Responding To The

Environment
(Humans)
The Nervous System:
The nervous system is the body's control and communication centre and ensures that
humans respond effectively and quickly to their environment. This ensures their
survival.

We live in an environment that is constantly changing and we are exposed to external

stimuli that are constantly changing, eg. changes in light or temperature, as well as
internal stimuli eg. changes in muscle tension. The nervous system needs to detect
these stimuli and enable to body to respond effectively to each stimulus.

The terminology that will be used in this section includes the following:

1. Stimulus: A physical or chemical change in the environment that requires a

response from the organism.

2. Meninges: The three protective membranes that surround the brain and spinal
cord.

3. Reflex action: A quick, involuntary, automatic action that involves the spinal cord
and does NOT involve the brain.

4. Reflex arc: The pathway a reflex action follows in order to bring about a reflex
action.

5. Synapse: A gap between two consecutive neurons or between a neuron and an

effector.

6. Neurotransmitter: A chemical substance that enable an electrical impulse to

flow smoothly between consecutive neurons. (eg. Acetylcholine)

7. Receptor: an organ that detects the stimulus and converts it into an impulse
8. Effector: an organ or gland that receives the impulse from the CNS and carries
out the appropriate response.

How the Nervous System is divided:

The nervous system is divided into two parts:

1. The Central Nervous System (CNS)

2. The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The Central Nervous System (CNS):

The central nervous system is made up of two parts:

1. The brain

2. The spinal cord

The brain:

The brain is the enlarged upper part of the spinal cord, protected by a bony cranium,
cerebrospinal fluid and three membranes called meninges.

These meninges are:

• The dura mater - outermost membrane

• The arachnoid mater - middle membrane
• The pia mater - the membrane closest to the brain
The four parts of the brain that you need to know the location and functions of, are:

1. Cerebrum: controls voluntary actions; receives and interprets sensations;

responsible for higher mental functions eg. memory, intelligence, judgement.

2. Corpus callosum: a white band of neurons that connect the two hemispheres of
the cerebrum.

3. Cerebellum (tree of life): controls all voluntary actions to ensure smooth

movement; controls muscle tone to maintain balance and posture.

4. Medulla oblongata (part of the brain stem): controls involuntary functions eg.
breathing, blood pressure, peristalsis.

The spinal cord:

The spinal cord consists of:

• A central canal that runs through the centre of the spinal cord, and is filled
with cerebrospinal fluid.
• The "grey matter" forms the letter H on the inside and the "white matter " is
located on the outside of the letter H. It contains myelinated nerve fibres that
extend to and from the brain.
• A pair of spinal nerves enters and leaves the spinal cord between each
successive vertebrae.
• Each spinal nerve has a dorsal root made up of sensory neurons, that
conducts impulses from the receptors to the grey matter of the spinal cord.
• Each spinal nerve also has a ventral root made up of motor neurons, that
conducts impulses from the grey matter of the spinal cord towards the
effector.
• The cells bodies of the sensory neurons occur in the swelling of the dorsal
root. This swelling is called a ganglion.
• The spinal cord is protected by the same three meninges that protect the
brain.

The two main functions of the spinal cord are:

• Carrying signals from the brain: The spinal cord receives signals from the brain
that control movement and autonomic functions.
• Carrying information to the brain: The spinal cord nerves also transmit
messages to the brain from the body, such as sensations of touch, pressure,
and pain.
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
The PNS consists of all the nervous tissue outside of the CNS. It is made up of the
nervous tissue that links the CNS to the receptors or effectors of the body.

• Cranial nerves are connected to the brain and conduct impulses to and from
the sensory receptors and muscles in the face.
• Spinal nerves enter and leave the spinal cord between the vertebrae.

The functions of the PNS are therefore twofold:

1. Sensory function: conducts impulses from the receptor cells in the sense
organs to the CNS.

2. Motor function: conducts impulses from the CNS to the effectors (muscles or
glands).

The motor division is then divided again into two different parts:

a) Somatic nervous system - motor neurons conduct impulses from the CNS to
skeletal muscles that control voluntary movements.

b) Autonomic nervous system - motor neurons conduct impulses from the CNS to
cardiac and smooth muscles and glands, that control involuntary movements.

The autonomic nervous system is then divided into two different parts:

a) Sympathetic nervous system - prepares the body for "fight or flight".

b) Parasympathetic nervous system - return the body to normal after being

stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system
The Structure and Functioning of a Neuron:
There are three types of neurons:

1. Sensory/Afferent neuron

2. Motor/Efferent neuron

3. Interneuron/Connector neuron
The parts of the neurons along with the specific function that part controls, is
shown below:

The Reflex Arc:

• A reflex is a quick, automatic response that involves the spinal cord and not
the brain.
• The reflex arc is therefore the pathway along which an impulse is transmitted
in order to bring about a response to a stimulus during a reflex action.
• Reflexes are vital in order to protect the body from harm. Examples of
reflexes include blinking, coughing, sneezing, dilating and constricting of the
pupil of the eye etc.
• The diagram below shows the reflex arc.
Make sure you can discuss this pathway in detail, using all the relevant terminology!

The Synapse:
A synapse is the minute gap between consecutive neurons or between a neuron and an
effector. A neurotransmitter (Acetylcholine) is secreted by the synaptic knobs which
facilitates the movement of the impulse over the gap. This ensures the smooth
communication of an impulse.

Disorders of the Nervous System:

There are two disorders that need to be studied in this section:

1. Alzheimer's disease

2. Multiple sclerosis

Alzheimer's Disease:

An irreversible brain disease that gradually worsens, resulting in memory loss and
decreased mental functioning.
Can be caused by a number of factors:

* Amyloid plaque that develops between neurons; or

* Shortage of neurotransmitter at the synapse

Symptoms start with short term memory loss. As the disease worsens, the patient
suffers from severe long term memory loss (inability to recognize friends or family).
Tasks involving multiple steps become impossible (eg. getting dressed). Patient also
suffers from mood swings, aggression and irritability. Eventually the patient loses
the ability to speak.

Multiple Sclerosis

This is an auto-immune disease that affects neurons of the CNS.

The body's own immune system attacks and destroys the myelin sheaths in the
CNS. Myelin sheaths help to accelerate the conduction of nervous impulses.

This attack therefore causes symptoms that include:

* Gradual loss of muscle control and co-ordination in most parts of the body;

* An increased disability in functions such as vision, memory and speech.

Receptor Organs: The Eye:
• Throughout the body, there are sense receptors that sense different stimuli
and convert the stimulus into a nerve impulse, which is then transmitted via
the CNS to the brain, where it is interpreted and an appropriate response is
created.
• The eye is one of those receptor organs.
• Two eyes are necessary for the perception of depth. When light strikes the
retina, the photoreceptor cells called rods and cones are stimulated.
(Rods are responsible for black and white vision and cones are responsible
for colour vision). A nerve impulse is then sent via the optic nerve to the
cerebrum of the brain, where an image is formed.
• The fovea/yellow spot on the retina contains cones only and is the area of
clearest vision.
• The blind spot lacks all photoreceptor cells, so no images are formed here.
• The eye is protected in front by a thin transparent membrane called the
conjunctiva. This membrane is kept moist by a fluid secreted by the tear
gland. This fluid contains enzymes that kill bacteria.
Functioning of the Eye:
There are three different functions that the eye performs.

These three functions are only possible because the cornea and lens are able to refract
light rays. The pathway of light rays through the eye is as follows:

Cornea - Aqueous Humour - Pupil - Lens - Vitreous Humour – Retina

Accommodation

This term refers to the adjustment of the curvature of the lens to cater for vision at
various distances.
Pupillary mechanism

This term refers to the change in size of the pupil under different light intensities.

Binocular vision (Stereoscopic vision)

This term is used to describe the process involved in forming a 3D image, which
allows the person to estimate size, distance and depth.

Visual Defects:
There are many visual defects that affect the eye. Some of these can be corrected by
wearing glasses or contact lenses. Other defects require surgery.

Short-Sightedness (Myopia)
A person is able to focus clearly on close objects, but not on distant objects.

This is due to the shape of the eyeball being too long - a concave lens is required to
correct this condition.

Long-Sightedness (Hyperopia)

A person is able to see distant objects clearly, but has difficulty focusing on near
objects.

This is because the eyeball is too short - a convex lens is required to correct this
condition.
Astigmatism

This condition is a result of the cornea or lens having an unequal curvature, causing
only part of the image to be clearly in focus.

Astigmatism can be corrected by using a lens that closely matches the defective part
of the eye.

Cataracts

This condition results when the lens becomes cloudy and vision is impaired.
Cataracts usually occur in older people, as well as diabetics and those people who
suffer from hypertension (high blood pressure).

Cataracts can be corrected by surgery. A synthetic lens replaces the defective lens.

Receptor Organs: The Ear:

Structure of the Ear:

The ear is responsible for two functions: Hearing and Balance.

The ear thus contains receptors that pick up the stimulus of sound as well as
mechano-receptors that ensure balance and equilibrium.

It is important to know the structures of the ear and the functions of those parts.

Function of the Ear:

Hearing:

The pathway that sound waves follow in order to bring about hearing, is as follows:

Sound waves are trapped by the pinna and directed towards the tympanic
membrane which causes the membrane to vibrate. These vibrations are moved on
to the ossicles, which in turn sends the vibrations to the oval window. The
vibrations of the oval window set up pressure waves in the inner ear, which
stimulate hair cells in the Organ of Corti, which is found in the cochlea. The
nerve impulse is then sent down the auditory nerve to the cerebrum of the brain.

(Pinna - Tympanic Membrane - Ossicles - Oval Window - Organ of Corti - Auditory

Nerve - Cerebrum of Brain)
Balance and Equilibrium:

When the head moves, fluid in the inner ear, in the semi-circular canals, is
disturbed and mechano-receptors called Maculae and Cristae are stimulated,
sending a nerve impulse to the cerebellum of the brain. A response impulse is
then sent to effector muscles to restore balance and equilibrium.

Head with respect to gravity:

Speed and Direction of movement:

Hearing defects:
There are two main types of hearing defects.

Otitis media (middle ear infection):

The middle ear becomes infected after a virus or bacteria enters it via the
Eustachian tube. This causes fluid to build up causing a severe ear ache.
Grommets (small tubes) are sometimes inserted if medication does not work.
Grommets are surgically placed on the ear drum. They have tiny holes which allows
moisture to drain out from the ear drum and air to enter the Eustachian tube.
Deafness and Speech disorders:

Deafness can be caused by:

1. Damage to the auditory nerve.

2. Damage to that part of the brain that perceives impulses from the auditory nerve.

3. The outer or middle ear is not functioning properly.

4. Damage to the inner ear (cochlea).

There are a few options to treat hearing disorders:

a) Hearing aids are worn behind the ear, and make the sound waves louder.

b) Cochlea implants are done when the cochlea has been damaged. An electronic
apparatus is inserted into the bone behind the ear.

Hearing impaired people often use sign language to communicate. This involves
facial expressions, hand and body movements. People with hearing defects should
be accorded the same respect as people who are able to hear - they should not be
discriminated against.