides. There are
various ways to apply these fungicides to seed. One technique uses basic seed
treaters to treat the seed in tiny batches. Using the seed-dip method, fungicide
suspension is made in water, usually at field rates, and the seed is dipped in it for a

predetermined amount of time. The majority of eradicative and protective compounds

have a wide spectrum of fungicidal activity; they are effective against most seed-
infesting and seedling-blight fungi. The oxathiins (carboxin, DMOC) used to destroy
embryo infecting smuts of cereal grains have little effect on other organisms.
However, a particular agricultural plant species' disease is typically best controlled by
using a particular seed treatment chemical. Thiram, chloraneb, dichlone, dexon, and
captan are examples of organic chemicals that are now often utilized as seed
treatments for protection and eradication.
11.4.3 Soil Treatments
Soil-borne plant pathogens rapidly expand in population as soils are cropped continuously,
eventually reaching levels that render contaminated soils unfit for agricultural production.
Chemical treatments of soil that eliminate plant pathogens enable the quick recovery of
infected soils for agricultural use. To control nematode-induced diseases, field soils are
chemically treated prior to planting, and seedbed and greenhouse soils are fumigated (with
methyl bromide, for example) to eliminate weeds, insects, and plant pathogens. Soil-
treatment chemicals for fungal control are typically applied in the field to treat furrows.
Formaldehyde is efficient against sclerotia fungus, which cause seedling blights, stem rots,
and root rots in many field crops. Soil treatments used at the time of planting are most
effective against parasitic infestations that occur early in the growing season.
11.4.4 Protective sprays and dust
Protective fungicides inhibit germination, growth, and penetration. To utilize protective

fungicides efficiently, the farmer must not only choose the right fungicide for the purpose,
but also apply it in the proper amount, timing, and manner. Too little fungicide fails to
suppress disease, while too much might be hazardous to the plants being protected. The
timing of applications is also essential.
11.5 Nursery pests in the nursery

Forest nurseries are attacked by the following insect pests in different parts of India and its
neighboring countries:

1. The cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon Hufn. (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Cutworms are especially harmful to

conifers such as deodar and pine trees
during the months of March and April. It
has been found to injure newly emerged
young Eucalyptus seedlings in Central
India.
This insect's fertilized female moth lays Fig. 4. Larvae of Cutworm
approximately 2000 eggs in little clusters

on weeds, stones, hurrlugs, and other
plants. The larvae (Fig. 4), sometimes
known as cutworms, hatch within two to
six days and consume dried leaves and
green vegetation. These cutworms dig 30 Fig. 5. The cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon (Moth) Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Agrotis_ipsilon_female.jpg
to 75 mm deep into the ground to hide
during the day.
At night, the larvae emerge from their tunnels and feed on the seedlings by cutting through
the stem at ground level. They rarely climb and cut down too huge plants. The fully grown
larva is smooth, with small hairs, and measures approximately 40 mm in length. When
disturbed, it curls into a C shape. The larval period varies between 20 and 35 days. The
fully grown larva creates a pupal chamber in soil to undergo pupation. The pupal phase
lasts from ten to thirty days. The complete life cycle lasts 5 to 9 weeks, with two
generations in cold weather on the plains (Fig 5). Euxoa segetum Schiff. is another
species of cutworm that harms nursery plants.
Control measures:
i. The edges of the nursery beds, surroundings, transplant beds etc. should be kept
clean from the weed. It prevents the egg lying of the moths.
ii. Collecting and destroying larvae during digging helps limit the population of
cutworms.

iii. Flooding or irrigation in nurseries causes cutworms to emerge from their tunnels,
allowing for collection.
iv. Coating seed beds with wood ash helps prevent cutworms from feeding on nursery
seedlings.
v. Chaudhury and Mallik (1981) found that using chlordane 5%, heptachlor 5%, aldrin
5%, endosulfan 4%, and quinalphos 1.5% at a rate of 2.5 Kg a.i./ha effectively
combats cutworms.
vi. According to Pareek and Noor (1978), adding 5% heptachlor dust to soil before
seeding is equally effective.
vii. A bait formulation (bran, sugar, and water) containing 0.25 percent quinalphos
(Ekalux) effectively controls this pest.
2. White grubs: (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae, Melolonthidae and Rutelidae):
Cockchafer beetle larvae are called

white grubs. These grubs eat the roots
and rootlets of seedlings in forest
nurseries (Fig 6). The beetles emerge
from the earth at the start of the
monsoon. After mating, they lay white
oval eggs in the earth. After a few days Figure 6: White grub
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/andreaskay/10618418336
of egg development, the hatching
occurs. The newly hatched grubs eat on semi-decomposed cow manure, seedling leaves,
roots, rootlets, and so on. These grubs undergo moultings and eventually mature to full-
grown final instars in September, e.g., Holotrichia spp. in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and
Maharashtra, or in April, e.g., Hiliyotrogus holosericea Redt. (Gupta et al., 1976).
After a pupal stage of 13 to 30 days, the beetles emerge from the soil shortly after the first
monsoon rainfall (Gupta et al, 1976). All white grub species are monogenetic. Hiliyotrogus
holosericea Redt., Anomala rufiventris Redt., Lachnosterna longipennis Blanchard, and
Melolontha spp. damage the roots and rootlets of Cedrus deodara, Pinus spp., Quercus
leucotrichophora, etc. in high altitudes of north India, whereas Holotrichia (Lachnosterna)

consanguinea Blanchard feeds on sal. The grubs of H. insularis Brenke and H. serrata
Fab. have been identified as major pests in teak nurseries in Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Orissa. Anomala dalbergiae arrows have also been observed on
shisham (Beeson, 1941).
Control Measures:
i. The beetle prefers sandy soil for egg laying and hence use of sandy soil should be
avoided for raising nursery seedlings (Joshi and Namdeo, 1990)
ii. Weeding and preparation of the nursery beds should not be done during monsoon.
iii. Ploughing and digging of soil in winter facilitate in collection and destruction of white
grubs.
iv. Mixing of aldrin, BHC, chlordane, DDT and heptachlor 5 % dust, thimet 10 G and
disyston 5 G, each @ 30 to 40 Kg/ha in nursery beds in July kill the freshly hatched
grubs of A. rufiventris Redt. (Gupta and Rai, 1984), Holotrichia consanguinea Blanch
(Patel et al., 1967; Prasad, 1975) and H. holosericea (Gupta et a1.,1976).
v. Thimet or phorate 10 G granules @ 200 gm/nursery bed (size 10 x 1 M) should be

mixed in soil in furrows during the fore half of July (Vaishampayan and Bhandari,
1981).
3. Termites
White ants and termites are also major nursery pests (Fig 7). Termites are social insects,
living in colonies, subterranean in habit and requiring soil moisture and avoiding light
throughout their life. They consume the underground rhizomes, roots, and stems of forest
tree species. Odontotermes species consume branch cuttings of Populus deltoides in
Assam (Joshi et al., 1984) and Eucalyptus seedlings in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh (Ann. 1987).
In the colony can be found a large number of sub groups, each performing special duties
for the colony, and the commonest of these are king, queen, soldiers and workers; the
royal pair king and queen live in a royal mud cell underground, the workers work for the
colony (bring food, construct nest etc.) and soldiers guard the colony. The commonest nest

of termite visible above ground is the termite mound, which is spectacular and is only a
part of the nest, the main colony being underground. The young termites that hatch out
from eggs, called nymphs, are specially fed on fungus that is grown in a fungus garden in
special beds called fungus combs. Later they are allowed to graze along with other
termites and they chiefly consume cellulosic materials as food which no other insect group
has the power to digest. Termites have interesting habit of licking each other can transmit
any kind of food, be it their normal food or a poison by accident from one termite to
another. Wood in buildings in forests lying on ground, in mils, depots, bark of living trees,
young plants and their roots, cloth, papers etc. are eaten by termites.
Figure 7: Termites
Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_3639_Mastotermes_darwiniensis_Giant_Northe
rn_Termite.jpg
Control measures:
i. The red ants collected from field if released on nursery beds, destroy the termites.
ii. Aldrin 5 percent dust, @ 40 to 60 Kg/ha or phorate (thimet) 10G @ 40 Kg/ha if

mixed thoroughly in soil, kills the termites.
iii. Application of 0.1 per cent water emulsion of aldrin 30 EC @ 50 Lt per bed (10 x 1
M) is said to be completely effective to kill termites damaging the germinating
seedlings of Albizia lebbek and Eucalyptus FRI-4 (Ann.1987).
iv. When young plants are observed to be drying off in seed beds and in nurseries,
upper layer of soils should be turned over and searched for termites. The dying may
also be due to cockchafters, cutworms, crickets, etc or to drought or to damping off.
If termites are responsible for dying it is best to water the lines with weak crude oil
emulsion or concentrated extract of tobacco leaves.

121
4. Grasshoppers:
Grasshoppers are polyphagous

insects. They feed on new shoots
and leaves in nurseries. The adults
lay eggs in the dirt, and the young
nymphs emerge to feed on the
foliage. As thee nymphs mature,
Fig. 8. Grasshopper
they become more voracious Source: https://stock.adobe.com/in/search?k=grass.grasshoppe
r&asset_id=90493549
feeders of leaf mare, causing the
seedlings to die. The life cycle of these insects ranges from one to three generations per
year. Hieroglyphus species defoliates bamboo and teak seedlings, whereas Chrotogonus
ecies and Oedaleus abruptus Thunberg defoliate Pinus carabea and Poocarpa
species
seedlings (Browne, 1968; Singh and al., 1982; Khan et al. 1985).
Control measures:
i. Regular weeding in and around the nursery, helps to reduce the incidence of
grasshoppers.
ii. Spraying of BHC or phosphamidon 0.05 percent can kill most of the young and old
grasshoppers (Joshi and Namdeo, 1990).
11.6 Minor nursery pests in the nursery

Some of the minor nursery pests are discussed below:
11.6.1 Crickets
1. Tarbinskiellus (Brachytrypes
(Brachytrypes)
portentosus (Licht) (Orthoptera:Gryllidae):
(Orthoptera:
This huge, blackish-brown
brown insect is over 50
mm long and has large antennae (Fig. 9). It
lives in a deep subsurface tunnel that opens
to the surface in a giant noticeable hole
Figure 9: Female Cricket
surrounded by expelled mud. During
Source: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tarbins
_portent_060616-07604_cromb.JPG
07604_cromb.JPG

September and October, the insect lays eggs at the bottom of the tunnel. The newly
hatched nymphs remain in the parental house for a few days before dispersing. The young
crickets dig new tunnels, which become longer and more remified as the bug matures.
Adult crickets mature over a few months, often between May and July. Adult crickets
spend their entire lives in the same tube. It emerges at night to mate and eat on young
seedlings. The young seedlings and the pieces of the foliage are dragged into its tunnel for
feeding. It is a pest of Casuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia sissoo, Eucaluptus species and
Tectona grandis.
Control measures:
i. Growing ragi (Eleusine coracana) around Casuarina beds diverts the cricket's
attention away from the Casuarina seedlings.
ii. Pumpkin pieces attract crickets and can be used as a trap.
iii. Poison baits (Paris green 3 or 4 parts, flour 100 parts, and gur 1 part, mixed into a
dry powder) sprinkled along the nursery's perimeter are effective at killing these
crickets (Beeson, 1941).
iv. Flooding the tunnels with water and then applying kerosine leads insects to emerge,
which can be destroyed mechanically.
2. The mole cricket, Gryllotalpa africana Palisot B. (Orthoptera: Gryllidae): It is a

light-green, 30-mm subterranean bug that lives in burrows in light loamy soil (fig. 10). It can
be found throughout India and Pakistan's plains and lower hills. Its nymphs and adults eat
seedlings of Bischofia javanika, Cinnamomum
cecidodaphne, and other agricultural crops. G.
africana palisot B. adults construct an earthen
cell about the size of a hen's egg at the end of
the tunnel in May and June. The female lays up
to 50 eggs in a cluster in the earthorn cell. The
eggs hatch after 3 or 4 weeks of incubation. Fig. 10: Mole Cricket

Source:
The young nymphs remain with their mother for https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mole_Cricket_%28Gryllotalpa_africana%29
_%2816643378886%29.jpg
a few days before dispersing. They burrow in

the soil, go through three to four moults, and then hibernate for the rest of the year in
colder climates. Thus, it has one generation per year. In Warner locations, however, it
completes two or more generations per year.
Control measures:
i. Mole crickets can be driven out from their tunnels by pouring water mixed with a little
amount of kerosine into the freshly made tunnels.
ii. In irrigated areas, flooding of water helps to coming out of the mole crickets from
their tunnels. They can be collected and killed mechanically.
iii. Application of aldrin 5 percent dust or BHC 10 percent dust @ 25 Kg/ha in soil is
also said to be effective against these crickets (Grangwar and Roy, 1985).
11.6.2 The borers
1. Semul shoot borer, Tonica niviferana Walk. (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae): Its

medium-sized moths lay eggs singly in the leaf axils of new semul stems. After hatching,
the tiny larva burrows into the new shoots at a leaf axil, protected by a silk thread web. As
the larva matures, it excavates a tunnel along the heart of the shoot or fully hollows it out,
killing a stem all the way down to the old wood from the previous year. The tunnel is still
filled with black larval excreta as well as particles of frass, gum, and other materials. Some
frass is also discharged through the ejection hole, which is blackish or dark brown in
appearance and plainly visible from a distance.The immature larva of this pest is yellowish
brown, but subsequently turns orange yellow with black spots dorsally. After reaching a
length of around 40 mm, the larva exits the tunnel and pupates on leaves, stems, and
other plant parts. The pupal phase lasts 1 to 2 weeks. It has two generations per year.
Control measures:
i. Collection and destruction of the pupae on bark and leaves etc. in March to May,
and in July to August in one year old sapling should be done.
ii. Pruning of the attacked coppice shoots of semul during the later parts of rainy
season and inspection again during the cold months for later attack should be done.
iii. Sevidol granules @ 6 gms/sapling is highly effective to control this borer in 1 to 3

years old plantations (Singh et al., 1981).
2. The borer, Zeuzera coffeae Neitner (Lepidoptera:Cossidae): In the spring, this

medium-sized, white moth with numerous black markings and streaks on its body and
wings lays oval, reddish-yellow eggs on the bark of short stems or branches. After
approximately ten days, the hatching occurs. The newly hatched larvae create little silken
shelters on the stem. After a few days, the larvae emerge and hang themselves using
delicate silk threads. The wind then transports these larvae across a large distance. Soon
after receiving a host plant like Casuarina equisetifolia, Chikrassia tabularis, Citrus spp.,
Coffea robusta, Grevillea robusta, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Melia azedarach, Phyllanthus
emblica, Populus deltoides, Psidium guajava, Santalum album, Schleichera trijuga,
Tectona grandis, Toona ciliata, Terminalia belerica and Thea chinesis etc. (Beeson 1941;
Joshi et al., 1984), these larvae start boring the young shoots, branches etc. and finally
form long tunnels in the pith of the shoots. The larva ejects a tiny yellow wooden grass
from its entrance pore. The full-grown larva is pink, robust, and smooth, measuring
approximately 50 mm in length. Pupation happens in a large pupal tunnel. The object pupa
is slightly elongated and reddish brown in hue. The imago is revealed by removing the
shoot's loose, thin outer bark. It produces two generations each year (Joshi et al. 1984).
Control measures:
i. To combat this borer, it is recommended to sow or plant seedlings densely and thin
out drilled saplings.
ii. Injecting dichloros into the entrance hole can eliminate the borer within the tunnel.
Summary
The nursery stage of a forest is particularly vulnerable to disease. Large-scale afforestation
initiatives and the industrial need for wood, which is scarce, have occurred recently.
Nursery stock can be severely damaged by pest and disease problems, which can cause
both direct and indirect harm that could render the stock unsuitable for sale. Pests and
environmental variables work together to create plant diseases. Insects or pathogens are
more prone to attack plants that have already been weakened by environmental stress.
Patogen, plant host and environmental involved in the development of a plant disease.
Most significant and prevalent soil- and root-borne diseases found in nurseries are

damping off fusarium root disease. Insect pests are a major problem in natural forests,
plantations and nurseries and the forester is required to prevent and control the damage
done by them. The most significant aspect of pest management is early detection and
timely reporting to exporters for advice. A control measure's action on the pest can be
direct or indirect, preventive or remedial. In terms of forest protection silvicultural,
Biological, mechanical and chemical control methods are used for protecting forest
nurseries. Forest nurseries are attacked by some of the major insect pests i.e. Cutworm,
White grubs, Termites, Grasshoppers and minor insect pests i.e. crickets and borers in
different parts of India and its neighboring countries.
Terminal Question
1. What do you understand by nursery disease? Discuss damping off disease in

detail.
2. Discuss Fusarium root disease in detail.
3. Discuss Principles of Prevention and control of disease.
4. Discuss how plant diseases are controlled by the use of chemicals.
5. Explain various Nursery pests in detail.
References
1. Chaudhury, J.P. and V. S. Mallik, 1981. Extent of damage and screening of dust
formulations of insecticides against gram cutworm, Agrotis ipsilon Hufn. On gram,
Cicer arientinus. Indian J. Ent., 43(2): 153-157.
2. Beeson, C.F.C. 1941. The ecology and control of the forest insect pests of India
and the neighbouring countries. Vasant Press, Dehradun. 767 pp.
3. Browne, F.G. 1968. Pests and diseases of forest plantation trees. Clarendon
press, Oxford, 1330 pp.
4. Gangwar, S.K. and Roy S., 1985. Control of insect pests of N.E. hill region. Indian
Farming, 35 (2): 35-40.
5. Gupta, B. P., Rai, K M., 1984. Chemical control of Anomola rufiventris Redt.
(Scarabbaeidae Coleoptera). Prog. Hort. 16 (1-2): 154-157.

6. Gupta, B. P., K. M. Rai and L.D. Joshi, 1976. Studies on the biology of
White grub, Hiliyotrogus holosericea Redt. ( Coleoptera: Melolonthidae).
Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India, 46 (3), I &II: 335-340.
7. Joshi, K. C. and R. K. Namdeo, 1990. Common forest insect pests and their
control measures. IDF Tech. Bulletin No. 3:1-41.
8. Joshi, K.C., D. Gurung and P.C. Sharma, 1984. Insect pests of poplars in north
eastern region, Indian Farming, 34 (4): 21-22.
9. Khan, H. R., L. Prasad and S. Kumar, 1985. Some important pests of Madhya
Pradesh and their control. Paper presented in Forestry conference (M.P.), S.F.R.I.,
Jabalpur (18-20th Feb. 1985).
10. Pareek, B.L. and A. Noor, 1978. Evaluation of insecticides against potato cutworm.
Agrotis ypsilon Huf. (Noctuidae: Lepidoptera). Pestology, 11(11): 19-20.
11. Patel, R.M. , G.G. Patel and H.N. Vyas, 1967. Further observations on the biology
and control of white grubs (Holotrichia sp. Near consanguinea Blanch) in soil
affecting ground nut in Gujrat. Indian J. Ent., 29 (2): 170-176.
12. Prasad, S.K., 1975. Chemical control of white grub, Lachnosterna consanguinea
Blanch, on ground nut. Indian J. Ent., 37(3) :324-325.
13. Singh, P., R. M. Misra and G. prasad, 1981. Control of semul shoot borer, Tonica
niviferana (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae) in plantations. Indian For., 107 (4): 249-
251.
14. Singh, P., M. Fasih and G. Prasad, 1982. Insect pests of exotic pines in India.
Indian For., 108 (1): 93-107.
15. Vaishampayan, S.M. and R. S. Bhandari, 1981. Chemical control of white grub,
Holotrichia insularis, Blanch, (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) in teak nurseries.
Pestology, 5:15-20

Unit 12: Protection Measure
Unit Structure

12.1 Introduction
12.2 Protection Measure in Nursery
12.3 Preventive Measures for Nursery Disease
12.4 Nursery Pests and their Management
12.5 General Control Measures

After completing this unit you shall be able to:
 Define protection measure in nursery
 Explain nursery disease and their management
 Explain nursery pests and their management
 Explain different control measures
12.1 Introduction
Learners, in the previous units you have studied the nursery, its function, establishment,
kinds of nurseries, tools used in nurseries, nursery administration, tools or equipment used
in nurseries, propagation techniques, etc. You now have a fundamental understanding of
nurseries. Plants produced in nurseries require special attention to ensure their proper
growth, development, and output. In order to understand about care or prevention and
protection, the current unit deals with nursery protection measures, which covers how to
keep the nursery safe from bad weather, disease, insects and general control measures,
etc.

12.2 Protection Measure in Nursery

Climate records from the past and present should be assessed after closely observing the
site's characteristics of the nursery. Plants cultivated in nurseries require special attention
and precautions in order to ensure growth and development of the seedlings. It is
necessary to take prompt and efficient precautions against unfavorable weather
conditions, diseases, insects and pests. The following operations in the nursery must be
carried out to ensure the development of high-quality seedlings:
 Shading: Unfavorable weather conditions i.e., high temperature, heavy rainfall, wind
and frost etc. can affects the nursery crops. It is important to shield recently
developed seedlings from bad weather conditions. Polythene sheets or shade-nets
can be used to provide shade and prevention from such weather conditions.
 Thinning: In order to ensure that the plants receive enough light and air, it is
essential to keep the plant density in rows. Weak, infected, or injured plants are
removed throughout this phase for the better growth and development of healthy
seedlings.
 Watering: A small can should be used to properly water nursery beds. Watering
needs to be done based on each plant's specific requirements after the plants have
been established.
 Weeding: The removal of any undesired plants, or weeds, from the nursery is
referred to as weeding. Because weeds keep the primary plants from competing with
them for nutrients, sunlight, water, and air, regular weed removal promotes the
growth and development of seedlings. Insect pests and microbes that spread illness
also use it as a secondary host. Weeds must therefore be kept out from the nursery
area. The most popular methods for removal of weeds are hand weeding and
harvesting. Prior to emergence herbicides can also be applied right after seed is
sown to eradicate a huge variety of weed species.

 Hardening of seedlings: Before being planted in the main field, seedlings need to
be strengthened out or acclimated, in some shade so they can withstand the severe
open climate. Before transferring seedlings into an open field, hardening is typically
accomplished by introducing them to progressively increasing temperatures.
Avoiding over-hardening the seedlings is necessary.
 Staking: In order prevent plants from bending or lodging, stakes are used to support
their straight growth. This is carried out while the plants are still quite short. The
weight of the stems when in bloom also prevents the plants from being blown over
by wind and rain. Potted plants, grafted plants, and budded plants can all benefit
from it. Plants that are staked most frequently are bamboos. Other than this, the
branches of shrubs and trees, i.e., Neem, Subabool, Phalsa, Eucalyptus, etc., can
also be used for this purpose.
 De-shooting: The process of eliminating all side shoots that emerge from a plant's
base is called de-shooting. Redirecting a plant's energy towards the growth of its
buds or shoots is the primary goal of de-shooting.
 Disbudding: When a big size flower is wanted on a plant, such a dahlia, the
process of disbudding involves removing the flower buds. Retained buds develop
more vigorously and huge flowers because the energy saved by disbudding is
directed towards their growth. With huge flower varieties, it is typically followed. To
get longer stalks with bigger blooms, flowers are disbudded.
 Pinching: As in the case of chrysanthemums, it refers to the removal of vegetative

buds' developing tips in order to encourage bushy growth, greater lateral
development, and early flowering. It involves trimming the plants' 3-5 cm growth tips
when they are 8–10 cm tall, or roughly one month old. Three weeks or so pass after
the initial pinching before the second one occurs. In carnations and marigolds,
pinching is also common.

 Pruning: Pruning is the deliberate elimination of twigs, branches, shoots, limbs, or

roots from plants. Pruning is done to make plants have greater advantages.
12.3 Preventive Measures for Nursery Disease

(i). Damping-off: Nursery plants are vulnerable to this common and deadly disease,
which may even result in dying. Fungi including Pythium, Phytopthora, Rhizoctonia,
and Fusarium are the cause of damping-off, a pre-emergence disease that affects
seedlings. Generally at the time of seed germination, these fungi attack. Girdling
occurs in around of the seedlings' bases in this disease, and the diseased seedlings
collapse as a result of rotting in the collar area. High soil surface moisture content
and humidity, along with dark and hot weather, are favourable conditions for
damping-off when it comes to dense planting. Maintaining a dry soil surface is one of
the finest preventive measures since it contributes to a reduction in planting density
and helps thin out the seedlings, improving aeration. Additional techniques include
treating the nursery bed with formalin at a rate of 2% for soil sterilisation or
solarization, soaking it in copper oxychloride at a rate of 2 g/l, or treating the seeds
at a rate of 3 g/kg for thiram or carbendazim.
(ii). Wilt: Plants frequently have a faded and discoloured appearance. Leaves turned
yellow.
(iii). Leaf spot: Leaves frequently have tiny to large black or brown dots on them.
The symptoms of seedling stress, including as rust, powdery mildew, damping off, wilt, and
root rot, are brought on by pathogen infection and cause the growth of seedlings to be
slowed. These infections can spread by seed, the soil, or the air. The establishment of
nurseries on freshly cleared land rarely attracts parasitic organisms. Seedlings with slow
growth are usually the result of overwatering, planting them in shaded regions, or losing
soil richness.
Pre-treating seeds with fungicide, such as Captan, can suppress the disease and serve as
a preventive strategy by sterilising the nursery mixture. Fungicide can be applied in
accordance with the identification of the unintentional pathogen by the expression of

symptoms, should the disease emerge. Some common nursery diseases were identified in
Table 9, along with prevention strategies.
Table 9. Some common nursery diseases and their control measures

Disease Affected Seedling Control Measures
Species
Wilt, Root Rot, Shisham, Neem, Drenching the soil with Copper oxychloride @ 2g/l
Collar Rot Casuarina, Eucalyptus, or Carbendazim @ 2g/l or by applying
Tomato Trichoderma harzianum.
Leaf Spot Eucalyptus, Pomegranate Spraying mancozeb @ 3g/l or Dithane M 45 or
Fytolan 0.2% or Copper Oxychloride 0.2 %
Leaf Rust Teak, Shisham, Ber Spraying 0.2% Zineb
Spraying 0.2% Wetable sulfer
Leaf Blight Neem, Eucalyptus Spraying Carbendazim 0.2%
Powdery Mildew Teak, Neem, Casuarina Spraying 0.2% Dithane Z-78 or Bordeaux mixture
0.1%
The Management of Integrated Nursery Diseases

 Selecting relatively healthy seeds or propagules for the formation of seedlings
 Mixture of 0.2% carbendazim, methyl thiophanate, benomyl, and thiram in the

seed dressing
 Sowing/planting in clean, fumigated, and sterilized beds with sufficient moisture
 Using sterilized cutting tools, cutters and budding knife for grafting and budding
 Transplanting a seedling after putting it in a 0.02% carbendazim solution for three

to five minutes.
 Maintenance of healthy planting materials by adequate sunlight, watering, and

cleanliness
 Regularly monitoring the health of seedlings and eliminating contaminated stock
 Foliar spraying of 0.2% Dithane M-45 and Carbendazim at regular intervals
12.4 Nursery Pests and their Management

Nursery plants are fragile and vulnerable to damage caused by a variety of insects. The list
of insect pests that infect nursery plants is provided in Table 2.

Table 2. Common insect-pests in nursery and their control measures

Insects Characteristics or symptoms Control
Aphids Small green, brown or black sap-sucking insects, Dimethoate 2 ml/l

which secrete honey dew that attract ants and Neem oil 4–5 ml/l
develop sooty mould
Thrips Tiny black or yellow coloured sap-sucking Dimethoate 2 ml/l
insects, which infest young portions of plants and Neem oil 4–5 ml/l
flowers
Scales Small immobile sucking insects that are covered Dimethoate 2 ml/l
by wax mainly infesting the stems of plants
Mealy Small sucking pests covered by white Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2.5
bugs filamentous hair ml/l
5% Malathion dust @ 25 kg/ha
Mites Microscopic insects on the under surface of Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2.5 ml/l
leaves producing webs and galls Wettable sulphur @ 5 g/l
Leaf miner Leaf mining insect that produces serpentine Triazophos 0.25 ml/l
(snake-like) white shining lines on leaves
Termites Tiny white ants that mainly infest dead parts of Chlorpyrifos 0.3% (active
the plant and stay underground ingredient) emulsion
These insect pests are categorized into three groups: major nursery pests (white grubs,
cutworms, termites, and crickets), minor nursery pests (defoliators, sapsuckers,
grasshoppers) and non-insect pests (nematodes and vertebrate pests). In general,
improved nursery hygiene, the use of appropriate cultural techniques, and the proper
application of chemical and biological pesticides only when necessary can reduce the
impact caused by insects.
(i). White Grubs: While the larval stage of the grub feeds on roots during the monsoon
season, the adult white grubs eat leaves. It is a major problem in the states of Tamil
Nadu, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Teak, and Mango. Some
preventative methods against white grub attacks include deep ploughing, solarizing
the soil, poisoning, and applying light traps. One bed can be sprayed with 200 g of
phorate or 50 ml of chloropyriphos diluted in 50 ml of water. Controlling the adult
population can also be aided by foliar spraying host trees in the nursery area with
0.05% monocrotophos or 0.03% quinalphos.
(ii). Cutworms: It is a feeder of young leaves and quickly causes damage to the young
seedlings following germination. Cutworms preferred seedlings from species such as

Pine, Cedar, Mango, Sapota, and Casuarina. Some preventive techniques for
avoiding cutworm damages are flooding of nursery sites and the gathering of
cutworms following heavy rains. To control the insect, spray the seed bed with a
mixture of quicklime and ash or 1.5% quinalphos.
(iii). Termite: They harm seedlings through a number of methods, including primary
assault (destroying the tap root), secondary attack (attacking again after a draught,
infections, etc.), and complementary attack. As a result of their damage, the
seedlings become weaker and more vulnerable to following pest and disease
attacks. By maintaining the nursery free of wood waste, applying termiticides such
chlorpyriphos, and utilising well-decomposed FYM, the termite attack can be
minimised.
(iv). Crickets: At night, the adult stage crickets and nymphs emerge, cut off all the low
branches and seedlings before dragging the remaining material to their tunnels to
feed the young insects. Crickets frequently damage seedlings of Ficus, Casuarina,
Eucalyptus, Sisham, Teak, Rubber and Mango trees. The insect can be controlled
by deep ploughing during nursery site preparation and applying 200 g phorate or 5%
fenitrothinon dust per bed.
(v). Minor and Non-insect Pests: The minor pests are grasshoppers, sapsuckers
(green leaf hopper, white flies, thrips), and defoliators (beetles, weevils, and
caterpillers). They can be regulated by spraying a formulation of any systemic
insecticide, such as dimethoate 30 EC, or applying a 100 g dose of phorate 10% per
bed. Among the significant non-insect pests include nematodes, rats, squirrels,
hares, deer, mites, and birds. The most effective ways to mitigate damage from
them are to manually scare them, use appropriate fence, and use rodenticides such
zinc phosphide for killing. In addition to disease and pest damage, natural
occurrences such as frost, freezing, drought, fire, and lack of nutrients can also
result in reduced growth or seedling death.

12.5 General Control Measures

The several techniques used to manage different insect pests include:
(i) Mechanical Methods: This involves capturing insects and killing them using various
methods of insect capture.
(ii) Silvicultural Method: Better cleaning, thinning, drainage, and hygiene are all included.
It is best to remove any seedlings that are at risk of disease, wind, fire damage, etc. It is
recommended to cultivate a variety of species to support parasites. Proper weeding and
cleaning of the lower branches will encourage rapid growth in the seedlings developing in
the nursery.
(iii) Biological Methods: Predators and pest parasites are become more prevalent while
using the biological approach of management. It is also advised for insectivorous birders.
Because of knowledge gaps and other limitations, this strategy is challenging to
implement.
(iv) Chemical Control: Insect control involves the use of several chemicals, such as
pesticides and insecticides. Their classification is as follows:
 Contact poison: Lime-sulphur, MIC, Aldrex, Dieldrine, Thimet, Paramor, Termax,

Rogor, Dimecron, Aldrin.
 Stomach poison: Calcium arsenate, Sodium fluride etc.
 Fumigants: Creosote, nepthalene, bordeux mixture etc.
 Systemic insecticides.
Summary
 Climate records from the past and present should be assessed after closely
observing the site's characteristics of the nursery. Plants cultivated in nurseries
require special attention and precautions in order to ensure growth and development
of the seedlings. It is necessary to take prompt and efficient precautions against
unfavorable weather conditions, diseases, insects and pests. The operations i.e.,
shading; thinning; watering; weeding; hardening of seedlings; staking; de-shooting;

disbudding; pinching and pruning must be carried out in the nursery to ensure the
development of high-quality seedlings.
 The symptoms of seedling stress, including as rust, powdery mildew, damping off,
wilt, and root rot, are brought on by pathogen infection and cause the growth of
seedlings to be slowed. These infections can spread by seed, the soil, or the air. The
establishment of nurseries on freshly cleared land rarely attracts parasitic
organisms. Seedlings with slow growth are usually the result of overwatering,
planting them in shaded regions, or losing soil richness. Pre-treating seeds with
fungicide, such as Captan, can suppress the disease and serve as a preventive
strategy by sterilizing the nursery mixture. Fungicide can be applied in accordance
with the identification of the unintentional pathogen by the expression of symptoms,
should the disease emerge.
 These insect pests are categorized into three groups: major nursery pests (white
grubs, cutworms, termites, and crickets), minor nursery pests (defoliators,
sapsuckers, grasshoppers) and non-insect pests (nematodes and vertebrate pests).
In general, improved nursery hygiene, the use of appropriate cultural techniques,
and the proper application of chemical and biological pesticides only when
necessary can reduce the impact caused by insects.
 There are several techniques such as Mechanical Methods, Silvicultural Method,

Biological Methods and Chemical Control will be used to manage different insect
pests.
Check your progress
1. Explain the various protection measures applied in nursery.
2. Explain different nursery disease and their management.
3. Discuss about the nursery insect-pests and their management.
4. Explain different general control measures applied in nursery.
Reference
Ratha Krishnan, P., Rajwant K. Kalia, Tewari, J.C. and Roy, M.M. 2014. Plant Nursery Management:
Principles and Practices. Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, 40p.

Unit 13: Nursery skill development: Field activities

Unit Structure

13.1 Introduction
13.2 Preparation of nursery beds
13.2.1 Exercise
13.3 Sowing of Seeds
13.3.1 Exercise
13.4 Plant Growth Regulators (PGR)
13.4.1 Effect of different plant growth regulators
13.4.2 Seed germination
13.4.3 Vegetative propagation
13.4.4 Exercise
13.5 Mist chambers
13.5.1 Exercise
Summary
References

• understand how to prepare nursery beds
• discuss the procedure of seed sowing
• understand plant growth regulators solution
• discuss the use of mist chambers
• understand the concept of hardening of plants;
13.1 Introduction
Plants are nourished at nurseries under favourable conditions; nursery produces billions of
plants every year. Raising a nursery from seeds offers a simple and practical way to
nourish tender and young seedlings in a well-managed, small and compact area, resulting
in improved seed germination of expensive seeds. Establishing a nursery is a long-term
effort that requires preparation and knowledge. Preparation of nursery beds is very

important factor and sowing is a process of planting seeds into the ground. There are
different methods of sowing and during sowing the seeds must be healthy and free from
infection. Plant growth regulators are those compounds that are organic in nature but are
different from other nutrients. They are used in small amounts and can promote, inhibit or
alter the physiological processes in plants. Mist chamber is a unique structure used in
nursery to provide minimum amount of water to the plants for their growth and
development.
13.2 Preparation of nursery beds

The preparation of nursery beds is very important factor and there are 3 main nursery beds
i.e., flat nursery bed, raised nursery bed and sunken nursery bed. Learners should recall
section 1.4 of unit 1 for quick revision. Below is some exercise that helps you to prepare
different types of nursery beds on the field.
13.2.1 Exercise
Objective: Preparation of nursery beds and sowing of seeds.
Materials required: Digging and hoeing implements, seed, measuring tape, rope and
wooden pegs, organic manures (FYM), mulching material.
Procedure: A nursery beds are of three types
Flat nursery bed
Raised nursery bed
Sunken nursery bed
Flat nursery bed: It is prepared in the spring and summer when there is no chance of rain,
in locations with light sandy to sandy loam soil, and without any issues with water
stagnation. The nursery space is adequately prepared, with the land and well-rotten FYM
ground to a particle size of 10 kg per square meter and well mixed into the soil. The field is
separated using a layout rope and measuring tape into small plots made up of beds that
are all the same size based on what is needed. Each bed has ridges prepared around it to
support the cultural customs. A control irrigation canal is set up between every two rows of
beds, via which every bed is connected.

Raised nursery bed: It is especially helpful for growing seedlings during the rainy season,
when water stagnation can become an issue and lead to disease damping off. A raised
bed that is 10 to 15 cm above the floor is ready. After removing all of the weeds, stones,
pebbles, stumps and other debris from the bed, FYM is mixed into the soil at a rate of 10
kg per square meter. A 45 to 60 cm gap is left between rows to facilitate the easy
execution of cultural acts. In the bed, the seeds are sown in rows.
Sunken nursery bed: During the winter, this kind of bed is prepared and beneficial. The
preparation of this kind of nursery begins 10 to 15 cm below the soil's surface. The cold
breeze of the air does not reach the seedlings in the sunken bed as it blows across the
soil's surface. Moreover, it is simple to cover a sunken bed with polyethylene sheets, which
is necessary to shield the seedlings from chilly air.
Precautions:
1. Nursery bed should be made at proper depth.
2. Prevent nursery beds from overwatering and stress condition.
13.3 Sowing of Seeds

Sowing is a process of planting seeds into the soil or putting seeds into the ground. There
are various methods of seed sowing like broadcasting, line, strip, spot and dibbling
method. During all these nursery operations proper precaution should be followed such as
• maintaining proper distance
• depth
• clean and healthy soil
In section 1.6 of unit 1, this topic is already explained and you can recall it from there. Here
is some exercise based on your knowledge.
13.3.1 Exercise
Objective: Preparation and method of seed sowing in nursery bed
Materials required: Digging and hoeing implements, seed, measuring tape, rope and
wooden pegs, organic manures (FYM), mulching material.

Procedure: Clear the soil of any stones, pebbles, crop leftovers, etc. to get a fine tilth.
Level the ground/bed and break up the clods. Combine FYM@ 3 to 4 kg, 250 g
superphosphate, and 250 g ammonium sulphate per square meter. The seeds are spaced
8 to 10 cm apart and 2 to 4 cm deep. The size of the seeds determines the furrow's depth
(Deeper the furrow, the bigger the seeds). Following seeding, a 3:1 mixture of FYM and
coarse sand should be applied to the seeds. After mulching the seed beds as needed,
level the bed and add water. It is best to avoid overwatering because too much moisture
promotes the growth of root rot.
In situ sowing: When seeds are sown directly in the field, grafting and budding are done
there as well. This technique is known as "in situ sowing." It is especially crucial for some
fruits with long tap roots, such as jackfruit, walnuts, and pecan nuts. It is possible to
prevent harm to tap roots during plant transplantation or uprooting from nurseries by using
in situ sowing. Similarly, in situ orchard establishment is advised for high density planting
of Amrapali mango.
Precautions:
1. The seed source needs to be reliable and authentic.
2. Depending on the size of the seed, the depth of planting should be carefully
determined.
13.4 Plant Growth Regulators (PGR)

Plant growth regulators are
natural or synthetic compounds
that affect metabolic and
developmental processes in
higher plants, even at low
concentrations (Fig. 1). These
are organic compounds other
than nutrients that promote,
inhibit or otherwise modify any
Fig. 1: Plant growth regulators
physiological process in plant.

The naturally occurring growth substances are commonly known as plant hormones, while
the synthetic ones are called growth regulators. Auxin, Gibberellins, Cytokinins, Ethylene
and Abscissic acid are the main plant growth regulators. Plant growth regulators are useful
for propagation of plants, seed germination, control of plant size, regulate flowering, control
sex expression and fruit drop, prevent sprouting and early ripening and development of
fruit colour.
The quantitative increase in plant body such as increase in the length of stem and root,
number of leaves is referred to as plant growth, whereas, the qualitative changes such as
germination of seed, formation of leaves, flowers and fruits, falling of leaves and fruits is
referred as development of plant. The growth and development of the plant is controlled by
two main internal factors i.e., nutrition and hormone. The raw material required for growth
is supplied by nutritional factors which include the minerals, protein and carbohydrates.
Utilization of nutritional factors for proper development of the plant is regulated by certain
“chemical messengers” called as plant growth substances or plant growth regulators.
These plant growth regulators are used in minute amounts, increases or decreases or
modify the physiological process in the plants.
13.4.1 Effect of different plant growth regulators

Auxin helps in Apical dominance, cell expansion, shoot and root growth, parthenocarpy,
tropism while gibberellins promote cell growth, flower induction, fruit set and development,
seed development, germination and parthenocarpy. Cytokinins helps in cell division, anti-
ageing or anti-senescence effect, anti-stress effect and gall or nodule formation and
ethylene controls senescence, fruit ripening, abscission and environmental stress. The last
growth regulator helps in seed development, growth control, water stress and abscission.
13.4.2 Seed germination

The process in which seed begins to grow and
eventually develops into a seedling. Water,
gases, nutrients, temperature and light are the
basic requirements for seed germination (Fig.
Fig. 2: Phases of seed germination
2). Seed germination is of two types: Epigeal

and Hypogeal and has 3 phases; imbibition, lag phase and mobilization of reserve
food.
13.4.3 Vegetative propagation

Propagation of plants involves the formation and development of new individuals, which
are used in establishment of new plantings. Two methods are employed in propagation
i.e., sexual and asexual. Vegetative propagation is also called as asexual propagation, it is
the multiplication of a plant through some vegetative parts and used cuttings, layering, and
grafting.
Let’s do some exercise for the preparation of different plant growth regulator solutions and
their methods of application.
13.4.4 Exercise
Objective: Preparation and application of plant growth regulator solutions for seed
germination and vegetative propagation.
Materials Required: Plant growth regulator(s), measuring cylinder, volumetric flask,

beaker(s), electronic balance, distilled water.
Procedure: Making the growth regulator solution: Parts per million, or ppm, is the unit of
measurement used to determine the strength of growth regulators. One litter of water has
1.0 mg of the chemical dissolved in one ppm. The necessary amount of growth regulator
should be weighed, then transferred to a beaker and dissolved with a little amount of
solvent. Auxins can dissolve in 0.1% NaOH or alcohol. While cytokinins can dissolve in 1-2
ml of N/10 HCl, gibberellins are soluble in pure alcohol. In NaOH, abscisic acid dissolves
quite easily. Until the chemical or growth regulator is completely dissolved, shake the
beaker. Now pour it into a volumetric flask and use distilled water to reach the desired final
volume of one liter. One should prepare a new solution for each use. The formula below is
used to convert hormonal strength.
1. Percent solution = ppm /10,000
2. ppm solution = % x 10000

Preparation of hormonal powder: The necessary amount of hormone is carefully

weighed using a delicate balance in order to prepare hormonal powder. It is dissolved in a
beaker containing ½ liter of ethanol, methanol, or acetone. Using a glass rod, thoroughly
mix one kg of talc that has been placed in a mortar. The combination is mixed and then left
out in the open for a few hours. The alcohol will soon evaporate, and the talc that has dried
will then be crushed into a fine powder. This fine powder can be used as needed and
should be stored in airtight containers to prevent moistening.
Preparation of hormonal paste: The necessary amount of hormone is precisely weighed

and fully dissolved in a few drops of alcohol to prepare hormonal pastes. Weighing out the
necessary amount of lanolin (wool fat, a substance that resembles grease and has a
greenish-yellow tint), we gently heat it in a beaker over low heat. The dissolved hormone is
put into the lanolin once it has softened a little. Using a glass rod, the mixture is thoroughly
dissolved while being stirred continuously. The mixture is given time to cool. The paste can
now be used. The paste can be stored for a few months in a cold, dry area until needed,
but it is best to use fresh paste.
Method of application of growth regulators: Growth regulators work best when applied
in a certain way and at a specific concentration. The most popular and efficient rooting
hormone is auxin. It has been discovered that IBA and NAA are the most successful
synthetic auxins at promoting roots. The following are the many techniques used to treat
cuts and layers:
1. Prolonged soaking method: Using this technique, cuttings' basal ends are
immersed in the hormone's diluted solution for a full day in a cool, dry
environment. 16 hormone or growth regulator concentrations typically range from
20 ppm to 200 ppm, depending on the style of cutting and the species of plant.
Cuttings are planted in growth media after treatment. In growth media, the
concentration is often little. For species that are simple to root, the concentration is
typically low, and vice versa. This technique, which also uses vitamins,
carbohydrates, and nitrogenous chemicals in addition to growth regulators to aid in
rooting, is highly helpful for species that are challenging to root.

2. Quick dip method: Depending on the species to be propagated, the basal end of
cuttings in this procedure are dipped in a concentrated hormone solution for a brief
period of time, typically 5 to 2 minutes. The field or rooting medium is planted with
treated cuttings. Depending on the species and type of cutting, the hormone
concentration for the rapid dip approach can range from 500 to 10,000 ppm;
however, 3000 to 5000 ppm is typically employed.
3. Powders dip method: Additionally, basal ends of cuttings are dipped in the
hormonal powder (talc) in this procedure, which transports the hormones for a
while. Cuttings should be treated, any excess powder that sticks to them should be
shaken off, and then they should be placed right into the rooting medium. Cutting
ends should be wet before treatment for optimal rooting, and any excess powder
that sticks to the cuttings should be brushed off to prevent negative effects on the
rooting process. Powder forms of Seradix, Rootex, and numerous more formulas
are sold on the market.
4. Lanolin paste method: The growth regulator paste created with lanolin is applied
to the girdled part of a layer or faeces, as explained under the creation of
hormonal paste, to induce roots in them.
5. Spray method: Sometimes mother plants are sprayed with growth regulators
before to cuttings being taken from them. About 30 to 40 days prior to taking
cuttings from stock plants, 2,4,5-T is sprayed on them at concentrations ranging
from 25 to 100 ppm. Cuttings from these plants root more readily than cuttings
from untreated plants.
Precaution:
1. Start by looking at the hormone powder's expiration date.

2. The weight should be taken precisely, ideally using an electronic balance.
3. To prevent precipitation, use the appropriate solvent.
4. Store hormones in a dry, cool place as they will degrade in high temperatures.
5. As hormones are photosensitive, they need to be kept in dark or amber-colored
containers.
6. Apply lanolin paste to layers and hormonal solutions to cuttings.

7. Fresh solutions ought to be made. If required use refrigerators to store for some
time.
8. To prevent the solution from being removed from the cutting's basal end, the
treated cuttings should be planted with the assistance of a stick to create a hole.
13.5 Mist chambers

This is a unique structure in a nursery where leafy soft-wood cuttings are successfully
propagated. Many shrubs and plants that are challenging to root effectively root in mist.
The idea is to use as little water as possible to spray the cuttings in order to keep the
appropriate amount of humidity. The simplest way to accomplish this is to spray the
cuttings intermittently-that is, in short, frequent bursts-as opposed to continuously. When
combined with a time switch and a high-pressure pump, this kind of sporadic spraying is
simple to accomplish. Cuttings can be raised in a mist chamber year-round, with the sole
exception of December to January in northern India and April to May in eastern India. It is
feasible to raise cuttings all year round in southern India. This topic was well explained in
section 1.8 of unit 2, learners can refer it for additional information. Exercise on use of mist
chamber for propagation and hardening of plants is given below:
13.5.1 Exercise
Objective: Use of mist chamber for propagation and hardening of plants.
Materials required: Mist chamber, cuttings, secateurs, hormone solution and sand.
Procedure: Mist propagation units are used to propagate cuttings that are hard to root.
Misting is primarily used to provide a constant layer of water on the leaves by minimizing
transpiration and maintaining the cuttings turgid until they begin to root. The misting is
managed by a time clock that operates a magnetic solenoid value. It is programmed to turn
on the mist for three to five seconds to moisten the leaves, then to turn off for a while. The
mist is then turned back on after the leaves have dried. There are typically five ways that
mist is controlled:
Timer: A mist unit uses two different kinds of timers: one that runs in the morning and
shuts off at night, and another that runs during the day to create a sporadic mist, often
lasting 60 seconds on and 90 seconds off.

Electronic leaf: When cuttings and a plastic with two terminals are submerged in a mist,
the terminals' alternating drying and wetting cuts off the current, which in turn regulates the
solenoid value.
Thermostat: The temperature of mist is controlled by using thermostat.
Screen balance: It is comprised of a stainless-steel screen fastened to a mercury switch

lever. The mercury switch is tripped when there is an excessive amount of weight, and the
mist is controlled on the screen.
Photoelectric cell: It is based on the relationship between light intensity and transpiration
rate.
Hardening of plants in mist chamber: For improved field survival, the rooted cuttings
must be hardened after rooting in the mist. Misting shouldn't stop abruptly after cuttings
have rooted because this could cause young plants to dry out from burning. The weaving
off method, which keeps misting while progressively reducing the amount of sprays, ought
to be used. It can be achieved by shortening the "On" period and lengthening the "Off"
period. Moving the rooted cuttings to a greenhouse, fog chamber, or frames kept at a
warmer temperature and lower relative humidity is an additional method. Hardening should
be done in phased manner so that rooted cuttings are planted at permanent locations.
Precautions:
1. A steady supply of water ought to be available.
2. Hard and alkaline water should be avoided since it clogs the nozzles; water with a
pH of 5.5 to 6.5 is ideal.
3. Aeration of rooting media should be enough.
4. Prevent the growth of blue green algae in the mist chamber.
Summary
In this unit, we have discussed about preparation of different types of nursery beds and
seed sowing methods. This unit also covers the concept and importance of plant growth
regulators for the growth and development of plants raised in nursery. Seed germination
and vegetative propagation was also discussed in this unit. Seed germination is a process

in which seed starts growing into seedling while vegetative propagation means
multiplication of a plant through some vegetative parts. Different exercises based on these
topics were also discussed. This unit describes about mist chambers and their use for
propagation and hardening of plants. Overall, this unit summarizes all the practical
exercises that shall be done in the field for the proper management of the nursery.
Terminal Questions
1. How raised nursery beds are prepared?
2. Briefly explain the steps used for the preparation of flat and sunken beds.
3. How seed sowing is done?
4. What do you understand by the term plant growth regulators.
5. How plant growth regulators affect the development of plants?
6. Explain seed germination and vegetative propagation.
7. How hormonal powder and paste are prepared?
8. Briefly explain the method of application of growth regulators.
9. Explain mist chambers and its use in nursery.
10. How mist chambers are used for hardening of plants?
Answers to Terminal Questions
1. see section 13.2.1
4. see section 13.4
6. see section 13.4.2 and 13.4.3
9. see section 13.5

References
1. Kaul, R.N. and B.N. Ganguly. (1963). Studies on the economics of raising nursery
seedlings in the arid zones. Annals of Arid Zone. 1 (2).
3. Schnelle, M.A., Cole, J.C., Dole, J.M. (1914). In: Mist Propagation Systems and
Humidity Chambers for the Nursery and Greenhouse. Oklahoma Cooperative
Extension Service. Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources,
Oklahoma State University.
4. Singh, B.K., Thakur, N., Prakash, O., Singh, A. (2024). Practical E-manual. In:
Plant Propagation and Nursery Management. Banda University of Agriculture and
Technology Banda, Uttar Pradesh.

Unit 14: Nursery Skill Development: Field Activities
Unit Structure
14.0. Learning Objectives

14.1 Introduction
14.2. Patterns of sowing
14.3 Spacing
14.4 Quantity of seed requirement
Summary
14.0. Learning Objectives

After studying this unit, you should be able:
 To have basic understanding of pattern of showing
 To understand spacing requirement in a nursery
 To understand about the quantity of seed requirements in a nursery.
14.1 Introduction
Forest nursery is an area where plants are raised for eventual planting out; has ordinarily
both seedlings and transplants (Anon, 1966). Seedlings are young plants obtained from
seed sowing. These young plants can be about one meter in height. Transplants are
seedlings which have transferred from one bed to another to make the seedlings suitable
for planting. Seedlings, transplants and other planting material e.g. rooted cuttings etc.
together are generally called planting stock. The selection of site from nursery is influenced
by several factors i.e. Central location, Accessibility, topography, soil condition, water,
labour and management, vegetation and Aspect and altitude etc.
14.2. Patterns of sowing

The seeds are sown in beds, polythene bags or in any other containers. The assed can be
sown by (i) Dibbling, (ii) Drilling or (iii) Broadcast methods etc.

Dibbling- Dibbling is the process of placing seeds in holes at definite depth and fixed
spacing made in seedbed and covering them. This method is also known as line sowing
method. The equipment used is called Dibbler contains a conical instrument used to make
proper holes in the field. Small hand dibblers are made with several conical projections
made in a frame.
Drilling– Drilling consists of dropping the seeds in furrow lines in a continuous flow and
covering them with soil. This method is very helpful in achieving proper depth, proper
spacing and proper amount of seed to be sown in the field. In agriculture, most seed is
now sown using a seed drill, which offers greater precision; seed is sown evenly and at the
desired rate.
Broadcasting: It is the process of random scattering of seed on the surface of seedbeds.

In broadcasting system higher seed rate is obtained.
Sowing seed behind the plough: It is a frequent practice in communities, where, a man
puts seeds into the furrow. Hal is an instrument that allows you to sow behind the plough.
It comprises of a bamboo tube with a funnel-shaped mouth. One man drops the seeds via
the funnel, while the other man manages the plough and bullocks.
Hill Dropping: This method involves dropping seeds at a set spacing rather than in a
continuous stream. Unlike drilling, this approach maintains a steady space between plants
in a row.
Check row planting: This planting strategy ensures a consistent space between rows and
plants. This approach involves planting seeds exactly along straight parallel furrows. The
rows are always in two perpendicular directions. Check row planter is used to check row
planting.
Transplanting– Transplanting consists of preparing seedlings and then planting these

seedlings in the prepared field. It is commonly known planting method. Transplanter is
used for placing plants in the soil.
 Planting is the activity of arranging planting material in the form of seeds

or seedlings on planting media, both soil and non-soil media, in a pattern as the first
step in plant cultivation.

 The percentage of growth can be used to calculate tthe success of

planting activities. The percentage of living plants compared to the total number of
plants planted on cultivated land is known as the growth percentage.
 A cropping pattern is an effort to plant on a plot of land by arranging the layout and
order of plants for a specific period of time, including tillage and periods of not being
planted.
Line planting: In line planting, plants are planted at some spacing in lines. Thus, the
planted plants form rectangles.

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐦
Number of plants/ha=
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬 𝐗 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬
Square planting:
planting This system is considered to be the simplest of all the system and is
plot is divided into squares and tree seedlings are
adopted widely. In this system, the plot
planted at the four corners of the square, in straight rows running at right angles.
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐦
Number of plants/ ha =
(𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞)𝟐
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞

12
Triangular planting: In this planting pattern plants are planted at equilateral triangles i.e.
with plants occupying in three corners of each adjacent equilateral triangles.

(𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐦) 𝐗 𝟏.𝟏𝟓𝟓

Number of plants/ha =
(𝐏𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞)𝟐
Quincunx planting: This system of planting is similar to square system, except that a fifth
tree seedling is planted at the centre of each square. As a result the tree number in a unit
tree in the
area becomes almost double the number in the square system. The additional tree
centre is known as “filler”. The fillers are usually quick growing and early maturing.
𝟐 𝐗 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐦)
Number of plants/ ha. =
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐫𝐨𝐰 𝐨𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐧
Exercise-1
Objective: To determine number of plants in 10 hectares of plantation under different

planting pattern with spacing of:
(a) 2 x 8 meter (b) 2.5x2.5 m
(c) In triangular pattern 3.5

.5 m apart .5 with a plant in center of each square
(d) 3.5 x 3.5

Requirement: Measuring tape, field book, notepad etc.
Principle: Number of plants required per hectare under different planting patterns can be
calculated by the formulae given below (Kumar, 2011), but in actual practice 10 to 20% of
plants have to be arranged extra for providing mortality of plants in extraction from nursery,
transport to the planting site or at the time of planting.
Methods:
(a) In Line planting with spacing of 2x8 m

𝟏𝟎 𝐗 (𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝐦)
Number of plants in 10 ha. =
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬 𝐗 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐛𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐬
Number of plants = = 6,250 plants
(b) In Square planting with spacing of 2.5x2.5 m

( )
Number of plants in 10 ha = = 16,000 plants
. .
(c) In triangular pattern with 3.5 m spacing

( ) .
. .
(d) Quincunx planting with 3. 5 x 3.5m spacing with a plant in center square
( )
Number of plants in 10 ha = . .
= 16,326 plants
Results: Estimated number of plants in 10 ha area for line planting is 6,250 plants,
square planting 16,000 plants, for triangular planting 9,428 plants and quincunx planting
16,326 plants.
Exercise-2
Objective: To determine number of plants in 16 hectares of plantation under different

planting pattern with spacing of:
(a) 4x5 meter (b) 5x5 m
(c) In triangular pattern 4 m apart (d) 2 x 2 with a plant in center of each square

Principle: Number of plants required per hectare under different planting patterns can be
calculated by the formulae given below (Kumar, 2011), but in actual practice 10 to 20% of
plants have to be arranged extra for providing mortality of plants in extraction from nursery,
transport to the planting site or at the time of planting.
Line planting:
Square planting:
Number of plants/ ha = ( )
Triangular planting:
( ) .
( )
Quincunx planting:
( )
Number of plants/ ha. =
Methods:
(a) In Line planting with spacing of 4x5 m
Number of plants = = 8,000 plants
(b) In Square planting with spacing of 4x4 m

( )
(c) In triangular pattern with 4.0 m spacing

( ) .
(d) Quincunx planting with 2 x 2m spacing with a plant in center of each square

( )
Results: Estimated number of plants in 10 ha area for line planting is 8,000 plants,
square planting 10,000 plants, for triangular planting 11,550 plants and quincunx
planting 80,000 plants.
14.3 Spacing
Actual spacing varies with species, site, and the purpose of the forest plantation. In
fuelwood plantations, for example, one might prefer closer spacing’s than employed in
other kinds of plantations. Seldom can a spacing of less than 3 x 3 meters be applied,
however. Aside from aesthetics, proper plant spacing is essential for long-term plant
health. When plants are close together, they compete for water, nutrients, and light.
Crowded plants frequently fail to blossom due to insufficient nourishment or a lack of light
reaching the shaded branches.
Proper plant spacing also promotes adequate air circulation around plants, aiding in the
fight against plant diseases. Many disease pathogens need a damp or humid environment
to thrive. In densely packed plantings, restricted ventilation prevents moisture from
evaporating from leaf surfaces, increasing the risk of foliar diseases. Proper plant spacing
improves air circulation and helps avoid fungal diseases in the garden.
Spacing of a given number of plants planted in various patterns can be calculated by the
following formula following Kumar, 2011:
Square planting:
Spacing = = meter square
Rectangular planting:

.
Quincunx planting:
Exercise - 3
Objective: Determined the spacing of 4000 plants/ha raised on different planting pattern:
1) Square planting pattern.
2) Spacing of plants in row is 2 meter
3) Spacing of plants in row is in triangular pattern
4) Spacing of plants in Quincunx pattern

Principle and Method: Spacing of a given number of plants planted in various patterns
can be calculated by the following formula following Kumar, 2011:
Square planting:
.
Quincunx planting:

Results:
Square planting:
Spacing = = =√2.5 =1.58 m2
Spacing = =
=1.12 m2
. .
Spacing = = =√2.89 =1.70 m2
Quincunx planting:
Spacing = = =√5 = 2.24 m2
Conclusion: Spacing of plants in square planting is 1.58 m2, Rectangular planting is 1.12
m2, Triangular planting is 1.70 m2 and Quincunx planting is 2.24 m2.
14.4 Quantity of seed requirement

Seeds are most important component for raising the nursery and development of field
plantation. The approximate amount of seeds will be helpful for raising the plantations in a
required area. A rough estimate of the quantity of seeds that will be required for sowing in
a specified bed as given above. Weight of the required seeds can be calculated with the
following formula:
𝑨𝑿𝑫
W= X 100
𝑷𝑿𝑵
Where W=weight of seeds required A=Area of nursery bed (m2)

P=Plant percent of species D= number of plants required per m2
N=Number of seeds per gram

Exercise-4
Objective: Calculate the quantity of Teak seeds required for a nursery bed of 5 x 3.5 m,
which are to be sown at a distance of 25 x 25 cm. The viability of the seeds is 90 per cent
and number of seeds per gram is 30.
Requirement: Seeds, Measuring tape, field book, notepad etc.
Principle: Seeds are most important component for raising the nursery and development
of field plantation. The approximate amount of seeds will be helpful for raising the
plantations in a required area. A rough estimate of the quantity of seeds that will be
required for sowing in a specified bed as given above.
Method: Weight of the required seeds can be calculated with the following formula:
𝑨𝑿𝑫
W= X 100
𝑷𝑿𝑵
Calculation:
A= Area of nursery bed = 5 x 3.5 or 17.5 m2
D= Number of plant required / m2 = the distance is 25 x 25 cm or 625 cm2, thus in 1m2
a total of 16 plants will be raised.
P= Plant percent of species= 90
N= Number of seeds per gram = 30
.
Putting these values in formula we get: W= = X 100= 10.07g
Result: Calculated quantity of Teak seeds required for a nursery bed of 5 X 3.5m is
10.07g. For broad cast sowing in nursery, the quantity of seeds calculated is multiplied by
six and for drill sowing the quantity is doubled. Generally broadcast sowing is done for
minute seed for example Eucalyptus, Poplar etc.
Exercise-5
Objective: Plantation of Shorea robusta is to be done in an area of 20 hectare with a

spacing of 5 X 5m. The plant per cent is 80 and number of seeds per gram is 10. About
300 extra seeds are required to cover germination as well as plant failure. Calculate the
quantity of seeds required in kg.

Principle: Seeds are most important component for raising the nursery and development
of field plantation. The approximate amount of seeds will be helpful for raising the
plantations in a required area.
Method: The amount of seed for sowing a particular size of plot can be determined as:
𝒏𝑿 𝑨
Quantity of seed (kg) = 125 X +C
𝑷𝑿𝑾
Where W= number of seeds per kg A=Area (ha) of plantation

P=Plant percent of species n= number of seedlings to be planted per ha
C= extra quantity to cover germination failure of some seeds.
Calculation:
The spacing of plant is 5 x 5 m or 25m2 in 1 ha (100 X 100m)
Total plants may be raised= 400 plants
A= Area of plantation = 20 hectare
n= Number of seedlings to be planted / ha 400
P= Plant percent of species= 80
W= Number of seeds per kg = 10x1000=10000 seeds
C= Extra quantity to cover germination failure of some seeds= 300
Putting these values in formula we get: W=125 X =
125 X + 300 =301.25 kg
Result: 200.98 kg seeds of Shorea robusta required for the plantation of 20 hectare area.
Summary
Forest nursery is an area where plants are raised for eventual planting out; has ordinarily
both seedlings and transplants. Seedlings are young plants obtained from seed sowing.
Transplanting consists of preparing seedlings and then planting these seedlings in the
prepared field. It is commonly known planting method. Planting may be done following
Line, Triangular, Square and Quincunx planting pattern.

Terminal Question
1. Discuss Pattern of showing?
2. Determine number of plants in 2 hectares of plantation under different planting

pattern with spacing of :
(a) 2 x 4 meter (b) 2x2 m
(c) In triangular pattern 2.5 m apart (d) 1.5 x 1.5 with a plant in center of
each square
References
1. Kumar V., 2011. Nursery and Plantation Practices in Forestry IInd edision.
Scientific publishers (India), Jodhpur, Rajesthan.

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UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY

BLOCK 1: NURSERY MANAGEMENT

Unit 1: Nursery Management-I

1.0 Learning Objectives

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 1

1.0 Learning Objectives

• understand the concept and importance of nursery;

• discuss the factors considered for selection of the nursery sites;

• understand the development of nursery sites;

• discuss the size of nursery and seedbed;

• describe sowing, methods and timing of seed sowing;

• outline the concept of shading and watering.

1.2 Importance of Nursery

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 2

v. It becomes simple to manipulate the growing conditions for plants.

x. In nursery, controlling weeds, diseases, and insect pests is easy.

The demand for high quality planting

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1.3 Pre-requisite factors considered for selection of the nursery site

1.3.2 Topography of land

1.3.5 Soil and Soil Fertility

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3. They dry up sooner after rains.

5. Just like heavy soils, sandy soils flooded easily.

1.3.6 Water Supply

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1.3.10 Protection from animals

1.3.11 Market needs

Check your progress

1. What do you understand by the term nursery?

2. Briefly explain the importance of the nursery in the field of forestry.

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1.4 Nursery sites and area

1.4.1 Development of Nursery Site

ii. Layout of water distribution system.

iii. Size of sub divisions of nursery area.

iv. Location of roads and paths, wind breaks.

1.4.2 Site Preparation

1.4.3 Size of the Nursery

i. The number of seedlings to be produced.

ii. Age of seedlings or transplants at the time of planting out.

iii. Number of transplanting to be done for a particular species.

UTTARAKHAND OPEN UNIVERSITY Page 7

iv. Area of plantation to be taken up and spacing used in plantation.

1.4.4 Preparation of Beds

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1.4.5 Size of Beds

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1.6.1 Methods of seed sowing

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1.6.1.2 Line sowing

Sowing in Lines or drill sowing is done in predetermined intervals in lines or drills

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1.6.1.3 Strip Sowing

1.6.1.4 Spot Sowing

1.6.2 Precautions taken during seed sowing and planting

i. The seeds must be healthy and free from infection.

iii. The seeds must be sown at the right depth.