The Cold War

Background
The Allied forces had pushed Nazi Germany back in 1944-5, after launching D-Day and fending
off a desperate German counter-resistance. Hitler was pronounced dead and the war in Europe
came to an end. The Big 3 (USA, USSR, Britain) agreed to meet in Yalta in the Crimea, to
discuss what to do with victory
Yalta, Feb 1945
The mood at Yalta was good; the Russians were happy that the Americans had opened up a
second front in the West, and it was clear that the Nazis were being swept away. Japan was still a
problem though. As they discussed what to do, several agreements were made. Russia would
give the US a helping hand and join the war in Japan (in return for 'influence' on their Asian
borders). Germany would have to suffer the humiliation of total surrender, and would be divided
into four zones according to where the different allied troops were. Berlin would suffer the same
fate. All Nazi-controlled states would get free elections, though Stalin would be allowed some
influence in Eastern Europe; the Russians had - after all - lost 20 million men. A "Committee on
Dismemberment of Germany" would decide whether to split Germany into 6 nations. Russia
would join the UN, there was disagreement on Poland though. Stalin wanted to move his border
into Poland. Churchill and Roosevelt disagreed but came to an understanding that he could do
this, so long as he didn’t interfere in Greece.
Reasons for worsening tensions
A change in leadership - Roosevelt had died, and was replaced by the inexperienced Truman,
who was looking to assert his authority. His black-and-white nature meant conflict with Stalin
was inevitable; the USSR accused him of using 'the language of a Missouri mule driver'. Atlee
had also surprisingly beaten Winston Churchill in the British election, which gave Britain less
international clout.
The atomic bomb - The USA had not told the USSR about its development and use at Hiroshima
and Nagasaki; Stalin was worried they would be turned on him.
The situation in eastern Europe - Stalin, though promising to honour self-independence at Yalta,
had left 3m men in eastern Europe and was in no rush for them to leave. Communist officials -
some trained in Russia like the German Walter Ulbricht - were also appearing in these countries,
which went against the idea of free elections. Stalin had dragged his heels about helping the US
in Japan.
Potsdam, July 1945
By July 1945, the divisions ran deep - by the time they met at Potsdam, the 'Yalta feel' was gone.
There were divisions over all the main issues; what to do with Germany, and how best to move
forward with Europe in general. The following points were agreed:
Reparations - a 'payments in kind' method was agreed, which meant that the Allies would swap
resources from their four zones. Other than this, little else was agreed - quite how Germany
should be split in the future, and the amount of reparations could not be decided. The USSR
wanted more for the 20m Russians that had died -
The 4 D's - They did agree to denazify. demilitarize, democratize and decentralize Germany
though. The 4 zones would stay (decentralization) whilst denazification took place through the
Nuremberg trials (where top Nazis were judged and sentenced) and the banning of the Nazi Party
and other extremist parties. Poland - The Big 3 also agreed to give Poland free elections.
What was the Iron Curtain?
This was the name that Churchill gave in a famous speech in March 1946 in Fulton, Missouri
(USA) to the way Stalin had gained pro-USSR, Communist governments in Poland, Hungary,
Romania, Bulgaria and Albania. The border between these eastern countries and the western
countries was now known as the Iron Curtain. It symbolized the secrecy and division between
communism and capitalism and is seen as a definite marker that the Cold War had begun and
was acknowledged.
How did Stalin gain control of eastern Europe?
Liberate…but stay: Stalin had liberated country after country in eastern Europe from the Nazis as
they marched to Berlin. Instead of taking his troops back to Russia though, he left them there –
they then fixed/pressured people into voting Communist Comminform – this was set up in
October 1947 and was meant to be a co-ordination organization so that all eastern European
countries did as Stalin wanted. Examples:
1. Albania – communists gained control directly after the war
2. Bulgaria – a left-wing coalition won elections in 1945. The Communist members then
executed the members who were not communist!
3. Romania – In 1945 a Communist was elected President. By 1947 they had killed the
monarchy
4. Hungary – Communists, under Rakosi became the largest party in elections with Russian
involvement. Initially did not gain a majority, but Rakosi threatened Russian involvement
until other parties were banned. They then persecuted politicians and Church leaders
5. Czechoslovakia – In 1946 Communists were the largest party. By 1948 they felt
threatened so expelled all other parties in the coalition government. Were forced to reject
Marshall Aid.
6. Poland – After the war the Communists formed a coalition government. By 1947 they
had forced the other parties out.
7. Yugoslavia – Marshall Tito had been resisting the Nazis throughout the war. Though he
was Communist he had his own style, making Stalin annoyed!
Reactions to Soviet expansion
Conflict in Greece, 1945
After Germans left Greece there were two rival groups left: The Monarchists and
Communists. Greece was seen as a backdoor to western Europe and the home of democracy.
As a result, Churchill sent troops to Greece in 1945, under the pretence of maintaining order,
but in reality to help the Monarchists. The USSR appealed to the new United Nations but it
did nothing as the United States had a veto– Stalin therefore paid for the Communists in
Greece to keep fighting. It was now a proxy Civil War, backed by two different sides. The
British could not afford to spend more money on war, so declared they were leaving Greece.
Fearing the spread of Communism, the Americans stepped in and paid for the British to stay.
The US was now fighting the USSR through the UK and Greece! In the end the monarchists
won, but were always very weak. Greece showed the world that America was no longer
isolationist but interventionist.
The Truman Doctrine, March 1947
The Truman Doctrine was a political idea which promised money, equipment and advice to
any country which was threatened by a Communist Takeover The aim was to stop
communism from spreading any further – a policy known as ‘containment’. The struggle in
Greece had persuaded Truman this was necessary
Marshall Plan and Marshall Aid
Truman felt Communism thrived when poverty was greatest; he sent his General, George
Marshall to report on the economic state of Europe. Marshall came back saying Europe was
ruined – it owed $11.5 billion to the US, power cuts were a regular occurrence and people
still used ration coupons, especially due to harsh winter of 1946-7. Industrial production was
half prewar levels. Marshall therefore suggested the Marshall Plan (or the European
Recovery Program). It claimed that about $17billion would be needed to rebuild Europe’s
economy. Initially the US Congress rejected this idea and the amount of money. However,
after the incident in Czechoslovakia, it made it available over 4 years. (In Czechoslovakia a
coalition government was in power until it tried pursuing anti-Stalin policies. The
Communists came down hard and purged the government of all non-communists. One pro-
American leader Jan Masaryk was found dead under his window. USSR said he jumped).
Greece and Turkey were first to receive aid. The USSR rejected Marshall Aid entirely and
responded by setting up Comminform (1947); a political equivalent to Marshall Aid (1949);
an economic union to co-ordinate economies. These gave him even more power in Europe.
The Korean War
Why did the USA and the UN get involved in Korea?
1. China had fallen to communism in 1953 – fear of growing Red influence in the east.
2. In line with Truman’s policy of containment – Marshall Aid in Europe…and beyond
 3. Because the USSR had boycotted the UN – it had an opportunity to act without fear
of the veto.
4. To ensure democracy remained in South Korea – the North had invaded after all
Stage 1: Background
Founded on the proud cultures of the Qing dynasty, Korea was ruled by Japan from 1896 after
years of war. After Japan was defeated in WW2, Korea gained independence again. However,
Soviet forces occupied the North, and US forces the South. To avoid conflict, it was decided at
Potsdam that the country would be divided at the 38th parallel.
Stage 2: Northern Invasion
Seeking to unify Korea, Kim il-Sung received support from Communist China and the USSR and
invaded South Korea in June 1950. The South Koreans were pushed right back down to Pusan.
Stage 3: UN Reaction
The Security Council was immediately summoned and met the same day as the invasion! The
USSR was not present as they were boycotting the UN for not recognizing Mao's government in
China. Therefore, there was no veto to block any US-led initiative 9 out of 11 countries on the
Security Council supported the US motion that North Korea was acting illegally. In June 1950,
America called on the United Nations to use force to get rid of the North Koreans as they had
ignored the Security Council Once again this was passed owing to the USSR's absence. The UN
then drew up battle plans. Their forces would be headed by an American - Douglas Macarthur;
one of the most famous generals of his time. This went down well with the US public.
Stage 4: Battle
In September 1950, United Nations troops landed at Inchon. By doing this, they divided the North
Korean army in two and pushed them out of South Korea. MacArthur sought a quick end to the
war and pushed even further into the North. The Chinese had no option but to defend their buffer
zone and so launched an invasion back in January 1951. By throwing men at the situation, the
Chinese pushed the UN forces back; their one advantage was their numbers!
The Americans, under the UN, landed more troops. They used bombers. The Chinese admitted to
losing 390,000 men - UN sources put the figure at up to a million Chinese and half a million North
Koreans dead. The Americans drove the Chinese back, but lost 54,000 American soldiers dead
doing so. MacArthur reached the 38th parallel in March 1951. After an argument with President
Truman, MacArthur was sacked and the war became bogged down; neither side wanted to lose
more men.
Stage 5: Solutions
In 1953, a ceasefire was agreed at the 38th parallel ... where it had all begun.

The Cold War Germany

What was the Berlin Blockade, 1948?
Stalin decided to block all access into and out of Berlin, which was in the Soviet quarter, when
the USA, Britain and France joined their zones to form ‘Trizonia’. Roads and railways were
closed. Stalin hoped to swallow Berlin into his section. The US realized this was a major
propaganda opportunity. They had 3 choices: invade, accept or defy. They decided to defy the
ban by flying aircraft to supply Trizonia with food and fuel. This became known as the Berlin
Airlift. On average, a plane left every 90 seconds to keep it up 200 000 in total. The USSR lifted
the ban in 1949, but 2 new countries were now created.
The Berlin Wall
Built by the USSR in 1961, Berlin to totally cut it off from the West and to stop ‘brain drain’
from East to West. The excuse was it was an ‘Anti-Fascist Protection Rampant’. Initially it was
made of wood and fencing, but then soon became concrete 140km long. Guarded by: guard dogs,
guard towers, trenches to prevent vehicles ramming the walls, open space in front of the walls (to
see people coming). Mines were placed in the open space (known as ‘death strip’) Slippery pipes
went along the top to stop climbers. Final walls were up to 12ft high, laced with barbed wire or
rows of nails Only one main entrance in and out: Checkpoint Charlie Nicknamed Schandmaur,
the "Wall of Shame” by W. Germans Any ‘deserters’ could be shot on site. It fell in 1991, over a
miscommunication: Berliners were told they could go on holiday… they took this as a sign they
could destroy the wall. They took to it with hammers.
Why did the Soviet Union blockade Berlin?
Britain, France and USA had combined their zones in 1946 to form Trizonia – isolating USSR
Trizonia had a different currency (the Deutschemark) and was doing well, economica lly. Stalin
had looted his section of Berlin for the USSR as reparations and it was struggling economically.
Stalin needed to show he was strong against the USA; Marshall Aid was humiliating and he
needed the upper hand. He had also lost in Greece. The superpowers had never agreed that the
USSR would allow access into Berlin… this was just assumed and never written down. Stalin
wasn’t doing anything illegal—it was within his zone to take Berlin. The USSR’s sector of
Berlin was embarrassing compared to the West’s. Communism was clearly inferior to the
capitalism of the East and it was becoming a chink in Stalin’s iron curtain.
What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade, 1948?

NATO: The West felt it needed to be able to protect each other. 13 countries met in Washington
in April 1949 and formed NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).
Warsaw Pact: In retaliation Stalin set up the Warsaw Pact – a Communist equivalent to NATO
Separation: Germany was firmly divided into two nations: West Germany (or the Federal
German Republic) under the USA, French and British section whilst the USSR’s section was
East Germany (or the German Democratic Republic). Economic Difficulties in Germany —
currency collapse and hard winter forced prices up. Improvement in West German-US
relationships — the Nazi era was put behind them as a common enemy—USSR was now the
focus.
The Arms Race
Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD) - the term given to the idea that because the two
superpowers had equally powerful weapons, neither would attack the other, for both would be
destroyed if they did.
1945 – USA tests and drops the first atomic (A) bombs
1949 – USSR tests A bomb
1952 – USA tests its first hydrogen (H) bomb
1953 – USSR tests its first H bomb
1957 – Britain tests its first H bomb
1957 – USSR tests Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) capable of carrying the H bomb
from USSR to USA.
1958 – USA Places ICBMs targeted on USSR in NATO countries in Europe. Both sides could
now launch direct attacks on each other’s cities
1960 – USA launches first nuclear powered submarine capable of firing a Polaris missile from
underwater.

The Vietnam War

Background
The Cuban Missile Crisis had rocked the USA. Meanwhile however, over on the other side of the
world, in Vietnam, another epic struggle was taking shape. The spotlight of the Cold War would
move to the Far East. Whilst Cuba had been the spotlight for some time, Vietnam had also been
given attention by the USA. After China became Communist in 1953 the Domino Theory
became part of Containment strategy
Domino Theory: The belief that if one country fell to Communism, others would quickly follow.
Containment was needed to therefore ensure Communism did not spread. This belief made the
Cold War global but ensured fighting did not erupt within already-Communist countries. First
came to play under President Eisenhower and the Korean War.
Vietnam: A Brief History
Formerly an empire in the South East Asian region - under the Lê Dynasty, Vietnam then
suffered colonisation by the French in the 1800s. Although this was not popular, French rule
continued until WW2 when Japan swept through the region and took control of Vietnam. The
Japanese were even more hated than the French and resistance - led by rebel leader Ho Chi
Minh's Viet Minh - helped flush out the Japanese. Nevertheless, the French returned after
Germany was defeated, albeit in a weakened state. The French, though, were having huge
domestic problems and were not the empire they were before the war. They continued to fight
Ho Chi Minh and set up a military branch especially for this, but once China turned Communist
(1953) Ho received even more funding. The French were being beaten back and faced their last,
humiliating defeat at Dien Bien Phu where Ho Chi Minh triumphed. The Geneva Accords then
decided a settlement, where the North (Ho Chi Minh) and South (Ngo Dinh Diem) of Vietnam
would be temporarily divided until elections the following year. Fearful of the Domino Theory,
the USA (under Eisenhower) started to back Diem and elections never occurred. Vietnam was
the new Cold War arena.
Key moments of the Vietnam War

General Giap led the Vietnam army to victory against the French when he surrounded their
forces and bombarded their position. The French were pinned down and unable to get adequate
supplies through because the Vietnamese had been supplied with anti-aircraft missiles, and
moved quickly through the jungle. Such was the embarrassment in France that the government
resigned!
The Geneva Accords 1954 – this was the promise that there would be free elections in Vietnam
once order was restored and the French had left. The country was temporarily divided into 2,
with Diem holding the South and Ho Chi Minh the North. The USA began to back Diem and
blocked elections.
The Strategic Hamlet Program – this was an operation by joint US and South Vietnamese forces
to divide communist guerrillas from villagers. The idea was to provide peasants with new
housing, education and healthcare which they would then appreciate and show loyalty toward the
US. The peasants though, hated being moved from their ancestral homelands –an important part
of Buddhism – and were never really given the promised reforms
1963 Assassination of Diem – the puppet of the US, and ruler of S. Vietnam was killed off in a
coup organized by the USA. Gulf of Tonkin Incident and Resolution - this was the incident that
gave Johnson the excuse he needed to increase troops in Vietnam. US warships were supposedly
engaged in combat by N. Vietnamese ships, in S. Vietnamese waters. This was seen as an act of
war. Johnson therefore passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which promised assistance to any
South East Asian country under attack from Communists.
Tet Offensive 1968 - The Tet Festival was an important Vietnamese holiday, signaling the
beginning of the year. On January 1968 Vietcong forces poured into Saigon and the surrounding
countryside. Over 80 000 Communist troops stormed South Vietnam, catching the North
Vietnamese and USA by surprise. They took the US embassy in Saigon. The USA—under
General Westmoreland—soon regrouped and inflicted heavy casualties on the North
Vietnamese. Estimates vary from 10 000-37 000 were killed. President Johnson began scaling
back troop involvement as a result.
My Lai 1968 - In March 1968 ‘Charlie’ Company massacred a hamlet at Mai Lai, including
women and children. The event was only uncovered in 1969. Led by Lieutenant Barker (overall
command) with William Calley and Captain Medina (on the ground). After Tet Offensive,
Barker ordered Calley to eradicate all Vietcong—they went into Mai Lai, found only villagers
but rounded them up, abused, raped and killed them, before mass burying them. Even animals
were slaughtered. Only Officer Hugh Thompson and his crew protested: he flew his helicopter
between US troops and Vietnamese civilians, and helped children out of the area. Between 300-
500 civilians were murdered. The USA was horrified and the press began to step-up anti-
Vietnam sentiments. Only Calley was charged, and even he was let off after 3 years.
Nixon Doctrine – this was President Nixon’s way of scaling back and then ending involvement
in Vietnam. The idea was that the USA would begin to leave, and train up the South Vietnamese
in a process known as ‘Vietnamization’, whilst peace talks would go on.
Operation Menu 1969 – this was the secret bombing of Cambodia and Laos by the USA by
President Nixon. It was aimed and ensuring Communism was contained only to Vietnam, not the
neighboring countries.
Easter Offensive 1972 – this was an enormous attack by the North Vietnamese and Vietcong on
the South. Initially it looked as though the South would fall until the USA conducted a large
bombing campaign known as Operation Linebacker.
Paris Peace Accords 1972 – this was the ceasefire between the two sides. However it didn’t last
long; by 1975 Vietnam had totally become Communist.
Why did the USA get involved in Vietnam?
Fear of the Domino Effect / The French had Failed - Eisenhower had stepped in in 1954 after
Dien Bien Phu, to support the French because he feared losing Vietnam would mean losing the
whole of South East Asia; loss of markets for the USA. China had turned Communist in 1949.
Lyndon Johnson was a new President (1964) Kennedy had succeeded against Khrushchev in
Cuba, Johnson was seen as a ‘domestic’ President who wanted reform at home but needed to
show he was committed to fighting Communism.
To support the Vietnamese government, The USA had pumped vast amounts of money in
Vietnam and could not afford to see it fall. Kennedy therefore upped the amount of ‘advisors’ to
2300.
As a bargaining chip in the arms race in 1957 the USSR tested ICBMs capable of carrying the H
bomb from USSR to USA; Vietnam could be used as a valuable missile base in the future: a US
Cuba.
The collapse of the Soviet Union
SETTING THE STAGE
After World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States engaged in a Cold War, which you
read about in Chapter 17. Each tried to increase its worldwide influence. The Soviet Union
extended its power over much of Eastern Europe. By the 1960s, it appeared that communism was
permanently established in the region. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet Union’s Communist
leadership kept tight control over the Soviet people. But big changes, including democratic
reforms, were on the horizon.
Gorbachev Moves Toward Democracy
Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev and the Politburo—the ruling committee of the Communist
Party—crushed all political disagreement. Censors decided what writers could publish. The
Communist Party also restricted freedom of speech and worship. After Brezhnev’s death in 1982,
the aging leadership of the Soviet Union tried to hold on to power. However, each of Brezhne v’s
two successors died after only about a year in office. Who would succeed them? A Younger Leader
to answer that question, the Politburo debated between two men. One was Mikhail Gorbachev.
Gorbachev’s supporters praised his youth, energy, and political skills. With their backing,
Gorbachev became the party’s new general secretary. In choosing him, Politburo members did not
realize they were unleashing another Russian Revolution. The Soviet people welcomed
Gorbachev’s election. At 54, he was the youngest Soviet leader since Stalin. Gorbachev was only
a child during Stalin’s ruthless purge of independent- minded party members. Unlike other Soviet
leaders, Gorbachev decided to pursue new ideas. Glasnost Promotes Openness Past Soviet leaders
had created a totalitarian state. It rewarded silence and discouraged individuals from acting on
their own. As a result, Soviet society rarely changed, and the Soviet economy stagnated.
Gorbachev realized that economic and social reforms could not occur without a free flow of ideas
and information. In 1985, he announced a policy known as glasnost, or openness. Glasnost brought
remarkable changes. The government allowed churches to open. It released dissidents from prison
and allowed the publication of books by previously banned authors. Reporters investigated
problems and criticized officials.
Reforming the Economy and Politics
The new openness allowed Soviet citizens to complain about economic problems. Consumers
protested that they had to stand in lines to buy food and other basics. Economic Restructur ing
Gorbachev blamed these problems on the Soviet Union’s inefficient system of central planning.
Under central planning, party officials told farm and factory managers how much to produce. They
also told them what wages to pay and what prices to charge. Because individuals could not increase
their pay by producing more, they had little motive to improve efficiency. In 1985, Gorbachev
introduced the idea of perestroika, or economic restructuring. In 1986, he made changes to revive
the Soviet economy. Local managers gained greater authority over their farms and factories, and
people were allowed to open small private businesses. Gorbachev’s goal was not to throw out
communism, but to make the economic system more efficient and productive. Democratiza tio n
Opens the Political System Gorbachev also knew that for the economy to improve, the Communist
Party would have to loosen its grip on Soviet society and politics. In 1987, he unveiled a third new
policy, called democratization. This would be a gradual opening of the political system. The plan
called for the election of a new legislative body. In the past, voters had merely approved candidates
who were handpicked by the Communist Party. Now, voters could choose from a list of candidates
for each office. The election produced many surprises. In several places, voters chose lesser-known
candidates and reformers over powerful party bosses. Foreign Policy Soviet foreign policy also
changed. To compete militarily with the Soviet Union, President Ronald Reagan had begun the
most expensive military buildup in peacetime history, costing more than $2 trillion. Under pressure
from U.S. military spending, Gorbachev realized that the Soviet economy could not afford the
costly arms race. Arms control became one of Gorbachev’s top priorities. In December 1987, he
and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. This treaty banned
nuclear missiles with ranges of 300 to 3,400 miles.
The Soviet Union Faces Turmoil
Gorbachev’s new thinking led him to support movements for change in both the economic and
political systems within the Soviet Union. Powerful forces for democracy were building in the
country, and Gorbachev decided not to oppose reform. Glasnost, perestroika, and democratiza tio n
were all means to reform the system. However, the move to reform the Soviet Union ultima te ly
led to its breakup. Various nationalities in the Soviet Union began to call for their freedom. More
than 100 ethnic groups lived in the Soviet Union. Russians were the largest, most powerful group.
However, non-Russians formed a majority in the 14 Soviet republics other than Russia. Ethnic
tensions brewed beneath the surface of Soviet society. As reforms loosened central controls, unrest
spread across the country. Nationalist groups in Georgia, Ukraine, and Moldavia (now Moldova)
demanded self-rule. The Muslim peoples of Soviet Central Asia called for religious freedom.
Lithuania Defies Gorbachev The first challenge came from the Baltic nations of Lithuania, Estonia,
and Latvia. These republics had been independent states between the two world wars, until the
Soviets annexed them in 1940. Fifty years later, in March 1990, Lithuania declared its
independence. To try to force it back into the Soviet Union, Gorbachev ordered an economic
blockade of the republic. Although Gorbachev was reluctant to use stronger measures, he feared
that Lithuania’s example might encourage other republics to secede. In January 1991, Soviet troops
attacked unarmed civilians in Lithuania’s capital. The army killed 14 and wounded hundreds.
Yeltsin Denounces Gorbachev The assault in Lithuania and the lack of economic progress
damaged Gorbachev’s popularity. People looked for leadership to Boris Yeltsin. He was a member
of parliament and former mayor of Moscow. Yeltsin criticized the crackdown in Lithuania and the
slow pace of reforms. In June 1991, voters chose Yeltsin to become the Russian Federation’s first
directly elected president. In spite of their rivalry, Yeltsin and Gorbachev faced a common enemy
in the old guard of Communist officials. Hard-liners—conservatives who opposed reform—were
furious that Gorbachev had given up the Soviet Union’s role as the dominant force in Eastern
Europe. They also feared losing their power and privileges. These officials vowed to overthrow
Gorbachev and undo his reforms.
The August Coup
On August 18, 1991, the hardliners detained Gorbachev at his vacation home on the Black Sea.
They demanded his resignation as Soviet president. Early the next day, hundreds of tanks and
armored vehicles rolled into Moscow. However, the Soviet people had lost their fear of the party.
They were willing to defend their freedoms. Protesters gathered at the Russian parliament building,
where Yeltsin had his office. Around midday, Yeltsin emerged and climbed atop one of the tanks.
As his supporters cheered, Yeltsin declared, “We proclaim all decisions and decrees of this
committee to be illegal. . . . We appeal to the citizens of Russia to . . . demand a return of the
country to normal constitutional developments.” On August 20, the hardliners ordered troops to
attack the parliament building, but they refused. Their refusal turned the tide. On August 21, the
military withdrew its forces from Moscow. That night, Gorbachev returned to Moscow.
End of the Soviet Union
The coup attempt sparked anger against the Communist Party. Gorbachev resigned as general
secretary of the party. The Soviet parliament voted to stop all party activities. Having first seized
power in 1917 in a coup that succeeded, the Communist Party now collapsed because of a coup
that failed. The coup also played a decisive role in accelerating the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Estonia and Latvia quickly declared their independence. Other republics soon followed. Although
Gorbachev pleaded for unity, no one was listening. By early December, all 15 republics had
declared independence. Yeltsin met with the leaders of other republics to chart a new course. They
agreed to form the Commonwealth of Independent States, or CIS, a loose federation of former
Soviet territories. Only the Baltic republics and Georgia declined to join. The formation of the CIS
meant the death of the Soviet Union. On Christmas Day 1991, Gorbachev announced his
resignation as president of the Soviet Union, a country that ceased to exist.