Teacher notes

Representing equivalent quantities:

9 exponentials and logarithms
Essential understandings
Algebra is an abstraction of numerical concepts and employs variables which allow us to solve
mathematical problems. Models are depictions of real-life events using expressions, equations or
graphs while a function is defined as a relation or expression involving one or more variables.
Creating different representations of functions to model the relationships between variables,
visually and symbolically as graphs, equations and tables represents different ways to
communicate mathematical ideas
Content-specific conceptual understandings
This chapter leads to the following content-specific conceptual understandings listed in the subject
guide:

• Numbers and formulas can appear in different, but equivalent, forms, or representations,
which can help us to establish identities
• Logarithm laws provide the means to find inverses of exponential functions which model
real-life situations.
• Different representations of functions, symbolically and visually as graphs, equations and
tables provide different ways to communicate mathematical relationships
• The parameters in a function or equation correspond to geometrical features of a graph
and can represent physical quantities in spatial dimensions
• Moving between different forms to represent functions allows for deeper understanding
and provides different approaches to problem solving
• The derivative may be represented physically as a rate of change and geometrically as the
gradient or slope function

We have taken these suggested content-specific conceptual understanding statements and, as

recommended in the Teacher Support Manual, developed our own conceptual understandings.
Students are led step-by-step through the investigations to arrive at one or more of these
conceptual understandings:

Conceptual understandings Investigation

Exponential functions can model real-life situations between two Investigation 2
variables that exhibit constant percentage change.

The parameters of exponential functions transform the function by Investigation 3

altering the asymptotes, the range, the rate of growth or decay, and
its intercepts.

Logarithms represent inverse functions of the exponential functions Investigation 5, 6

and can solve problems with unknown bases.

Different bases can be used to represent equivalent values in Investigation 7

different ways.

Two or more combinations of logarithms with the same base may be Investigation 8
reduced to a single logarithm.

The gradient function of the exponential function with base e maps Investigation 9
onto itself.

Syllabus sections covered in this chapter:

• SL1.5*
• SL1.7
• SL2.9
• SL2.10
• SL5.6

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 Teacher notes

Cognitive academic language proficiency

The academic language used in this chapter is listed as "microconcepts" at the start of the chapter.
Moreover, when specific terminology is introduced it is defined clearly and then used in context to
deepen students’ understanding.

Cognitive activators
The stimulus questions, developing inquiry skills, before you start activities, investigations and
modelling activities are cognitive activators. They get students ready to learn and engage with the
subject, providing opportunities for collaborative and peer-to-peer learning, and to develop of
inquiry, investigative and modelling skills.

Digital resources

Prior learning Animated worked GDC skills and Additional

support example support exercises

Page 400: Example 4

Page 395:
Page 408: Example 7 Page 402: Example 5
Exponential Pages 406, 420, 424
Page 420: Example 17 Page 403: Example 6
expressions
Page 423: Example 18

Assessment opportunities

End of chapter test Mixed review exercise Exam practice

Page 425 Page 426 Page 426

9.1 Exponents
Investigation 1

1 21 = 2 22 = 4 23 = 8 24 = 16 25 = 32 26 = 64

27 = 128 28 = 256 29 = 512 210 = 1024 211 = 2048 212 = 4096

2 The last digit repeats in the pattern 2, 4, 8, 6 as the power of 2 increases.

3 8192, 16384, 32768, 65536.
4 Find the remainder when n is divided by 4.

When the remainder is 1, the last digit of 2n is 2.

When the remainder is 2, the last digit of 2n is 4.

When the remainder is 3, the last digit of 2n is 8.

When the remainder is 0, the last digit of 2n is 6.

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 Teacher notes

5 a 6 b 2 c 8
The size of each of these numbers will be too big for most calculators to show the whole
number. You may be able to use computer software to check your answer!
6 An exponent, or power, tells you how many times a number is multiplied by itself.
7 You can write a number in exponential form if the number is equal to a certain base, raised to a
power. For example, you can write 8 in exponential form as 23 .

am
Reflect: How could you use both = am − n the result above to write x − p in terms of x p .
an

Answer: You could write:

x − p = x 0− p
x0 am
= = p
since n am − n
x a
1
= p since x 0 = 1
x

TOK
The phrase “exponential growth” is used popularly to describe a number of phenomena.

Do you think that using mathematical language can distort understanding?

Answer: How does exponential growth in mathematics differ from its use in English?

Is language an inadequate vehicle for expressing everything we can experience and think?

Investigation 2
Conceptual understanding:
Exponential functions can model real-life situations between two variables that exhibit constant
percentage change.
1 Time (x) 9am 9:30am 10am 10:30am 11am 11:30am 12noon

Thousands of 1 2 4 8 16 32 64
cells (y)

2 64 000

3
4 There are 50 000 cells at approximately 11:50.

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 Teacher notes

5 Conceptual: What is exponential growth or decay?

Answer: Exponential growth (or decay) is the increase (or decrease) between two variables
that exhibit constant percentage change.
6 Conceptual: How do exponential functions model real-world problems and their solutions?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): Exponential functions can model real-
life situations between two variables that exhibit constant percentage change.

Investigation 3
Conceptual understanding:
The parameters of exponential functions transform the function by altering the asymptotes, the
range, the rate of growth or decay, and its intercepts.

1
2 All three have asymptote y = 0

3 All three intersect at y = 1, because any base to the power of zero is 1.

4 For all three: x ∈ 
,y > 0

5 Conceptual: What effect does the value of the base have on the graph of an exponential
function?
Answer: For an exponential function, the value of the base determines the scale factor of
the vertical stretch.

7 a y = 2x is translated vertically up 2 units to map onto y = 2 x +2.

b y = 2x is translated horizontally, 2 units to the left, to map onto y = 2 x +2 .

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 Teacher notes

8
9 They have the same domain, range, y-intercept and asymptote.

10 y = a− x and y = ax are reflections of one another in the y-axis.

11 Factual: If y = 2x is the parent function, copy and complete this table to summarize your
findings about the parameters of an exponential function.
Answer:
Function Transformation of the parent function

y = a2 x Vertical stretch; scale factor a

y = 2ax 1
Horizontal stretch; scale factor
a

y = 2 x +b Vertical translation; b units up

y = 2x +c Horizontal translation; c units left

y = 2− x Reflection in the line x = 0 (the y-axis)

y = −2x Reflection in the line y = 0 (the x-axis)

12 Conceptual: How do the parameters of exponential functions affect the graph of the function?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): The parameters of exponential
functions transform the function by altering the asymptotes, the range, the rate of growth or
decay, and its intercepts

Investigation 4
1 Completed table:
1 2
2 2.25
3 2.37037
4 2.44140
5 2.48832
10 2.59374
100 2.70481
1000 2.71692
10000 2.71815
100000 2.71827

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 Teacher notes

3 y = 2.71827
x
 1
4 2.718 (to 3 d.p.)
lim 1 +  =
x →∞
 x

5 0

6 a = 2.718...

Developing inquiry skills

In Investigation 2 earlier in the chapter you looked at bacteria growing in a Petri dish.
At 9 am there were 1000 bacteria present.
Using the mathematics you have learned in this chapter, write down an expression for N, the
number of bacteria cells present t hours after 9 am.
Use this to find the time at which the number of bacteria cells reaches 64 000.

N 10 × 2t
Answer: =

= 10000 × 2t ⇒ =
64000 26 2t

When t = 6 hours, i.e. at 15:00

9.2 Logarithms
Investigation 5
Conceptual understanding:
Logarithms represent inverse functions of the exponential functions and can solve problems with
unknown bases.

1
2 x ∈ ,y >  
0; y =
0

3 x > 0, y ∈ ;x =
0

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 Teacher notes

4 Factual: What does the line y = x tell you about the functions f and g? Explain your reasoning.
Answer: The functions are inverses of each other, as they are reflections in the line y = x.
5 Factual: What is the relationship between exponents and logarithms?
Answer: Exponents and logarithms are inverses of each other.
6 Conceptual: What is the relationship between exponents and logarithms?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): Logarithms represent inverse functions
of the exponential functions and can solve problems with unknown bases.
7 Conceptual: How could you use the domain and range of an exponential function to state the
domain and range of any log function?
Answer: The domain of a log function is the range of an exponential function, i.e. x > 0

The range of a log function is the domain of an exponential function, i.e. y ∈ 

8 Factual: What graph do you get when you reflect the graph of f ( x ) = ax in the line y = x?

Answer: You obtain the graph of g ( x ) = loga x

Investigation 6
Conceptual understanding:
Logarithms represent inverse functions of the exponential functions and can solve problems with
unknown bases.
1 100 = 1 1og101 = 0

101 = 10 1og1010 = 1

102 = 100 1og10100 = 2

103 = 1000 1og101000 = 3

104 = 10000 1og1010000 = 4

105 = 100000 1og10100000 = 5

106 = 1000000 1og101000000 = 6

2 Conceptual: Using the table above, describe how the same information can be conveyed in
both exponential form and log form.
Answer: A logarithm is an exponent which, when raised to the base, tells you the number.

3 1og2 8 = 3

4 1ogac = b

5 52 = 25

6 Conceptual: How are logarithms and exponents different representations of the same
quantity? why is it useful to be able to move from one form to another?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): Logarithms represent inverse functions
of the exponential functions and can solve problems with unknown bases.

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 Teacher notes

TOK
Mathematics is all around us in patterns, shapes, time and space.

What does this tell you about mathematical knowledge?

Answer: Some mathematical constants like π, e and the Fibonacci numbers appear
consistently in nature. Research where these may be found and consider if they are natural
occurrences or are we applying the mathematics that we know to these instances.

Investigation 7
Conceptual understanding:
Different bases can be used to represent equivalent values in different ways.

1 Given that 1
=      is equivalent to  ab c , copy and complete the table.
ogac b=
Log form Exponent form Solve for x

log2 2 = x 2x = 2 x =1

log3 3 = x 3x = 3 x =1

log4 4 = x 4x = 4 x =1

log5 5 = x 5x = 5 x =1

loga a = x ax = a x =1

2 The exponent is 1.
3 a x =1

b p=5

c q=3

4 a 0

b 0

c 0

5 The log of one equals zero in any base.

6 Factual: How can you write 1 in logarithm form?

Answer: loga a = 1 in any base a

7 Conceptual: How can equivalent values be represented in different ways by using logarithms?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): Different bases can be used to
represent equivalent values in different ways.

TOK
How does mathematical proof differ from reasoning in everyday life?

Answer: Is mathematical reasoning different from scientific reasoning?

What is the difference between deductive and inductive methods?

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 Teacher notes

Reflect: You can extend this result to give loga ( ax ) = x . Using the result above, and the definition
of a logarithm, can you explain why this is the case?

Answer: Let loga ax = b . We will try to show that b = x

By changing to exponent form, loga ( ax ) =b ⇒ ab =( ax )

Since the base is the same on the left and right-hand sides, we can conclude that a = x

Investigation 8
Conceptual understanding:
Two or more combinations of logarithms with the same base may be reduced to a single logarithm.
Part 1
1 log2 + log3 =
0.778

log3 + log 4 =
1.08

log5 + log 6 =
1.48

log5 + log3 =
1.18

log 6 + log3 =
1.26

log 4 + log5 =
1.30

log 6 = 0.778

log12 = 1.08

log15 = 1.18

log18 = 1.26

log20 = 1.30

log30 = 1.48

2 Students should notice common answers and a pattern such as log2 + log3 =
log6

3 Factual: Can you work together to write a general rule for log A + log B as a single logarithm,
for all positive values of A and B?
Answer: log A + log B =
log AB

4 Students will be able to apply the rules to further values.

Part 2
5 log 6 − log3 =
0.301

log16 − log 4 =
0.602

log15 − log5 =
0.477

log100 − log10 =
1

log15 − log3 =
0.699

log2 = 0.301

log3 = 0.477

log 4 = 0.602

log5 = 0.699

log10 = 1

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 Teacher notes

6 Students should notice common answers and a pattern such as log 6 − log3 =
log2

7 Factual: Can you work together to suggest a general rule for log A − log B as a single
logarithm, for all positive values of A and B?

A
Answer: log A − log B =
log
B

8 Students will be able to apply the rules to further values.

9 Conceptual: How do properties of logarithms help to simplify expressions?
Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): Two or more combinations of
logarithms with the same base may be reduced to a single logarithm.

x
Reflect: Can you use the same approach to show, step-by-step, that log
=a loga x − logay
y

Answer:

x  am 
loga   = loga  n  By substitution
y a 
(
= loga am − n ) By properties of exponents from section 1

m−n
= Because loga ab =
b ( )
= loga x − loga y By substitution

TOK
One reason why mathematics enjoys special esteem, above all other sciences, is that its
propositions are absolutely certain and indisputable - Albert Einstein.

How can mathematics, being after all a product of human thought which is independent of
experience, be appropriate to the objects of the real world?

Answer: Are logarithms a natural occurrence or are they a human invention?

Is mathematics created to solve real world problems?

Do you need imagination to create new mathematics?

Does faith have a role to play in the careers of mathematicians?

The natural logarithm appears in physics, biology, sociology, economics and more. Students of
physics know that many of the calculations, for example in electrodynamics and quantum
mechanics, would be impossible if it were not for the natural logarithm. The universal
applicability of the natural logarithm suggests that it is something that exists in the world in
which we live and therefore it is a characteristic of the natural world.

Reflect: Can you use what you have learned about logarithms so far to write down the values of
ln1and lne . Justify your answers.

Answer: ln1 = 0 since loga 1 = 0 for any base a

1 since logaa = 1 for any base a

ln e ≡ loge e =

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 Teacher notes

TOK
Is mathematics invented or discovered?

Answer: Consider the number e or logarithms, did they already exist before people defined
them? This topic is an opportunity for teachers to generate reflection on “the nature of
mathematics”.

Reflect: In deriving the change of base formula, you saw an example of how using logarithms in
an equation allowed you to isolate the variable. Look back at this, and explain what rule of
logarithms we used in order to isolate the variable.

Answer: After taking logarithms, to base b, of both sides, we had logb ay = logb x .

We then used loga ( x p ) = ploga x in order to write ylogb a = logb x .

Developing enquiry skills

In Investigation 2 earlier in the chapter you looked at bacteria growing in a Petri dish.
Using the mathematics you have learned in this chapter, and your results from the end of section
9.1, use logarithms to determine the time at which the number of bacteria cells equals 10 000.
Give your answer to the nearest minute.
Answer:

= 1000 × 2t
10000
10 = 2t
log10 = log2t
log10 = t log2
log10
= t = 3.3219...
log2

This is equivalent to 3 hours and 19 minutes, i.e. at 12:19

9.3 Derivatives of exponential functions and the natural

logarithmic function
TOK
Why is proof important in mathematics?

Answer: We need proofs in mathematics, first, because we want to be sure that what we

do is correct.

Proof in essential shows you whether a statement is true or not.

In math, unlike any other area of knowledge, you can prove that what we do is perfectly
correct, because mathematics is not dependent on most ways of knowing but simply on reason.

As a counterclaim, you might want to have students research the link between proof and
intuition linked to Ramanajuan.

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 Teacher notes

Investigation 9
Conceptual understanding:
The gradient function of the exponential function with base e maps onto itself.
1 f (x) f (1) f ′ (1)

2x 2 1.386

(2.1)
x 2.1 1.558

(2.2)
x 2.2 1.734

(2.3)
x 2.3 1.916

(2.4)
x 2.4 2.101

(2.5)
x 2.5 2.291

(2.6 )
x 2.6 2.484

(2.7)
x 2.7 2.682

ex 2.718 2.718

(2.8)
x 2.8 2.883

(2.9)
x 2.9 3.088

3x 3 3.296

2 The values of f ' (1) got closer and closer to the value of f (1) , and they were the same when

f ( x ) = ex .

3 (Note: Students may have deduced this in the question above, but it is an important point and
needs to be emphasized by this question)

f ' (1) = 2.718 or e; that is, f ' (1) = f (1) when f ( x ) = e x

4 x f (x) f '(x)

1 2.718 2.718

2 7.389 7.389

3 20.086 20.086

4 54.598 54.598

5 148.413 148.413

5 Conceptual: Use your results from question 4. What can you learn about the slope of the
graph of e x by finding the value of it’s derivative at any point?

Answer: The slope is the same as the function value for all points on the graph. For
example, the slope of f ( x ) = e x , where x = 2 is e2   7.39
or

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 Teacher notes

6 Conceptual: With a classmate, discuss what your results from questions 4 and 5 tell you about
the derivative of f ( x ) = e x .

Answer (this is the conceptual understanding): The gradient function of the

exponential function with base e maps onto itself.

7 Factual: How is the derivative of e x different to the derivative of other functions?

Answer: For
= f ( x ) e=
x
, f ( x ) f ' ( x ) for all x . There is no other function that has this
property.

Investigation 10

1 x 1 2 3 4 5 10 1 1 1
2 3 4

f ′ ( x) 1 0.5 0.333 0.25 0.2 0.1 2 3 4

2 Conceptual: With a classmate, look at your results from question 1 and suggest a function
which is the derivative of f ( x ) = ln x .

1
Answer: The derivative of lnx is the reciprocal of x, i.e. f ' ( x ) = .
x

TOK
In what ways might a pragmatist view the differentiation of exponentials and logs?

Answer: Pragmatism - something is knowledge if and only if the proposed bit of knowledge
works in real life settings. We do not know anything until we see that it works.

Is pure mathematics ever useful unless it has an application?

Developing inquiry skills

In investigation 2 earlier in the chapter you looked at bacteria multiplying in a Petri dish.
The number of bacteria cells in a second Petri dish after 9 am that day is modelled by the equation
=B 24e2t −3 + ln (3t )

Using the mathematics you have learned in this chapter, find the rate at which the number of
bacteria in the second dish are increasing at 10 pm that same day.

dB 1 1
dt
(
Answer: = 24 2e2t −3 + =
3t
)
× 3 48e2t −3 +
t

dB 1
At 22:00, t = 13 hence = 48e2×13 −3 + = 4.68 × 1011
dt 13

This means that at 22:00 the number of bacteria is increasing at a rate of 4.68 × 1011 bacteria
per hour.

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 Teacher notes

A Passing Fad?
Approaches to Learning: Communication, Research
Exploration Criteria: Mathematical Presentation; Reflection (D); Use of Mathematics (E)
IB Topic: Exponentials and Logarithms
Introduction
This task gives further practice to students in finding and using data to model (in this case,
exponential functions) and then reflecting on the usefulness of the model for prediction. Students
could model by hand or use of technology (or both). Students are not penalized for using
technology if they can demonstrate understanding of the process that is being used.
At the time of writing, Fortnite is a massive phenomenon and the task here is to see whether this
is a passing fad or if the exponential growth will continue. Similar discussions could be had
regarding “the latest fad” and, if data could be found, then this could form the basis of the
discussions for the task at the end.
Depending on where this is covered, during the chapter and previously, you may wish to work
through the calculations of the “by hand” model and the model using technology. Students can
then use this for their own data or, if they are able to, they could then devise these models
themselves.
There are opportunities in the task for discussing the importance for consistent notation in an IA
as well as Reflection (Criterion D) on the reliability of data that they can find.
Look at the Data
The data are taken from the press releases of the developers, Epic Games, but will supposedly be
subject to checks and scrutiny by rival companies.
The data are to the nearest million, so are not particularly accurate.
The data relate to users, but some of these users may play frequently and some may play only
once in the time period being measured.
The dates are not very accurate—you assume the data are all released at the same point in the
month.
Daily Average Users (DAU) or Monthly Average Users (MAU) or the amount of time spent on the
game may be more interesting information to collect, if it is possible to find.
The growth looks exponential. This could be due to word of mouth, with people suggesting to
friends, etc, to play the game.
Model the Data
The model could be useful in terms of predicting future advertising prices and revenues for the
company or for rival companies to consider when a game may be reaching saturation point.
Emphasize the importance of making sure that the variables in the model are clearly defined.

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 Teacher notes

Look at these models (or equivalent using the available software) with students:
By hand By technology (using TI- By technology (using Desmos)
NSPIRE)

Choose two points (t, P) Enter the data into a table. Follow the procedure from the
Label x list t and y list P. Rich Task in chapter 3.
For example, (1, 1) and
(6, 45).
Substitute into the equation: Menu > Statistics > The equation of the
P= a ⋅ b t A:Exponential Regression. exponential curve that best
Select x list as t and y list as fits the data according to
1= a ⋅ b1 P. Desmos is
= P 1.81 × 1.56t .
∴a⋅b = 1
1
a= Press OK.
b Make sure that Desmos is in
“log mode” to obtain the same
and
result.
Therefore, the equation of the
45= a ⋅ b6 If log mode is not ticked then
exponential curve that best
So fits the data according to the a different equation will be
GDC is . found.
= P 8.65 × 1.27t
5
45 = b
(this may be an opportunity to
b = 5 45
discuss/explore residuals.
b = 2.14 (3sf) Clicking residuals “plot” gives
1 a good visual measure of how
a=
2.14 accurate the model is).
a = 0.467 (3 sf)
0.487(2.14)t
∴P =

Draw the curve.

Note: if you choose two
different points you would get
a different curve.

The “by hand” model uses only two points. The curve will naturally pass through these two points
but is not necessarily close to any of the other points.

You could also choose a different function of a similar form, say , and find parameters
a, b and c for the model. This is not a function that is available as an option on the GDC but you
could use Desmos, for example, to find it.

If you were to find a model by hand you would require three points to find the three
variables.
You need to calculate how many months it is since July 2107. Substitute a value. The result is
likely to be very large and discussion will be around the fact that the game will have reached
saturation or a new game will have come along, etc.
Students could research the number of Fortnite players there are in the current month.
You could ask:
Is Fortnite still a popular game?
Students could compare this figure with their prediction based on their model. How big is the
error? What does this tell you about the reliability of your previous model?
This will hopefully support the above.

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 Teacher notes

Plot a new graph with the updated data you have found and try to fit another function to these
data.
Will a modified exponential model be a good fit?
If not, what other function would be a better model that could be used to predict the number of
users now?
This could be a good opportunity for a discussion around a logistic model that may be more
appropriate. This from Khan Academy (https://goo.gl/KMmFbC) is a good summary of what
happens when an exponential model is constrained by real life.
Extension
Hopefully there are numerous examples of “the next big thing”. Good sources will be social media
sites, games, technology uptake, etc.
Students should be encouraged to find their own data to display and model.
This task could be written up as a mini-exploration, perhaps assessed against a smaller number of
criteria.
Here is a possible structure for this:
Mini-Exploration
Write a brief exploration on what you find out.
This exploration should be between one and two pages, depending on the number of
diagrams/graphs that you use.
This is not an exercise in being able to copy from Wikipedia or other websites, but rather to find
out relevant information and to rewrite it into an exploration.
Students could be marked against parts of the Criteria of the Real Mathematics Exploration:
Criterion A: Presentation (3)
Your writing should be well-organized, coherent, logically developed and easy to follow. It should
include an introduction, aim and conclusion.
Criterion B: Mathematical Communication (3)
Use appropriate mathematical language and representation, and define key terms.
Criterion D: Reflection (3)
You should review, analyse and evaluate your exploration. You should consider the significance
of your findings, state possible limitations and/or extensions and make links to different fields
and/or areas of mathematics.
Criterion E: Use of Mathematics (1)
Demonstrate that you fully understand the mathematics used in your exploration.
TOTAL (10)

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